Prevalence of IgA-antigliadin antibodies and IgA-antiendomysium antibodies related to celiac disease in children with Down syndrome

Interferon-Driven Immune Dysregulation in Down Syndrome: A Review of the Evidence

Down syndrome (DS) is a unique genetic disease caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21, which carries four of the six interferon receptor (IFN-R) genes on its long arm. Recent studies reporting higher levels of interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression in primary immune cells studied ex vivo have suggested that the additional copies of the IFN-R genes in DS result in mild interferonopathy. In this review, we analyze the potential clinical and immunological impacts of this interferonopathy in DS. We performed a literature review to explore the epidemiology and risks of celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, thyroid dysfunction, mucocutaneous manifestations, infectious diseases (including COVID-19), and Alzheimer’s disease in individuals with DS relative to the general population with or without iatrogenic exposure to interferons. We analyzed immunophenotyping data and the current experimental evidence concerning IFN-R expression, constitutive JAK-STAT activation, and ISG overexpression in DS. Despite the lack of direct evidence that implicating this mild interferonopathy directly in illnesses in individuals with DS, we highlight the challenges ahead and directions that could be taken to determine more clearly the biological impact of interferonopathy on various immune-related conditions in DS.

Celiac disease in children: A review of the literature

Celiac disease is an immune-mediated systemic disease triggered by intake of gluten in genetically susceptible individuals. The prevalence of celiac disease in the general population is estimated to be 1% in the world. Its prevalence differs depending on geographical and ethnic variations. The prevalence of celiac disease has increased significantly in the last 30 years due to the increased knowledge and awareness of physicians and the widespread use of highly sensitive and specific diagnostic tests for celiac disease. Despite increased awareness and knowledge about celiac disease, up to 95% of celiac patients still remain undiagnosed. The presentations of celiac disease have significantly changed in the last few decades. Classical symptoms of celiac disease occur in a minority of celiac patients, while older children have either minimal or atypical symptoms. Serologic tests for celiac disease should be done in patients with unexplained chronic or intermittent diarrhea, failure to thrive, weight loss, delayed puberty, short stature, amenorrhea, iron deficiency anemia, nausea, vomiting, chronic abdominal pain, abdominal distension, chronic constipation, recurrent aphthous stomatitis, and abnormal liver enzyme elevation, and in children who belong to specific groups at risk. Early diagnosis of celiac disease is very important to prevent long-term complications. Currently, the only effective treatment is a lifelong gluten-free diet. In this review, we will discuss the epidemiology, clinical findings, diagnostic tests, and treatment of celiac disease in the light of the latest literature.

Post-infectious inflammatory syndrome associated with SARS-CoV-2 in a paediatric patient with Down syndrome

Neurological complications of SARS-CoV-2 continue to be recognised. In children, neurological phenomenon has been reported generally in the acute infectious period. It is possible that SARS-CoV-2 could trigger an immune-mediated post-infectious phenomenon. Here, we present a unique case of post-infectious marantic cardiac lesion causing cerebrovascular accident in a patient with Down syndrome.

Coeliac disease in childhood: An overview

Coeliac disease (CD) is an autoimmune condition, characterised by an immunological response to ingestion of gluten in genetically susceptible individuals, affecting about 1% of the population in many regions of the world. Increased knowledge regarding the pathogenesis, improved diagnostic techniques and increased awareness over the years have transformed our understanding of CD such that it is no longer a rare enteropathy, but rather a common multisystem disorder which affects individuals of all ages and results in wide-ranging clinical manifestations. Only a minority of children now present with the classical clinical picture of profound diarrhoea and malnutrition. An increasing number of children with CD present with either mild, non-specific gastrointestinal symptoms or extra-intestinal manifestations or even be asymptomatic, as in many screening-detected children. Knowledge about these diverse manifestations and a high index of suspicion is essential so that appropriate investigations can be undertaken, diagnosis established and treatment initiated. Although traditionally small bowel biopsy is considered essential for the diagnosis, recent guidelines from various professional bodies have paved the way to a biopsy-free diagnosis in a subset of symptomatic children. Life long, strict gluten-free diet still remains the only effective treatment at present, although several novel therapeutic agents are in various phases of clinical trials.

Down Syndrome and COVID-19: A Perfect Storm?

People with Down syndrome show signs of chronic immune dysregulation, including a higher prevalence of autoimmune disorders, increased rates of hospitalization during respiratory viral infections, and higher mortality rates from pneumonia and sepsis. At the molecular and cellular levels, they show markers of chronic autoinflammation, including interferon hyperactivity, elevated levels of many inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and changes in diverse immune cell types reminiscent of inflammatory conditions observed in the general population. However, the impact of this immune dysregulation in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and CoV disease of 2019 (COVID-19) remains unknown. This Perspective outlines why individuals with Down syndrome should be considered an at-risk population for severe COVID-19. Specifically, the immune dysregulation caused by trisomy 21 may result in an exacerbated cytokine release syndrome relative to that observed in the euploid population, thus justifying additional monitoring and specialized care for this vulnerable population.

Occurrence of Hypothyroidism, Diabetes Mellitus, and Celiac Disease in Emirati Children with Down's Syndrome

Objectives

Autoimmune diseases are known to occur in people with Down's syndrome (DS), especially celiac disease, type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM), and hypothyroidism. Since there are common genetic risk factors involved in the occurrence of these autoimmune disorders, the risks would differ in different populations. We sought to determine the prevalence of type 1 DM, celiac disease, and hypothyroidism in Emirati patients with DS in Abu Dhabi, UAE.

Methods

Ninety-two patients with DS were investigated for the presence of anti-thyroid antibodies, antithyroglobulin, and anti-thyroid peroxidase antibodies for hypothyroidism, anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies for type 1 DM, and anti-tissue transglutaminase immunoglobulin A antibodies for celiac disease.

Results

Karyotyping was performed on 89 patients. Eighty-seven had non-disjunction of chromosome 21 (97.8%), one was a mosaic, and one had translocation. Of the patients studied, 19.6% had hypothyroidism, 4.3% had type 1 DM, and 1.1% had celiac disease. Out of the 92 patients studied, 66 (71.7%) did not have any autoimmune disease, 25 (27.2%) had one autoimmune disease, and one (1.1%) had two autoimmune diseases.

Conclusions

Celiac disease was the least prevalent autoimmune disease in patients with DS patients, while type 1 DM and hypothyroidism were both significantly associated with DS.

Prevalence of celiac disease in patients with Down syndrome: a meta-analysis

Background

The association between Down syndrome and celiac disease has been reported by many studies. However, the prevalence of celiac disease (CD) in Down syndrome (DS) varies considerably across studies (from 0 % to 19 %). The aim of this study was to use meta-analysis to exam the prevalence of CD in patients with DS.

Methods

A systematic search of English articles from Pubmed, Web of Science and CNKI without year limitation. Data were extracted by two independent observers and pooled using a random effects model by the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Version 2 software.

Results

A pooled analysis, based on 31 studies included 4383 individuals, revealed prevalence of biopsy-confirmed CD of 5.8 % (95 % CI = 4.7-7.2 %) in patients with DS. Sub-group analysis showed a slightly higher prevalence of CD in children with DS (6.6 %; 17 studies), than in age mixed samples with both children and adults (5.1 %; 13 studies). In addition, most of the studies included in this meta-analysis were from Europe and America, with the prevalence of celiac disease of 6 % (21 studies) and 5.7 % (6 studies) in DS patients, respectively. Furthermore, meta-regression analysis suggested that proportion of antibody-positive individuals that underwent small intestine biopsy had moderating effect on the outcome of the meta-analysis.

