Gastroesophageal reflux and cow milk allergy: is there a link?

The Cause of Severe Metabolic Acidosis With Vomiting in a Neonate

We present a 22-day-old male born full term who presented with worsening non-projectile, non-bilious vomiting and failure to thrive (FTT) and was admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) for severe metabolic acidosis with an elevated anion gap. Despite changing the formula, the patient continued to have spit-ups after feeds since birth. Before this admission, his vomiting worsened with every feed, which was now forceful along with two days of loose stools. Obstructive causes of emesis were ruled out with an upper gastrointestinal series, and a decision was made to evaluate for organic causes of FTT. Transient resolution of symptoms was noticed when the patient was placed NPO (nothing by os/mouth) briefly. His symptoms returned on resuming cow milk-based formula feeds. At this time, a presumptive diagnosis of cow milk protein allergy (CMPA) was made. Positive fecal occult blood supported the diagnosis, and his formula was changed to an extensively hydrolyzed formula (eHF). This is a case of severe CMPA with prolonged vomiting and FTT presenting with severe metabolic acidosis with an elevated anion gap. This case report highlights how CMPA can lead to severe dehydration with metabolic acidosis and increased anion gap.

Cow’s milk-induced gastrointestinal disorders: From infancy to adulthood

Milk is related to many gastrointestinal disorders from the cradle to the grave due to the many milk ingredients that can trigger gastrointestinal discomfort and disorders. Cow’s milk protein allergy (CMPA) is the most common food allergy, especially in infancy and childhood, which may persist into adulthood. There are three main types of CMPA; immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated CMPA, non-IgE-mediated CMPA, and mixed type. CMPA appears before the first birthday in almost all cases. Symptoms may start even during the neonatal period and can be severe enough to simulate neonatal sepsis. CMPA (often non-IgE mediated) can present with symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux, eosinophilic esophagitis, hemorrhagic gastritis, food protein-induced protein-losing enteropathy, and food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome. Most CMPAs are benign and outgrown during childhood. CMPA is not as common in adults as in children, but when present, it is usually severe with a protracted course. Lactose intolerance is a prevalent condition characterized by the development of many symptoms related to the consumption of foods containing lactose. Lactose intolerance has four typical types: Developmental, congenital, primary, and secondary. Lactose intolerance and CMPA may be the underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms for many functional gastrointestinal disorders in children and adults. They are also common in inflammatory bowel diseases. Milk consumption may have preventive or promoter effects on cancer development. Milk may also become a source of microbial infection in humans, causing a wide array of diseases, and may help increase the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance. This editorial summarizes the common milk-related disorders and their symptoms from childhood to adulthood.

Cows' Milk Allergy-Associated Constipation: When to Look for It? A Narrative Review

Constipation is a very common disorder, mostly functional in nature, that may persist for years in up to 35-52% of children. Food allergy prevalence, severity and persistence are increasing over time, and cows' milk protein is the commonest food allergen recognised to affect gastrointestinal motility in children. There is mounting evidence of the role of cows' milk (CM) allergy (CMA) in children with constipation. With this narrative review, we aim to provide clinicians with an updated and critical overview of food allergy-associated constipation. We searched Embase, Medline and the Cochrane Library, using keywords related to the topic. Only reviews and studies including children aged 0-17 years that were published in English were considered. Constipation has been reported in 4.6% of infants with CMA; the prevalence of food allergy underlying chronic constipation in children resistant to conventional treatment and presenting to tertiary clinics ranges between 28% and 78%. The identification of predisposing risk factors and of a specific phenotype of food allergy-induced constipation remains elusive. No allergic tests, radiological or motility investigations achieve sufficient sensitivity and specificity to screen children for CMA-related constipation. A 4-week cows' milk protein (CMP) elimination diet may be considered for children with chronic constipation resistant to conventional treatment and who lack alarm sign/symptoms of organic diseases. In subjects with ameliorated symptoms on CMP elimination, the diagnosis of CMA should be confirmed by a food challenge to avoid an unnecessary protracted diet.