Conclusions

These results demonstrated that patients (children) with Down syndrome had high prevalence of CD (more than one in twenty). The prevalence is high enough to motivate screening CD in DS children.

Screening of celiac disease in Down syndrome - Old and new dilemmas

Celiac disease (CD) is a common and well defined autoimmune disorder caused by gliadin and related proteins of wheat, rye, and barley. Epidemiologic studies confirmed that CD is highly associated with other autoimmune diseases and with Down syndrome (DS). The symptomatic form of CD in patients with DS is more frequent than asymptomatic forms. However, growth impairment, anemia, intermittent diarrhea, and constipation are symptoms and signs typically of children with DS without CD. Late identification of the disease can lead to various complications, sometimes even very severe. Therefore, systematic screening for CD is essential in the management of children and adolescents with DS. Many medical organizations recommend screening in this group of patients. However, current policy statements vary in their recommendations for screening and there is still a need for establishing uniform diagnostic criteria.

Assessment of coeliac disease prevalence in patients with Down syndrome in Poland - a multi-centre study

Introduction

The results of studies assessing whether patients with Down syndrome have increased risk of coeliac disease are contradictory. The prevalence of coeliac disease in patients with Down syndrome is estimated at a wide range between 1% to as much as 18.6%.

Aim

To assess coeliac disease prevalence in patients with Down syndrome in Poland.

Material and methods

The study enrolled 301 patients with Down syndrome from six centres in Poland (Wroclaw, Sandomierz, Rzeszow, Grudziadz, Katowice, and Bydgoszcz). We measured the concentration of anti-tissue transglutaminase IgA antibodies and anti-deamidated gliadin peptide IgG antibodies in all patients. Patients with abnormal positive (> 10 U/ml) or inconclusive (7–10 U/ml) result of the serological test were offered endoscopic biopsy of the small intestine in the main centre.

Results

In 31 (10.3%) patients increased concentrations of the investigated antibodies were found, including 19 (6.3%) patients with increased tTg-IgA concentration, 27 (8.97%) patients with increased concentration of DGP-IgG, and 15 (4.98%) patients with increased concentration of both types of antibodies. Endoscopic biopsy of the small intestine was planned for all 31 patients with abnormal results of at least one antibody test and for 2 patients with inconclusive results. One of them suffered from previously diagnosed and histologically confirmed coeliac disease. Biopsy was not conducted in 9 patients due to contraindications, lack of their consent, or introduction of a gluten-free diet by the parents before the examination. In a group of 23 patients who underwent endoscopic biopsy of the small intestine, in 15 patients the histopathological picture of the small intestinal mucosa was typical for coeliac disease, 2 patients were diagnosed with lesions of grade 1 according to the classification by Marsh-Oberhuber, 1 patient was diagnosed with focal shortening of villi and hypertrophy of the crypts with no intraepithelial lymphocytosis (remains under gastrological observation), 2 patients were diagnosed with mucosal inflammation of the duodenum, and 3 patients were found to have a normal histopathological picture of the small intestine. Analysis of the data included in the questionnaires of all patients showed no statistically significant differences in the body height, body mass index, prevalence of abdominal pain, diarrhoea, constipations, recurrent stomatitis, enamel hypoplasia, thyroid diseases, or hypertransaminasaemia between the groups of patients with normal and abnormal serological test results. Significantly higher prevalence of abdominal flatulence (p < 0.05) and epilepsy (p < 0.05) was found in the group of patients whose serological test results were negative.

Conclusions

Patients with Down syndrome are a high-risk group for coeliac disease in the Polish population, with an estimated prevalence of at least 5.4%. Serological tools based on tTG-IgA and DGP-IgG tests are useful for the diagnosis of coeliac disease in Down syndrome patients. tTG-IgA test may be superior to DGP-IgG test in patients with normal total IgA level. Tests for coeliac disease should be carried out in all Polish patients with Down syndrome, regardless of the clinical picture.

Celiac disease in children

Celiac disease is an autoimmune enteropathy, triggered by ingestion of gluten in genetically predisposed individuals. Since the use of anti-transglutaminase and anti-endomysium antibodies in the early 1990s, two main groups of clinical presentation can be identified: patients with a symptomatic form of the disease, and patients with a pauci (a)-symptomatic form detected during the work-up of another autoimmune disease or due to a family history of celiac disease. The prevalence of both forms of the disease is currently estimated between 1/100 and 1/400. Classical form of the disease is characterized by occurrence of diarrhoea, failure to thrive, and abdominal bloating in young infants in the months following gluten introduction. Serological tests show high level of anti-transglutaminase and anti-endomysium antibodies. Until recently, the diagnosis required duodenal biopsies that show villous atrophy. HLA genotype can help for diagnosis: the absence of the HLA-DQ2 or DQ8 alleles has a high negative predictive value. European guidelines recently proposed to reconsider the need for systematic endoscopy in typical symptomatic forms with high level of anti-transglutaminase and positive anti-endomysium. These recommendations are being assessed now. Currently, the gluten-free diet remains the only effective treatment for celiac disease. Children with celiac disease have to exclude from their diet all products containing wheat, barley and rye. Gluten-free diet causes clinical remission within a few weeks, but normalization of the small bowel mucosa and negativity of anti-transglutaminase antibodies are obtained in several months or even years. Gluten-free diet is useful to obtain clinical assessment, but also to prevent long-term complications of celiac disease, mainly osteoporosis, other autoimmune diseases, decreased fertility and cancers.

Celiac disease prevalence in the patients with irritable bowel syndrome in the ilam province; a cross sectional study from Western iran

INTRODUCTION

Many studies have shown that the prevalence of celiac disease (CD) is increasing in the patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), but the present evidences are controversy and all of the researches don't suggest evaluation of the patients with IBS for the CD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the cross-sectional study, 1000 patients that affected by IBS with the predominant feature of diarrhea who referred to the gastroenterology clinic were evaluated during 2009-2012 years. Blood samples were taken from the patients for ELISA of IgA tissue transglutaminase (TTG) Ab. Then biopsy was taken from the second part of duodenum of all of patients by endoscopy and the sample was referred to pathologist for histopathology evaluation in order to confirm diagnosis.

RESULTS

About half of the patients with IBS were women (50.3%) and the mean age ± Standard deviation of the men and women was 29.59±11.41 and 28.42±11.73, respectively. The mean titer of TTG IgA Ab in the women and men affected by IBS was 5.25±17.77 and 7.22±25.4, respectively. Seventy six cases (7.6%) that affected by IBS had high serum level of Ab titer (TTG IgA.Ab≥10) that including 41 women and 35 men. In the patients with high serum level of Ab titer, 57 cases (75%) were affected by celiac disease (based on histopathology report). Therefore, the prevalence of CD was 5.7% among patients with IBS.

CONCLUSION

In the current study the incidence of CD was evaluated 5.7 cases per each 100 people with IBS. It's suggested that all of the patients with diarrhea predominant IBS and high serum level of TTG IgA Ab must be examined for evaluation of CD.

Gastrointestinal involvement in patients affected with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome

OBJECTIVE. Enteropathy is a very common feature in patients with primary immunodeficiencies. In patients with Del22 gastrointestinal (GI) alterations, including feeding disorders and congenital abnormalities have been often reported, mostly in the first year of life. MATERIAL AND METHODS. Aim of this monocentric study is to better define the GI involvement in a cohort of 26 patients affected with Del22 syndrome. Anamnestic information was retrospectively collected for each patient. Weight and height parameters at the time of the screening were recorded. Plasma levels of hemoglobin, iron, ferritin, albumin, total protein, calcium, phosphorus, transaminase levels, antigliadin (AGA) IgA and IgG, and antitissue transglutaminase (anti-TGase) titers were measured. RESULTS. A GI involvement was identified in the 58% of patients. The prominent problems were abdominal pain, vomiting, gastroesophageal reflux and chronic constipation. Weight deficiency, short stature and failure to thrive were reported in 54, 42, and 30% of the patients, respectively. The evidence of sideropenic anemia, in keeping with hypoproteinemia, impaired acid steatocrit or cellobiose/mannitol test suggested an abnormal intestinal permeability. In this cohort, a high prevalence of AGA IgA and IgG positivity was observed. Celiac disease (CD) was suspected in three patients, and in one of them confirmed by histology. In this patient, a long-lasting gluten-free diet failed to restore the intestinal architecture. CONCLUSIONS. In conclusion, GI involvement is a very common feature in Del22 patients. A better characterization of GI involvement would be very useful to improve the management of these patients.

US perspective on gluten-related diseases

The incidence of allergy and autoimmune disease in the US and other industrialized nations is increasing, and gluten-related disorders are no exception. The US has documented a profound rise in celiac disease that cannot be fully explained by improved serological techniques or better recognition by physicians. Non-celiac gluten sensitivity, a condition only recently recognized by the medical community, has become a commonly diagnosed entity. Proteins, including gluten are increasingly being identified as a source of wheat allergy. Although the gluten free diet represents a safe and effective treatment for these conditions, there is still much to be learned about the development of gluten-related disorders and the apparent increase in incidence within the US. In this article, we present a review of current knowledge on the epidemiology of gluten-related disorders within a global context, with a focus on diagnostic trends and the evaluation of potential risk factors.

Systematic review: worldwide variation in the frequency of coeliac disease and changes over time

BACKGROUND

Coeliac disease (CD), originally thought to be largely confined to Northern Europe and Australasia and uncommon in North America and the Middle East, is now recognised to be equally common in all these countries. It is still thought to be rare in the Orient and Sub-Saharan Africa.

AIM

To assess geographical differences and time trends in the frequency of CD.

METHODS

Medline and Embase searches were conducted on 10 November 2012, from 1946 and 1980 respectively, using the key words: coeliac disease or celiac disease + prevalence or incidence or frequency.

RESULTS

There were significant intra- and inter-country differences in the prevalence and incidence of CD. Only 24 ethnic Chinese and Japanese patients have been reported in the English literature. Of CD-associated HLA DQ antigens, DQ2 occurs in 5-10% of Chinese and sub-Saharan Africans, compared to 5-20% in Western Europe. DQ8 occurs in 5-10% of English, Tunisians and Iranians, but in <5% of Eastern Europeans, Americans and Asians. The prevalence and incidence of both clinically and serologically diagnosed CD increased in recent years. These geographical and temporal differences seem genuine, although variable indices of suspicion and availability of diagnostic facilities are confounding factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Coeliac disease is increasing in frequency, with significant geographical differences. Although few cases have been described to date in the Orient and Sub-Saharan Africa, there is a significant prevalence of HLA DQ2 and wheat consumption is of the same order as that in Western Europe. CD may therefore become more common in the future in these countries.

The prevalence of coeliac disease in Down's syndrome in Malta

The prevalence of coeliac disease is increased in individuals with Down's syndrome. The objective of this study was to assess the frequency of coeliac disease in Down's syndrome in Malta. One hundred children and adults with Down's were screened for coeliac disease. A history was taken from all of them and they were examined and measured for weight and height. A full blood count, antigliadin (IgG and IgA) and anti-endomysial antibodies were estimated. Equivocal cases were also screened for antireticulin antibodies. Jejunal biopsy was recommended in all serologically positive cases. The frequency of coeliac disease in Down's syndrome was 8%, much greater than that in the general population. Screening for coeliac disease in all cases of Down's syndrome is therefore recommended.

Cost-effectiveness of universal serologic screening to prevent nontraumatic hip and vertebral fractures in patients with celiac disease

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Patients with asymptomatic or poorly managed celiac disease can experience bone loss, placing them at risk for hip and vertebral fractures. We analyzed the cost-effectiveness of universal serologic screening (USS) vs symptomatic at-risk screening (SAS) strategies for celiac disease because of the risk of nontraumatic hip and vertebral fractures if untreated or undiagnosed.

METHODS

We developed a lifetime Markov model of the screening strategies, each with male or female cohorts of 1000 patients who were 12 years old when screening began. We screened serum samples for levels of immunoglobulin A, compared with tissue transglutaminase and total immunoglobulin A, and findings were confirmed by mucosal biopsy. Transition probabilities and quality of life estimates were obtained from the literature. We used generalizable cost estimates and Medicare reimbursement rates and ran deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses.

RESULTS

For men, the average lifetime costs were $8532 and $8472 for USS and SAS strategies, respectively, corresponding to average quality-adjusted life year gains of 25.511 and 25.515. Similarly for women, costs were $11,383 and $11,328 for USS and SAS strategies, respectively, corresponding to quality-adjusted life year gains of 25.74 and 25.75. Compared with the current standard of care (SAS), USS produced higher average lifetime costs and lower quality of life for each sex. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses showed that the model was robust to realistic changes in all the variables, making USS cost-ineffective on the basis of these outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

USS and SAS are similar in lifetime costs and quality of life, although the current SAS strategy was overall more cost-effective in preventing bone loss and fractures among patients with undiagnosed or subclinical disease. On the basis of best available supportive evidence, it is more cost-effective to maintain the standard celiac screening practices, although future robust population-based evidence in other health outcomes could be leveraged to reevaluate current screening guidelines.

In depth analysis of risk factors for coeliac disease amongst children under 18 years old in the Gaza strip. A cross sectional study

Coeliac disease is an important clinical disorder affecting the human gastrointestinal tract leading to multiple signs and symptoms in different body organs. This disease was the subject of a cross sectional descriptive-analytic study conducted in the Gaza Strip during 2010. Objectives were oriented to identify and verify several variables and attributes affecting the prognosis of coeliac disease in the patients. Ninety five children out of 113 patients were arranged into two groups according to age from 2 to 11 years and from 12 to 18 years old. Results showed the poor interest of health professionals regarding coeliac disease in the Gaza Strip. The mean age of study population was 5.47 years for males and 8.93 years for females. The lifestyle of coeliac patients was directly proportional with better nutritional indictors. Poor recognition of the emblem illustrating gluten in foods implicates effective health awareness or promotion. The more knowledgeable patients or mothers (P = 0.036) were the more compliant. The compliance to giving gluten free foods outside home was statistically significant (P = 0.037). Similarly, cautious approach when buying foods or detergents (P = 0.011). According to BMI 74.4%, 23.4% and 3.2% of all patients were normal, underweight and overweight respectively. Albumin blood level was normal in 32.6% and low in 67.4%. Meanwhile, blood calcium level was normal in 76.8%, low in 21.1% and high in 2.1% of all patients.