There is an association between gastro-oesophageal reflux and cow's milk protein intolerance

AIMS

Gastro-oesophageal reflux (GOR) and cow's milk protein intolerance (CMPI) are two frequently occurring conditions found in infancy. The aim of this review is to examine the association between the two.

METHODS

A literature review was conducted via PubMed, Sciencedirect and Google scholar using search terms "gastro-oesophageal reflux" + "cow's milk protein intolerance". The inclusion criteria were studies from 1985 to present, studies involving infants and studies involving both GOR and CMPI. Exclusion criteria were studies not including infants, or studies involving GOR or CMPI independently.

RESULTS

This review revealed varying degrees of co-existence of GOR and CMPI. Iacono et al., Farahmand et al., Kamer et al., and Semeniuk and Kaczmarski, displayed co-occurrence of GOR and CMPI in 41.8%, 33.3%, 46.5%, and 44.9% of infants respectively. In two separate studies by Cavataio et al., concomitance was apparent in 41.6% and 30% of infants. Others suggested a less significant link at 16-20%. Nielsen et al. found 18/42 children to have severe GORD, 10 of whom had CMPI in addition.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights an association between GOR and CMPI. CMPI should be considered, particularly in cases of reflux resistant to pharmacological therapy, as a co-existing or causative entity accounting for symptoms.

Transition to a Safe Home Sleep Environment for the NICU Patient

Of the nearly 3.8 million infants born in the United States in 2018, 8.3% had low birth weight (<2500 g [5.5 lb]) and 10% were born preterm (gestational age of <37 completed weeks). Many of these infants and others with congenital anomalies, perinatally acquired infections, and other disease require admission to a NICU. In the past decade, admission rates to NICUs have been increasing; it is estimated that between 10% and 15% of infants will spend time in a NICU, representing approximately 500 000 neonates annually. Approximately 3600 infants die annually in the United States from sleep-related deaths, including sudden infant death syndrome International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision (R95), ill-defined deaths (R99), and accidental suffocation and strangulation in bed (W75). Preterm and low birth weight infants are particularly vulnerable, with an incidence of death 2 to 3 times greater than healthy term infants. Thus, it is important for health care professionals to prepare families to maintain their infant in a safe sleep environment, as per the recommendations of the American Academy of Pediatrics. However, infants in the NICU setting commonly require care that is inconsistent with infant sleep safety recommendations. The conflicting needs of the NICU infant with the necessity to provide a safe sleep environment before hospital discharge can create confusion for providers and distress for families. This technical report is intended to assist in the establishment of appropriate NICU protocols to achieve a consistent approach to transitioning NICU infants to a safe sleep environment as soon as medically possible, well before hospital discharge.

The effect of a low-nickel diet and nickel sensitization on gastroesophageal reflux disease: A pilot study

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a common medical condition, frequently refractory to medical therapy. Nickel is a leading cause of allergic contact dermatitis. Although nickel is widely found in foods, the effect of nickel on GERD is unknown. This pilot study sought to evaluate the effect of a low-nickel diet on GERD and determine if epicutaneous patch testing to nickel could predict responsiveness to a low-nickel diet.

METHODS

This prospective, single-site pilot study recruited 20 refractory GERD patients as determined by GERD Health-Related Quality of Life (GERD-HRQL) scores. All patients had epicutaneous patch testing for nickel and were then instructed to follow a low-nickel diet for 8 weeks regardless of patch test results. GERD-HRQL was recorded at baseline and following 8 weeks of a low-nickel diet. Demographic and clinical data associated with GERD and nickel allergy were recorded. A Wilcoxon signed-rank test and nonparametric analysis of longitudinal data were run to determine statistical significance in pre- and post- GERD-HRQL scores in nickel patch test-positive and negative groups.

RESULTS

Nearly all (19/20 [95%]) participants reported reduced GERD symptoms after 8 weeks on a low-nickel diet. Mean total GERD-HRQL, regurgitation, and heartburn scores declined (27.05 ± 16.04, 11.45 ± 6.46, 10.85 ± 8.29). Participants with positive vs. negative patch testing to nickel responded equivalently to a low-nickel diet.