CONCLUSION

The study showed that recreation and social activities for coeliac patients are substantially missing in the Gaza Strip. Moreover, the study proved that AEI is a reliable centre for care of coeliac disease patients and conducting relevant studies.

RECOMMENDATION

There is a need for thorough and continuous community and institutional mobilization regarding coeliac disease in the Gaza Strip and in Palestine.

Celiac disease in children and adolescents: special considerations

Although there are many commonalities between adult and pediatric celiac disease (CD), special considerations must be taken into account when working with children and adolescents. In this patient population, there are unique aspects of the epidemiology, pathogenesis, presentation, diagnosis, and management of CD. In terms of management, early and timely recognition of CD can maximize childhood and adolescent development and prevent complications. This requires insight into the unique presentations of CD in the pediatric population. Furthermore, health care providers must use proper screening methods and continue surveillance of at-risk individuals throughout childhood. Potential interventions for primary prevention of CD in children, although not completely understood, may offer some benefit. The goals of this article are to discuss in detail these special considerations when dealing with pediatric CD.

Is it time to screen for adult coeliac disease?

To meet the principles of screening as described by Wilson and Jungner a disease must be common, a significant health burden, detectable and treatable. The key lies in the early detection and alteration of the natural history of disease. Coeliac disease affects 1 in 100 people. Despite this patients frequently have delays in diagnosis or may remain undetected. There is an associated morbidity and mortality which can be effectively treated by simple means of a gluten-free diet. For these reasons coeliac disease has been suggested as appropriate for mass screening. However, there are caveats to this: a complex clinical spectrum, a natural history that is imperfectly understood, overestimation of morbidity and mortality, poor adherence to treatment, and costs of service provision may argue against the time being right for mass screening. This review article provides the most contemporary overview and reference base to allow any clinician to understand the benefits or limitations of a screening programme for adult coeliac disease.

Celiac disease in children, adolescents, and young adults with autoimmune thyroid disease

OBJECTIVE

To determine the prevalence of antibodies associated with celiac disease and biopsy-proven celiac disease in children with autoimmune thyroid disease.

STUDY DESIGN

A total of 302 patients with positive anti-thyroid antibodies were prospectively studied. Total immunoglobulin A (IgA) and tissue transglutaminase-IgA (tTG-IgA) levels were obtained. Those with a positive tTG-IgA titer were offered biopsy for definitive diagnosis of celiac disease.

RESULTS

A total of 4.6% of subjects with autoimmune thyroid disease had positive tTG-IgA titers. The prevalence of biopsy-confirmed celiac disease was 2.3%. Our population was enriched with patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (4.3%) and Down syndrome (3.4%). Excluding individuals with these co-morbidities, the prevalence of celiac disease in autoimmune thyroid disease is 1.3%, similar to that of the general population. The positive predictive value of biopsy-proven celiac disease in patients with autoimmune thyroid disease and positive tTG-IgA titer was 54%.

CONCLUSION

The increase in prevalence of celiac disease in autoimmune thyroid disease in our study was largely caused by enrichment with co-morbidities. Without comorbidities or symptoms, screening for celiac disease may not be justified in this population. The specificity of tTG-IgA titer for the diagnosis of celiac disease was decreased in patients with autoimmune thyroid disease compared with the general population.

Celiac disease in Portuguese children and adults with Down syndrome

INTRODUCTION

Celiac disease (CD) affects up to 1% of the general population. Studies from several countries reported higher prevalence rates in Down syndrome (DS) patients. The aim of this study was to determine the CD prevalence in Portuguese DS patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The study cohort consisted of 98 DS patients (58 male and 40 female, 1-45 years). Serological screening was performed using immunoglobulin A (IgA) anti-endomysium antibody (EMA), determined by an immunofluorescence assay with monkey esophagus as substrate, and IgA anti-tissue transglutaminase (tTG), measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with tissue transglutaminase as antigen. The serologically positive patients were selected for upper endoscopy with biopsy procedure. The intestinal mucosa biopsy specimens were classified according to the Marsh criteria.

RESULTS

Nineteen patients (19.4%), nine children and 10 adults, were positive for IgA EMA and 12 (12.2%), eight children and four adults, for IgA anti-tTG. All the IgA anti-tTG positive patients were simultaneously positive for IgA EMA. The histological findings (Marsh III) confirmed CD in nine of the remaining 17 patients who underwent endoscopy and biopsy - prevalence rate of 9.2%. All Marsh III patients were IgA EMA positive, but four Marsh III patients were IgA anti-tTG negative.

CONCLUSION

DS Portuguese patients have a high CD prevalence rate. This study supports that, in our population, the current recommendations for CD screening in DS patients should be implemented and screening must be EMA based.

Discordância de apresentação da doença celíaca em gêmeos monozigóticos

CONTEXTO: A doença celíaca é uma enteropatia autoimune causada pela sensibilidade ao glúten em indivíduos geneticamente predispostos. Apesar da característica genética da doença, estudos demonstram discordância de 30% na sua apresentação em gêmeos monozigóticos. OBJETIVO: Apresentar dois pares de gêmeos monozigóticos, comprovados por estudos genéticos, discordantes para apresentação da doença celíaca. MÉTODO: Os pacientes foram acompanhados no Serviço de Gastroenterologia Pediátrica do Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais desde 1990, sendo submetidos a exames clínicos periódicos, biopsias intestinais e sorologia para anticorpos IgG e IgA antigliadina, determinados pela técnica de ELISA (ensaio imunoenzimático), e anticorpos classe IgA antiendomísio, determinados pela técnica de imunofluorescência indireta. Estudos genéticos foram realizados através da técnica de amplificação por PCR e posterior tipagem de loci de microssatélites do tipo STR (short tandem repeats). RESULTADOS: Em cada par de gêmeos, apenas um apresentou doença celíaca até o momento, mostrando que, apesar do genótipo idêntico, este não foi o único determinante para a expressão da doença. CONCLUSÃO: Outros fatores, ambientais e genéticos, parecem contribuir para determinação da doença.

Is this really celiac disease? Pitfalls in diagnosis

Celiac disease (CD) is an autoimmune enteropathy triggered in susceptible individuals by ingestion of gliadin-containing grains. Although the autoimmune process targets mainly the intestinal mucosa, CD can manifest itself with a variety signs and symptoms affecting any organ or tissue. For many years, CD has been underdiagnosed because of poor awareness. However, studies showing a high prevalence of CD in North America, followed by a consensus conference on CD organized by the National Institutes of Health, have fueled a campaign to raise awareness among subspecialists and primary physicians. Nevertheless, guidelines for the diagnosis of CD remain poorly appreciated and many health care professionals remain confused about its proper management. This review is intended to clarify "facts and fantasies" about CD diagnosis.

Primary care for children and adolescents with Down syndrome

This article reviews the general health care guidelines pertaining to pediatric patients with Down syndrome and presents, in a systems-based approach, an update of the current evidence behind these guidelines. To ensure the best possible long-term outcome for these patients, clinicians should provide routine well-child examinations and immunizations while maintaining a high index of suspicion for comorbid conditions more common in Down syndrome. The primary care provider should be prepared to provide information on community resources, to coordinate care with subspecialists, and to refer to early intervention services as soon as the diagnosis is made.

Determining IgA and IgG antigliadin, IgA antitransglutaminase, and antiendomysial antibodies in monkey esophagus and in umbilical cord for diagnosis of celiac disease in developing countries

OBJECTIVES

To assess the efficiency of determining IgA and IgG antigliadin antibodies (IgA- and IgG-AGA, respectively), antitransglutaminase (TgA), and anti-endomysial antibodies (AEA) in human umbilical cord (CO) and monkey esophagus for diagnosis of celiac disease; to determine the correlation between serological markers and celiac disease.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A total of 400 patients were divided in 3 groups: group 1 with 37 patients with celiac disease, group 2 with 208 patients with no enteropathies, and group 3 with 155 patients with other enteropathies. IgA-AGA, IgG-AGA, and TgA were assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, whereas AEA was evaluated by indirect immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

Sensitivity and specificity of IgA-AGA were 81.1% and 95.2%, of IgG-AGA 89.2% and 95.2%, of TgA 83.9% and 96.8%, of AEA-CO 87.9% and 100%, and of AEA of monkey esophagus 88.6% and 100%, respectively. Positive predictive values were 75.0%, 76.7%, 83.9%, and 100%. Negative predictive values were 96.6%, 98.0%, 96.8%, and 97.7% for IgA-AGA, IgG-AGA, TgA, and AEA, respectively. Multivariate analysis showed a strong association between AEA-CO and celiac disease and a good correlation with other markers (TgA, IgA-AGA, and IgG-AGA).

CONCLUSIONS

TgA has been recommended for screening patients with celiac disease. Considering the similar sensitivity and specificity of IgA-AGA and TgA and their correlations in the multivariate analysis, both are applicable for this purpose. However, because TgA tests are highly costly and celiac disease is associated with IgA deficiency, the determination of IgA-AGA and IgG-AGA, followed by AEA-CO, is suitable for screening in developing countries, provided a cutoff point for these examinations is established. The results of antiendomysial antibodies in umbilical cord overlapped those in monkey esophagus. Therefore, umbilical cord should be used as a substrate instead of specimens from endangered species.

Tissue transglutaminase antibodies are a useful serological marker for the diagnosis of celiac disease in patients with Down syndrome

BACKGROUND

Celiac disease (CD) is overrepresented among patients with Down syndrome (DS), who frequently lack any typical symptoms. Therefore, screening for CD is recommended in this high-risk group. The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of CD in Arab children with DS and evaluate the contribution of immunoglobulin (Ig) A and IgG anti-gliadin antibodies (AGA), IgA and IgG tissue transglutaminase (TTG) antibodies, and IgA anti-endomysial antibodies (EMA) to screen for CD in children with DS.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A total of 52 Arab patients with DS and 52 healthy Arab control subjects were studied for CD using various serological markers. Data on age, sex, weight, height, gastrointestinal symptoms, and endocrine abnormalities were recorded. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) was studied in patients undergoing small intestinal biopsy.

RESULTS

Five patients with DS were IgA TTG-positive and only 1 patient with DS was IgG TTG-positive. EMA was negative in all patients with DS. TTG (IgA and IgG) and EMA were negative in all control children. IgA AGA was positive in 12 patients with DS and 3 control subjects (P = 0.02), whereas IgG AGA was positive in 41 patients with DS and 26 control subjects (P = 0.004). Only children testing positive for TTG underwent upper endoscopy with duodenal biopsy. Two children with DS were diagnosed with CD. Both patients were IgA TTG-positive. One was HLA DQ2-positive and another was negative for HLA DQ2 and DQ8.

CONCLUSIONS

CD is prevalent (3.8%) in Arab patients with DS. Based on our cohort, IgA TTG is useful in diagnosing patients with CD and DS.

Should stored serum of patients previously tested for celiac disease serology be retested for transglutaminase antibodies?

INTRODUCTION

Tissue transglutaminase (tTG) antibodies are currently recognized as a highly sensitive indicator of celiac disease (CD). Although a high concordance rate between tTG antibodies and anti-endomysial antibodies (EMA) has been reported up to a third of known CD patients are positive for only one of these antibodies.

AIM

To determine whether in laboratories in which serum samples previously examined for CD serology markers had not been discarded, these samples should be tested for tTG antibodies.

METHODS

Fifty-eight stored (frozen at -70) serum samples of patients previously found to be EMA-negative but positive for one or more of the non-EMA markers: antigliadin antibodies (AGA)-IgA, AGA-IgG, antireticulin antibodies, were tested for anti-tTG antibodies (IMMCO Diagnostics). In patients found to be tTG positive, medical charts were reviewed and patients or their physicians contacted.

RESULTS

Twelve of fifty-eight (20.7%) samples were found to be anti-tTG positive. These included: group A: 3/3 samples previously positive for AGA-IgA, AGA-IgG, and antireticulin antibodies. Group B: 3/16 samples positive for AGA-IgA and AGA-IgG. Group C: 3/4 samples positive for AGA-IgA and group D: 3/35 samples positive for AGA-IgG. Of the 12 positive patients, 1 was a 2-year-old boy, 5 were lost to follow up, and 7 underwent an intestinal biopsy. In 3 of these 7 patients, the biopsy was compatible with CD; 2 of these 3 patients were from group A and 1 from group B.

CONCLUSIONS

In laboratories where stored serum samples are available, EMA-negative samples previously found to be positive for at least 2 other CD markers should be retested for tTG antibodies.

Screening for celiac disease in asymptomatic children with Down syndrome: cost-effectiveness of preventing lymphoma

BACKGROUND

Studies demonstrate an increased prevalence of celiac disease in persons with Down syndrome, leading some organizations and authors to recommend universal screening of children with Down syndrome. However, many children with Down syndrome are asymptomatic, and the long-term implications of screening are unknown. The complication of celiac disease that leads to mortality in the general population is non-Hodgkin's lymphomas.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this research in asymptomatic children with Down syndrome was to (1) calculate the number needed to screen to prevent a single case of lymphoma and (2) present a cost-effectiveness study of screening.

METHODS

We constructed a decision tree using probabilities derived from the published literature for Down syndrome or from the general population where Down syndrome-specific data were not available. Celiac disease was determined by serologic screening and confirmation with intestinal biopsy. Sensitivity analysis was used to alter probability estimates affecting the cost of preventing lymphoma.

RESULTS

Using our baseline values, the no-screen strategy is dominant; that is, screening not only costs more but also results in fewer quality-adjusted life-years. A screening strategy costs more than $500,000 per life-year gained. Screening all asymptomatic children with Down syndrome for celiac disease costs almost $5 million to prevent a single case of lymphoma.

CONCLUSION

These analyses do not support the cost-effectiveness of screening, and more data are needed before recommendations to screen asymptomatic children with Down syndrome for celiac disease can be made.

Unusual manifestations of celiac disease

Celiac disease is multifaced autoimmune disorder with several extraintestinal manifestations and connections to other autoimmune diseases and other conditions. The recognition of the complex clinical picture of the disease helps doctors to search and diagnose celiac disease even if the gastrointestinal symptoms are lacking. Individuals at risk for celiac disease should be thoroughly investigated and individuals with unusual manifestations of the disease should be screened actively.