CONCLUSIONS

A low-nickel diet improves GERD symptoms, but responsiveness to a low-nickel diet does not correlate with epicutaneous patch testing to nickel.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov number: NCT03720756.

Decreasing Inappropriate Use of Antireflux Medications by Standardizing Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Management in NICU

Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is a functional self-limiting condition in neonates. When pathologic, it is called GER disease (GERD). There are wide variations in the management of signs, symptoms, and complications associated with GERD in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Evidence does not support an empiric trial of GERD medications as a diagnostic tool or therapy in premature infants.

Methods

A multidisciplinary team developed evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (CPG) for GERD management. Process improvement included developing a GERD management algorithm, electronic order sets, and education for all providers. Multiple plan-do-study-act cycles done.

Results

Implementation of standardized GERD management guideline, decreased the overall use of antireflux medications from baseline, 15.1%-6.8% [χ² (1, N = 1259) = 12.98, P < 0.001]. There was elimination of GERD medication use in preterm from baseline of 19.3% [χ² (1, N = 220) = 12.18, P < 0.001]. The most frequently used GERD medication was lansoprazole, with an incorrect initial dosing rate of 55.0% that deceased to zero [χ² (1, N = 33) = 10.73, P = 0.001]. Appropriate testing with PH probe with 24-hour multichannel impedance was observed (17.1%-28.0%) identifying patients with correct GERD diagnosis [χ² (1, N = 101) = 1.41, P = 0.236]. Length of stay for GERD patient's improved from a median of 89-53 days.

Conclusion

Standardizing clinical management leads to best practices for GERD management with appropriate diagnostic testing, eliminating incorrect medication dosing, and improved patient safety with value-based outcomes.

Cow's Milk Allergy or Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease-Can We Solve the Dilemma in Infants?

Cow's milk allergy (CMA) and gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) may manifest with similar symptoms in infants making the diagnosis challenging. While immediate reaction to cow's milk protein indicate CMA, regurgitation, vomiting, crying, fussiness, poor appetite, sleep disturbances have been reported in both CMA and GERD and in other conditions such as functional gastrointestinal disorders, eosinophilic esophagitis, anatomic abnormalities, metabolic and neurological diseases. Gastrointestinal manifestations of CMA are often non-IgE mediated and clinical response to cow's milk free diet is not a proof of immune system involvement. Neither for non-IgE CMA nor for GERD there is a specific symptom or diagnostic test. Oral food challenge, esophageal pH impedance and endoscopy are recommended investigations for a correct clinical classification but they are not always feasible in all infants. As a consequence of the diagnostic difficulty, both over- and under- diagnosis of CMA or GERD may occur. Quite frequently acid inhibitors are empirically started. The aim of this review is to critically update the current knowledge of both conditions during infancy. A practical stepwise approach is proposed to help health care providers to manage infants presenting with persistent regurgitation, vomiting, crying or distress and to solve the clinical dilemma between GERD or CMA.

Non-IgE- or Mixed IgE/Non-IgE-Mediated Gastrointestinal Food Allergies in the First Years of Life: Old and New Tools for Diagnosis

non-IgE and mixed gastrointestinal food allergies present various specific, well-characterized clinical pictures such as food protein-induced allergic proctocolitis, food protein-induced enterocolitis and food protein-induced enteropathy syndrome as well as eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders such as eosinophilic esophagitis, allergic eosinophilic gastroenteritis and eosinophilic colitis. The aim of this article is to provide an updated review of their different clinical presentations, to suggest a correct approach to their diagnosis and to discuss the usefulness of both old and new diagnostic tools, including fecal biomarkers, atopy patch tests, endoscopy, specific IgG and IgG4 testing, allergen-specific lymphocyte stimulation test (ALST) and clinical score (CoMiss).

Precision medicine in cow's milk allergy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The aim of this review is to describe the role of precision medicine in the diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring of cow's milk allergy.