Prevalence of celiac disease: before and after a national change in feeding recommendations

OBJECTIVE

A national change in infant feeding recommendations was proposed in 1996 in Sweden: a slow introduction to gluten during weaning was stressed, the recommendation being introduction at 4 instead of 6 months of age. The aim of the present study was to compare the prevalence of celiac disease in healthy young children born before and after the new feeding recommendations in 1996.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Sera from 679 children at a median age of 2.9 years (range 2.5-4.2 years) born between January 1996 and November 1997 were investigated with IgA-antigliadin antibodies (AGA) and IgA-endomysial autoantibodies (EMA) and compared with 690 age-matched children born between July 1992 and June 1993. Children with a positive test for EMA and AGA or EMA only were re-tested, and if positive at follow up, investigated with intestinal biopsy.

RESULTS

At baseline, 2.2% (15/679) children were positive for EMA and another 0.6% (4/679) for both EMA and AGA. One child refused to be re-tested and eight children were still EMA positive at follow-up. Intestinal biopsy was performed in seven children (one declined biopsy), of whom three showed total villous atrophy. Two children with EMA titers 1:640, respectively, refused further participation in the study, but were strongly suspected to have celiac disease. In total, 0.7% (5/679) (95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.1-1.4%) were considered to have celiac disease compared with 1.3% (9/690) (95% CI = 0.4-2.2%) in the control group (p=0.4217). In addition, 0.3% of the children were diagnosed with symptomatic celiac disease compared with 0.7% in controls (p=0.0134).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of symptomatic celiac disease declined after the infant dietary recommendations were introduced in 1996, but we could not find any difference in undiagnosed celiac disease between the screened children born before and those born after 1996.

Review article: safe amounts of gluten for patients with wheat allergy or coeliac disease

For both wheat allergy and coeliac disease the dietary avoidance of wheat and other gluten-containing cereals is the only effective treatment. Estimation of the maximum tolerated amount of gluten for susceptible individuals would support effective management of their disease. Literature was reviewed to evaluate whether an upper limit for gluten content in food, which would be safe for sufferers from both diseases, could be identified. When setting gluten limits for coeliac disease sufferers, the overall potential daily intake should be considered, while for wheat allergy limits should be based on single servings. For coeliac disease sufferers this limit should lie between 10 and 100 mg daily intake. For wheat allergy, lowest eliciting doses for children lie in the lower milligram range, while for adults they are most significantly higher. Gliadins (part of the gluten proteins) not only trigger coeliac disease, but are also major allergens in wheat allergy. Therefore, measurement of gliadins with validated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay methods provides an appropriate marker for assessing gluten and/or wheat protein contents in food. Available data suggest that a maximum gluten content for 'gluten-free' foods could be set, which protects both wheat allergy sufferers and coeliac patients.

Evaluation of cytokine polymorphisms (TNFalpha, IFNgamma and IL-10) in Down patients with coeliac disease

BACKGROUND

In Down syndrome there is an increased prevalence of coeliac disease, but the reasons for this association are yet unknown.

AIMS

To evaluate a possible correlation between TNFalpha, IFNgamma and IL-10 genotype polymorphisms with the susceptibility to coeliac disease in Down syndrome patients.

METHODS

Single nucleotide polymorphisms of TNFalpha (-308G-->A promoter region), IFNgamma (+874T-->A promoter region) and IL-10 (-1082G-->A promoter region) have been studied in 10 Down patients with coeliac disease, in 40 Down patients without coeliac disease and in 220 healthy controls. Clinical features were also studied in coeliac disease-Down syndrome patients.

RESULTS

The 10 coeliac disease-Down syndrome patients had a biopsy proven coeliac disease afterward a serological testing positive to antigliadin, antiendomysium and antitransglutaminase antibodies. Intestinal biopsy showed total atrophy in 6/10 and partial villous atrophy in 4/10 of them. All coeliac disease-Down syndrome patients had silent forms of coeliac disease and classical trisomy 21. No significant differences were observed for the IFNgamma and IL-10 polymorphisms in the studied groups. A significant trend for increase of TNFalpha -308A positive frequency was observed in coeliac disease-Down syndrome patients compared to healthy controls (p=0.043).

CONCLUSIONS

Single nucleotide polymorphisms of IFNgamma and IL-10 do not play a role in predisposing Down syndrome patients to coeliac disease, while the TNFalpha -308 allele could be an additional genetic risk factor for coeliac disease in trisomy 21.

Should all children be screened for celiac disease?

To address the issue of screening children for celiac disease, current evidence has been summarized and placed within the context of 8 established criteria for childhood screening. Screening all children for celiac disease is not recommended at this time. Areas with gaps in knowledge are identified as areas in need of further study. These include the timing of screening, defining the natural history of screening-identified celiac disease, developing tools to predict disease onset and disease remission, and the risks of screening.

Emerging concepts in celiac disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

There has been an explosion in knowledge about celiac disease (CD) in the last decade based on the availability of serologic screening tests and the elucidation of some of the important disease susceptibility genes. What has been discovered is that CD is among the most common inherited diseases with a worldwide prevalence of almost 1% of the population. Also, there has been a tremendous expansion of the possible clinical presentations in patients with CD, many of them predominantly or even exclusively extraintestinal. Over the last year, both the North American Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, and the NIH, through the mechanism of a consensus development conference held in May 2004, have published guidelines outlining the current state of knowledge and the areas where more research is needed.

RECENT FINDINGS

This review will stress the most recent findings in CD in the areas of genetics, pathogenesis, epidemiology, screening and diagnosis, and natural history. It will stress the importance of HLA DQ2 and DQ8 as disease susceptibility genes, and the interaction of the environmental triggers (gliadins and glutenins) with these gene products to trigger the immunologic response in the gut that is responsible for the pattern of injury. Recent reports that stress the importance of screening high-risk groups (i.e. siblings of index cases and first degree relatives, patients with Type I diabetes, patients with Downs syndrome, patients with IgA deficiency) will be highlighted. The identification of the most sensitive and specific screening tests will be summarized with an explanation of special situations that affect the interpretation of these tests. Finally, the long-term morbidities associated with CD will be characterized supporting the case for early diagnosis and treatment.

SUMMARY

The implications of these recent findings are of tremendous importance for both pediatricians and internists. Screening of high-risk groups, and of patients with the common symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, iron deficiency anemia, unexplained arthritis, and even chronic elevations of aminotransferases is becoming the accepted standard of practice. Much research remains to be done to further refine our understanding of CD, and to devise more effective strategies for treatment, compliance, and prevention of long-term complications.

Celiac disease in children with Down syndrome: importance of follow-up and serologic screening

BACKGROUND

Celiac disease, also known as gluten-sensitive enteropathy, is a chronic inflammation disease of the small intestinal mucosa. Detection of Ig-A antigliadin antibodies (AGA) and antiendomysial antibodies (EMA) in serum is important in the diagnosis and screening for celiac disease. Antiendomysial antibodies have greater sensitivity compared to antigliadin antibodies. It has been reported that the prevalence of celiac disease is higher in children with Down syndrome than the other autoimmune conditions. The aim of the present study was to investigate the incidence of celiac disease in children with Down syndrome, to assess the availability of Ig-A AGA and EMA for serologic screening, and to highlight the importance of follow-up for children with Down syndrome.

METHODS

Forty-seven children with Down syndrome without known celiac disease were tested for total blood count, thyroid function tests, immunoglobulin values, Ig-A AGA and EMA. Duodenal biopsy was performed on eight patients who showed at least one serologically positive marker.

RESULTS

The ages of the children with Down syndrome ranged from 2 to 18 years (30 boys/17 girls). The mean age was 6.55 +/- 3.88. Total blood count and immunoglobulin values were normal. Eleven of the 47 patients (23.40%) were found to be serologically positive, 10 (21.28%) having antigliadin antibody concentrations above normal; and six (12.77%) being positive for antiendomysial antibody. In five patients (10.64%), both Ig-A AGA and EMA concentrations were high and positive. Duodenal biopsies of three of eight cases (37.50%) revealed villous atrophy, lymphocyte infiltration and crypt hyperplasia. Three cases with abnormal biopsy results (100%) were below the 10th percentile for weight and height. Hypo-thyroidism was detected in one of 11 cases where at least one serologic marker was positive.

CONCLUSION

Children with Down syndrome should be carefully examined in their follow up, and celiac disease should be considered in cases with growth retardation. Ig-A antigliadin antibodies and EMA are non-invasive, cheap and readily available serologic screening tests for celiac disease, and the positivity of both markers gives the most reliable result.

Is the prevalence of celiac disease increased among epileptic patients?

OBJECTIVE

To assess the prevalence of celiac disease (CD) among a group of epileptic patients attending the Epilepsy Clinics of two general hospitals in the city of Brasilia (DF), Brazil.

METHOD

Serum samples were collected from 255 epileptic patients (119 children, 136 adults) originating from Epilepsy Clinics, and from a control group composed by 4405 individuals (2034 children, 2371 adults) attending the Laboratory of Clinical Analysis, for routine blood testing. The diagnosis of CD was determined by the antiendomysium antibody (IgA-EMA) test and by small intestine biopsy.

RESULTS

two of the 255 epileptic patients (1:127) and fifteen subjects from the control group (1:293) tested positive for the IgA-EMA assay.

CONCLUSION

the prevalence of CD was 2.3 times higher in epileptic patients than in controls (7.84 per 1000 versus 3.41 per 1000). Although still not statistically significant, this result is highly suggestive of an increased prevalence of CD among epileptic patients.

Tissue transglutaminase immunoglobulin isotypes in children with untreated and treated celiac disease

OBJECTIVES

Tissue transglutaminase (tTG) autoantibodies are serologic markers for celiac disease (CD). The aim was to determine the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of different immunoglobulin isotypes against tTG.

METHODS

Immunoglobulin A (IgA)-tTG, IgG-tTG, and IgG1-tTG were measured in radioligand binding assays in 67 children with untreated and 89 children with treated CD and compared with 48 biopsy controls. IgM-tTG was measured in children with untreated CD and in biopsy controls. IgA endomysial autoantibodies (EMA) were analyzed in all children using an immunofluorescence method.

RESULTS

The sensitivity of IgA-tTG and IgG-tTG was 85.1% (57 of 67) and 83.6% (56 of 67), respectively, which both increased to 93.8% (45 of 48) in children diagnosed at age 2 years or older. Both had a specificity of 93.8% (45 of 48). IgA-EMA had a sensitivity of 80.6% (54 of 67) and a specificity of 91.7% (44 of 48). In treated CD, IgA-tTG and IgG-tTG were detected in 21.3% (19 of 89) and in 14.6% (13 of 89), respectively, despite negative EMA titers. IgG1-tTG was correlated to age (r = -0.47, P = 0.0005) and detected in 50.7% (34 of 67) with untreated CD compared with 11.2% (10 of 89) with treated CD and with 4.2% (2 of 48) of biopsy controls ( P < 0.0001, respectively). IgM-tTG was detected in 1.5% (1 of 67) with untreated CD and in none of biopsy controls.

CONCLUSION

IgA-tTG and IgG-tTG analyzed in radioligand binding assays are equivalent to IgA-EMA as screening tests for CD during childhood, but an intestinal biopsy is still the method of choice to establish the diagnosis. Although IgG1-tTG was more common at young age of diagnosis, both IgG1-tTG and IgM-tTG had low specificity and sensitivity and may not be useful as screening tests for CD.

Coeliac disease and liver dysfunction

The spectrum and pathogenesis of liver dysfunction in coeliac disease (CD) is reviewed. CD and liver disease share common risk factors, and consequences of CD may cause liver dysfunction. Liver dysfunction should be sought in CD, and its aetiology explored when abnormalities persist after gluten exclusion. CD should be excluded in patients with unexplained liver dysfunction before being labelled "cryptogenic".

Tissue transglutaminase autoantibodies and human leucocyte antigen in Down's syndrome patients with coeliac disease

The association between autoantibodies against tissue transglutaminase (tTG) and human leucocyte antigen (HLA)-DQB1 alleles was tested in Down's syndrome (DS) patients with and without coeliac disease (CD). Immunoglobulin A (IgA) and G (IgG) anti-tTG were measured in radioligand binding assays and compared with conventionally analysed IgA antibodies against gliadin (AGA) and IgA autoantibodies against endomysium (EMA) in 48 DS patients. HLA-DQB1 typing was carried out by polymerase chain reaction and hybridization with allele-specific probes in 41/48 patients. Both IgA-tTG and IgG-tTG, as well as EMA, were detected in 7/48 and AGA in 15/48 patients. Intestinal biopsy showed histopathological changes consistent with CD in 9/16 patients. HLA-DQB1 typing, available for 8/9 patients with and for 33/39 without CD, demonstrated that 5/8 with CD had DQB1*02 compared with 7/33 of those without (p = 0.0345). In patients with anti-tTG, 5/6 had the DQB1*02 allele compared with 7/35 of those without (p = 0.0053).

CONCLUSIONS

Anti-tTG are HLA-DQB1*02-associated autoantibodies which together could be useful screening tests for silent CD in DS patients. In patients with gastrointestinal symptoms or clinical signs of malabsorption, anti-tTG should be combined with AGA to detect other forms of enteropathies and CD.

Evaluation of coeliac disease serological markers in Down syndrome patients

BACKGROUND

The increased incidence of coeliac disease in patients with Down syndrome makes screening of coeliac disease in this population advisable.

AIM

Evaluation of efficiency of different serological markers to detect coeliac disease in Down syndrome patients.

PATIENTS

A total of 56 Down syndrome patients (aged: 1-17 years) were included in study.

METHODS

Patients were evaluated for both IgG and IgA anti-transglutaminase antibodies and for anti-gliadin IgA and IgG antibodies using either purified omega-gliadin, wheat ethanol extract or commercial gliadin. Patients who had at least one positive result were evaluated for antiendomysium antibodies using either monkey oesophagus or human umbilical cord by indirect immunofluorescence. Coeliac disease was diagnosed by typical histological changes on duodenal mucosa.

RESULTS

Increased levels of at least one anti-gliadin IgA and IgG antibody marker were found in 27 out of 56 cases (26 for IgG and 9 for IgA). 11/56 were positive for IgG anti-transglutaminase antibodies and two of them were also positive for IgA anti-transglutaminase antibodies and anti-endomysium antibodies. These two patients were finally diagnosed as coeliacs. Gliadin antigenic fractions employed produced differences in the performance of the anti-gliadin IgA and IgG antibody test. The use of commercial gliadin or wheat ethanol extract showed low sensitivity in IgA anti-gliadin IgA and IgG antibody determination, whereas good sensitivity and specificity were observed with omega-gliadins. IgG anti-transglutaminase antibodies showed a high proportion of false positive results (9 out of 56), whereas anti-endomysium antibodies and IgA anti-transglutaminase antibodies presented an excellent correlation with presence of active coeliac disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Two out of 56 Down syndrome patients were diagnosed as coeliacs, corresponding to an incidence of 3.6%. The use of omega-gliadin presented the best efficiency in anti-gliadin IgA and IgG antibody determination whereas IgA anti-transglutaminase antibodies and anti-endomysium antibody determination showed an absolute correlation with presence of active coeliac disease.