RECENT FINDINGS

The development of 'omics' sciences in the field of food allergy has led to a better understanding of the allergenicity of cow's milk proteins and significant advances in the knowledge of the pathogenesis and mechanisms of cow's milk allergy. Omics-based technologies allow the practitioner to better differentiate cow's milk allergy subtypes and to predict cow's milk allergy (CMA) persistence over time. Precision medicine extends the role of the oral food challenge, to determine the individual's threshold doses, and to establish tolerance to baked milk products. Other than symptom relief, dietary strategies are currently being investigated for the potential to induce tolerance. Oral immunotherapy offers a treatment option for patients with severe and persistent IgE-mediated CMA. Individual baseline-immune profiles may be predictive of cow's milk oral immunotherapy safety and efficacy.Patient data derived from current technology, in combination with the patient's history, can be translated into treatments targeted at patient-tailored interventions.

SUMMARY

The identification of novel biomarkers may improve diagnostic accuracy and also predict patient responsiveness to treatments. Integration of patient data will become increasingly important as omics technologies become more widely used in the clinical setting.

Diagnosis and management of Non-IgE gastrointestinal allergies in breastfed infants-An EAACI Position Paper

It is well-established that food proteins, such as egg, soya, cow's milk and wheat, are detectable in breastmilk for many hours or days after ingestion. Exposure to these proteins is important to the process of developing tolerance but can also sometimes elicit IgE-mediated and non-IgE-mediated allergic symptoms in breastfed infants. Non-IgE-mediated allergy, outside of food protein-induced allergic proctocolitis and eosinophilic oesophagitis, is not well understood, leading to variations in the diagnosis and management thereof. A primary objective of the European Academy for Allergy and Clinical Immunology is to support breastfeeding in all infants, including those with food allergies. A Task Force was established, to explore the clinical spectrum of non-IgE-mediated allergies, and part of its objectives was to establish diagnosis and management of non-IgE-mediated allergies in breastfed infants. Eight questions were formulated using the Patient, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome (PICO) system and Scottish Intercollegiate Guideline Network (SIGN) criteria for data inclusion, and consensus was achieved on practice points through the Delphi method. This publication aims to provide a comprehensive overview on this topic with practice points for healthcare professionals.

Cow's Milk Allergy: Immunomodulation by Dietary Intervention

Cow’s milk proteins cause allergic symptoms in 2% to 3% of all infants. In these individuals, the physiological mechanism of tolerance is broken with subsequent possible sensitization to antigens, which can lead eventually to allergic responses. The present review aims to provide an overview of different aspects of immune modulation by dietary intervention in cow’s milk allergy (CMA). It focuses on pathogenetic mechanisms of different CMA related disorders, e.g., gastroesophageal reflux and eosinophilic esophagitis, highlighting the role of dietary management on innate and adaptive immune systems. The traditional dietary management of CMA has greatly changed in the last years, moving from a passive approach, consisting of an elimination diet to relieve symptoms, to a “proactive” one, meaning the possibility to actively modulate the immune system. Thus, new insights into the role of hydrolysates and baked milk in immunomodulation are addressed here. Additionally, nutritional components, such as pre- and probiotics, may target the immune system via microbiota, offering a possible road map for new CMA prevention and treatment strategies.

Cow's Milk Protein Allergy in Infancy: A Risk Factor for Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders in Children?

The role and prevalence of cow's milk protein allergy (CMA) in functional gastrointestinal disorders remains unclear. The aim of this review is to update knowledge on the relationship between CMA and functional abdominal pain disorders (FAPDs) in children. Cochrane Database and Pubmed were searched from inception using general and specific terms for CMA and functional gastrointestinal disorders. CMA is reported as a predisposing or coexisting factor in a wide range of functional gastrointestinal disorders in infants and children. Pathogenesis of both conditions is complex and multiple mechanisms including dysmotility and hypersensitivity might contribute to the clinical manifestations. Data supporting the possible role of food allergies in the pathogenesis of FAPDs are limited. CMA may predispose to early life inflammation and visceral hypersensitivity, which in turn might manifest as FAPDs. The diagnosis of either CMA or FAPDs and distinction between them is challenging because of nonspecific and overlapping symptoms. Lack of accurate allergy tests in non-IgE (immunoglobulin E) mediated cases is also problematic. Oral food challenge, following an elimination diet, should be performed to diagnose a suspected non-IgE CMA allergy in children with FAPDs. In the management of FAPDs, an elimination diet should be considered for a limited period to verify if the symptoms improve or resolve.