The prevalence and clinical characteristics of celiac disease in juvenile diabetes in Wisconsin

BACKGROUND

The relationship between celiac disease and juvenile diabetes has long been known. Only a single study in the United States, from Buffalo, New York, has reported the prevalence of celiac disease in a pediatric diabetic population. This study was conducted to determine the prevalence and clinical presentation of celiac disease in children and adolescents with juvenile diabetes in Wisconsin, USA, using serum antiendomysial antibody as a screening test.

METHODS

Two hundred eighteen patients with diabetes (113 males; age range, 4-21 years) and 117 age-and gender-matched control participants were tested for immunoglobulin A endomysial antibody. Patients with positive results were offered a small bowel biopsy. A questionnaire regarding abdominal pain, diarrhea, and growth failure was completed by the parents.

RESULTS

Seventeen of 218 diabetic patients (7.7%) had positive endomysial antibody. All control participants had negative results for the endomysial antibody. Small bowel biopsy was performed in 14 patients. Ten patients had villous atrophy. In one patient without villous atrophy, a repeat biopsy 2 years later showed villous atrophy, and two patients had increased intraepithelial lymphocytes without villous atrophy. Seventy percent of the patients with celiac disease were asymptomatic. The reported symptoms were abdominal pain and diarrhea (n = 1) and growth failure (n = 2). Two patients with celiac disease had Down syndrome.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of celiac disease in children with juvenile diabetes in Wisconsin is at least 4.6%, which is comparable with European and Canadian studies. Because patients without villous atrophy may have latent celiac disease, the prevalence may be even higher. All children with juvenile diabetes should be screened for celiac disease.

An overview and update regarding medical problems in Down syndrome

Down syndrome is the commonest occurring syndrome, and because of the high risk of congenital heart disease, these children are frequently seen at cardiology clinics and wards. However, these individuals are also likely to have a variety of other-problems, both congenital and acquired, which may impinge on the medical and surgical management of cardiac problems. It is therefore important for the paediatric cardiology community to maintain a minimum level of expertise in other noncardiac aspects of the syndrome. This paper reviews Down syndrome, lists congenital and acquire disorders that may occur, and briefly addresses recent advances in the understanding of this condition.

Prevalence and clinical picture of celiac disease in italian down syndrome patients: a multicenter study

BACKGROUND

A multicenter research study of Down syndrome patients was carried out to estimate the prevalence of celiac disease in patients with Down syndrome and to show clinical characteristics and laboratory data of Down syndrome patients.

METHODS

The authors studied 1,202 Down syndrome patients. Fifty-five celiac disease patients (group 1) were compared with 55 immunoglobulin A antigliadin-positive antiendomysium antibodies-negative patients (group 2) and with 57 immunoglobulin A antigliadin-negative antiendomysium antibodies-negative patients (group 3).

RESULTS

Celiac disease was diagnosed in 55 of 1,202 Down syndrome patients (4.6%). In group 1, weight and height percentiles were shifted to the left, whereas these parameters were normally distributed in groups 2 and 3. In celiac patients, diarrhea, vomiting, failure to thrive, anorexia, constipation, and abdominal distension were higher than in the other two groups. Low levels of hemoglobinemia, serum iron, and calcium were observed more frequently in group 1. The diagnosis of celiac disease was made after a mean period of 3.8 years from the initiation of symptoms. Sixty-nine percent of patients showed a classic presentation, 11% had atypical symptoms, and 20% had silent celiac disease. Autoimmune disorders were more frequent (30.9%) in group 1 than in the other two groups examined (15%; P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This study reconfirms a high prevalence of celiac disease in Down syndrome. However, the diagnostic delay, the detection of atypical symptoms or silent form in one third of the cases, and the increased incidence of autoimmune disorders suggest the need for the screening of celiac disease in all Down syndrome patients.

Down syndrome: progress in research

This review discusses the research published in the last five years on the behavioral, genetic, medical, and neuroscience aspects of Down syndrome. The subject areas that have experienced the most active research include Alzheimer disease, language development, leukemia, and pregnancy screening and diagnosis. These and other areas are reviewed.

Prediction of silent celiac disease at diagnosis of childhood type 1 diabetes by tissue transglutaminase autoantibodies and HLA

AIMS

The aims were to estimate the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of autoantibodies to tissue transglutaminase (IgA- and IgG-tTG), gliadin (AGA) and endomysium (EMA) in relation to human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DQB1 alleles to identify silent celiac disease at diagnosis of type 1 diabetes.

METHODS

IgA- and IgG-tTG were measured in radioligand binding assays in 165 type 1 diabetic patients. Data on HLA-DQB1 were available for 148 patients and on both AGA and EMA for 164 patients. For patients considered positive for AGA or EMA, or both, an intestinal biopsy was suggested. HLA-DQB1 typing was carried out by polymerase chain reaction and hybridization with allele specific probes.

RESULTS

Three patients, left out from further study of antibodies, but not from HLA-DQB1 analysis, had treated celiac disease at diagnosis. Out of the other 162 type 1 diabetic patients tested, nine had IgA-tTG, six IgG-tTG, eight EMA, and 11 AGA. Biopsy was suggested for nine patients, of whom six showed villous atrophy, one did not and two refused to participate. Thus, silent celiac disease was probable in 8/162 and biopsy-verified in 6/162, where five patients were AGA-positive and six either EMA-, IgA-tTG- or IgG-tTG-positive. Of the 11 patients with celiac disease (three with treated and eight with silent celiac disease), 10 were HLA-DQB1-typed, of whom 65% (13/20) had the DQB1*02 allele, compared with 36% (100/276; p = 0.011) of those without celiac disease. IgA-tTG levels were higher in patients having either *02 or *0302 (0.6; -1.3-112.4 RU) compared with those not having these alleles (0.4; -0.7-3.4 RU; p = 0.023).

CONCLUSION

IgA-tTG are HLA-DQB1*02-associated autoantibodies with high sensitivity and specificity for silent celiac disease at diagnosis of type 1 diabetes.

Immune-endocrine status and coeliac disease in children with Down's syndrome: relationships with zinc and cognitive efficiency

Immune defects, thyroid abnormalities, plasma zinc levels, and the presence of gastrointestinal disease were investigated in 43 children with Down's syndrome (DS). Peripheral T lymphocytes with the phenotype of helper cells or cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) were decreased. Circulating activated T cells (CD3/HLA-DR-positive cells) and large granular lymphocytes (CD16/CD56 positive cells) were increased. Plasma levels of interleukin-6 were higher in DS children than in controls. Serum levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone were increased in DS. Coeliac disease was over-represented in the group of DS children and many of these children also showed increased serum levels of immunoglobulin-G (IgG) specific for gliadin antigen. The increment of serum interleukin-6 was age-related and correlated with anti-gliadin IgG levels in DS. Plasma zinc levels were lower in DS children with coeliac disease and in those with anti-gliadin IgG than in DS without detectable anti-gliadin IgG. Dietary antigens may represent a continuous stimulus for the immune system in this syndrome and interfere with normal immune responses. Altered intestinal absorption of nutrients may in turn affect endocrine functions, brain development, and cognitive performances.