Diagnosis and Management of Gastroesophageal Reflux in Preterm Infants

Gastroesophageal reflux (GER), generally defined as the passage of gastric contents into the esophagus, is an almost universal phenomenon in preterm infants. It is a common diagnosis in the NICU; however, there is large variation in its treatment across NICU sites. In this clinical report, the physiology, diagnosis, and symptomatology in preterm infants as well as currently used treatment strategies in the NICU are examined. Conservative measures to control reflux, such as left lateral body position, head elevation, and feeding regimen manipulation, have not been shown to reduce clinically assessed signs of GER in the preterm infant. In addition, preterm infants with clinically diagnosed GER are often treated with pharmacologic agents; however, a lack of evidence of efficacy together with emerging evidence of significant harm (particularly with gastric acid blockade) strongly suggest that these agents should be used sparingly, if at all, in preterm infants.

Gastro-oesophageal reflux: a mixed methods study of infants admitted to hospital in the first 12 months following birth in NSW (2000-2011)

BACKGROUND

Gastro-oesophageal reflux (GOR) is common in infants. When the condition causes pathological symptoms and/or complications it is considered gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD). It appears to be increasingly diagnosed and causes great distress in the first year of infancy. In New South Wales (NSW), residential parenting services support families with early parenting difficulties. These services report a large number of babies admitted with a label of GOR/GORD. The aim of this study was to explore the maternal and infant characteristics, obstetric interventions, and reasons for clinical reporting of GOR/GORD in NSW in the first 12 months following birth (2000-2011).

METHODS

A three phase, mixed method sequential design was used. Phase 1 included a linked data population based study (n = 869,188 admitted babies). Phase 2 included a random audit of 326 medical records from admissions to residential parenting centres in NSW (2013). Phase 3 included eight focus groups undertaken with 45 nurses and doctors working in residential parenting centres in NSW.

RESULTS

There were a total of 1,156,020 admissions recorded of babies in the first year following birth, with 11,513 containing a diagnostic code for GOR/GORD (1% of infants admitted to hospitals in the first 12 months following birth). Babies with GOR/GORD were also more likely to be admitted with other disorders such as feeding difficulties, sleep problems, and excessive crying. The mothers of babies admitted with a diagnostic code of GOR/GORD were more likely to be primiparous, Australian born, give birth in a private hospital and have: a psychiatric condition; a preterm or early term infant (37-or-38 weeks); a caesarean section; an admission of the baby to SCN/NICU; and a male infant. Thirty six percent of infants admitted to residential parenting centres in NSW had been given a diagnosis of GOR/GORD. Focus group data revealed two themes: "It is over diagnosed" and "A medical label is a quick fix, but what else could be going on?"

CONCLUSIONS

Mothers with a mental health disorder are nearly five times as likely to have a baby admitted with GOR/GORD in the first year after birth. We propose a new way of approaching the GOR/GORD issue that considers the impact of early birth (immaturity), disturbance of the microbiome (caesarean section) and mental health (maternal anxiety in particular).

The comparative analyses of different diagnostic approaches in detection of gastroesophageal reflux disease in children

Objectives

The aim of this study was to compare the different diagnostic approaches in detection of gastroesophageal reflux disease in children presented with symptoms suggesting gastroesophageal reflux disease.

Methods

The study design was cross sectional. The study retrospectively included all children who underwent combined multiple intraluminal impedance and pH (pH-MII) monitoring due to gastrointestinal and/or extraesophageal symptoms suggesting gastroesophageal reflux disease at University Children's Hospital in Belgrade, from July 2012 to July 2016.

Results

A total of 218 (117 boys/101 girls), mean age 6.7 years (range 0.06–18.0 years), met the inclusion criteria. Gastroesophageal reflux disease was found in 128 of 218 children (57.4%) by pH-MII and in 76 (34.1%) children by pH metry alone. Using pH-MII monitoring as gold standard, sensitivity of pH-metry was lowest in infants (22.9%), with tendency to increase in older age groups (reaching 76.4% in children ≥ 9 years). The sensitivity of pH-metry alone in children with extraesophageal symptoms was 38.1%, while the sensitivity of pH-metry in children with gastrointestinal symptoms was 63.8%. Reflux esophagitis was identified in 31 (26.1%) of 119 children who underwent endoscopy. Logistic regression analysis showed that best predictors of endoscopic reflux esophagitis are the longest acid episode (OR = 1.52, p<0.05) and DeMeester reflux composite score (OR = 3.31, p<0.05). The significant cutoff values included DeMeester reflux composite score ≥ 29 (AUC 0.786, CI 0.695–0.877, p<0.01) and duration of longest acid reflux ≥ 18 minutes (AUC 0.784, CI 0.692–0.875, p<0.01).

Conclusions

The results of our study suggested that compared with pH-metry alone, pH-MII had significantly higher detection rate of gastroesophageal reflux disease, especially in infants. Our findings also showed that pH-MII parameters correlated significantly with the endoscopically confirmed erosive esophagitis.

Signs and symptoms associated with digestive tract development

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the development and prevalence of gastrointestinal signs and symptoms associated with the development of the digestive tract, and to assess the measures aimed to reduce their negative impacts.

SOURCE OF DATA

Considering the scope and comprehensiveness of the subject, a systematic review of the literature was not carried out. The Medline database was used to identify references that would allow the analysis of the study topics.

SYNTHESIS OF RESULTS

Infants frequently show several gastrointestinal signs and symptoms. These clinical manifestations can be part of gastrointestinal functional disorders such as infantile colic, infant regurgitation, and functional constipation. Allergy to cow's milk protein and gastroesophageal reflux disease are also causes of these clinical manifestations and represent an important and difficult differential diagnosis. The diseases that course with gastrointestinal signs and symptoms can have an impact on family dynamics and maternal emotional status, and may be associated with future problems in the child's life. Comprehensive pediatric care is essential for diagnosis and treatment. Maternal breastfeeding should always be maintained. Some special formulas can contribute to the control of clinical manifestations depending on the established diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

During the normal development of the digestive tract, several gastrointestinal signs and symptoms may occur, usually resulting from functional gastrointestinal disorders, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and allergy to cow's milk protein. Breastfeeding should always be maintained.

Food allergy in children with refractory gastroesophageal reflux disease

BACKGROUND

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and food allergy are frequent disorders of childhood. The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of food allergy in children with refractory GERD.

METHODS

A total of 151 children resistant to pharmacologic GERD treatment underwent skin prick test, specific immunoglobulin E, eosinophil count, atopy patch test (APT), and oral food challenge, and were then divided into three groups according to the results of oral milk challenge and allergy work-up: group A1, positive oral milk challenge and positive IgE-mediated allergy test; group A2, positive milk challenge and negative IgE-mediated allergy test; and group B, negative oral milk challenge and negative allergy tests.

RESULTS

There were 35, 30 and 86 patients in group A1, group A2 and group B, respectively. A total of 28 of 35 patients in group A1 had cow's milk allergy and the other seven patients had egg allergy. APT positivity was more common in group A2. Endoscopic esophagitis was observed in six group A1 patients and in four group A2 patients. Bloody stools, atopic dermatitis and recurrent wheezing episodes were significantly more common in group A1 than in group A2 and group B (P < 0.001, for both).

CONCLUSION

Cow's milk allergy was observed frequently in children resistant to pharmacologic GERD treatment. Combined skin prick and specific IgE tests, APT and oral food challenge is essential for avoidance of unnecessary elimination diet.

Síntomas gastrointestinales en pediatría ¿conducen siempre al verdadero diagnóstico?

<p>Antecedentes. Los síntomas gastrointestinales son motivo frecuente de consulta pediátrica. Escasos estudios abordan la relación entre motivos de consulta (MC) y enfermedades gastrointestinales. Objetivos. Relacionar motivos de consulta con diagnósticos gastrointestinales definitivos (DGID) en pacientes pediátricos que acuden a una unidad de gastroenterología. Materiales y métodos. Estudio retrospectivo realizado entre enero del 2009 y diciembre del 2013. Se evaluó la relación entre los 10 principales MC con sus cinco primeros DGID bajo la prueba de ji cuadrado y la prueba exacta de Fisher. Resultados. Se reunieron 1171 pacientes. Los tres principales MC fueron dolor abdominal (DA) (12,3%), estreñimiento (12,1%) y reflujo gastroesofágico (8,4%). El Estreñimiento crónico funcional (ECF) (33,9%), la alergia alimentaria (AA), (17,3%) y la sospecha de AA (6,2%) constituyeron cerca del 50% de los DGID. El dolor abdominal, como motivo de consulta, se asoció con el diagnóstico de ECF, enfermedad ácido péptica (EAP) y AA; mientras que el estreñimiento como motivo de consulta se asoció con el diagnóstico de ECF, AA, sospecha AA e inercia colónica. Conclusión. El estreñimiento se ubica entre los primeros motivos de consulta y es el primer diagnóstico gastrointestinal directo con una asociación significativa entre ambos. Los profesionales de la salud deben estar atentos para detectar y diagnosticar esta entidad.</p>

Position document: IgE-mediated cow's milk allergy

The present document offers an update on the recommendations for managing patients with cow's milk allergy - a disorder that manifests in the first year of life, with an estimated prevalence of 1.6-3% in this paediatric age group. The main causal allergens are the caseins and proteins in lactoserum (beta-lactoglobulin, alpha-lactoalbumin), and the clinical manifestations are highly variable in terms of their presentation and severity. Most allergic reactions affect the skin, followed by the gastrointestinal and respiratory systems, and severe anaphylaxis may occur. The diagnosis of cow's milk allergy is based on the existence of a suggestive clinical history, a positive allergy study and the subsequent application of controlled exposure testing, which constitutes the gold standard for confirming the diagnosis. The most efficient treatment for cow's milk allergy is an elimination diet and the use of adequate substitution formulas. The elimination diet must include milk from other mammals (e.g., sheep, goat, etc.) due to the risk of cross-reactivity with the proteins of cow's milk. Most infants with IgE-mediated cow's milk allergy become tolerant in the first few years of life. In those cases where cow's milk allergy persists, novel treatment options may include oral immunotherapy, although most authors do not currently recommend this technique in routine clinical practice. Enough evidence is not there to confirm the efficacy of elimination diets in the mother and infant for preventing the appearance of cow's milk allergy. Likewise, no benefits have been observed with prebiotic and probiotic dietetic supplements in infants for preventing food allergy.

Review article: the diagnosis and management of food allergy and food intolerances

BACKGROUND

Adverse reactions to food include immune mediated food allergies and non-immune mediated food intolerances. Food allergies and intolerances are often confused by health professionals, patients and the public.

AIM

To critically review the data relating to diagnosis and management of food allergy and food intolerance in adults and children.

METHODS

MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Cochrane Database were searched up until May 2014, using search terms related to food allergy and intolerance.

RESULTS

An estimated one-fifth of the population believe that they have adverse reactions to food. Estimates of true IgE-mediated food allergy vary, but in some countries it may be as prevalent as 4-7% of preschool children. The most common food allergens are cow's milk, egg, peanut, tree nuts, soy, shellfish and finned fish. Reactions vary from urticaria to anaphylaxis and death. Tolerance for many foods including milk and egg develops with age, but is far less likely with peanut allergy. Estimates of IgE-mediated food allergy in adults are closer to 1-2%. Non-IgE-mediated food allergies such as Food Protein-Induced Enterocolitis Syndrome are rarer and predominantly recognised in childhood. Eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders including eosinophilic oesophagitis are mixed IgE- and non-IgE-mediated food allergic conditions, and are improved by dietary exclusions. By contrast food intolerances are nonspecific, and the resultant symptoms resemble other common medically unexplained complaints, often overlapping with symptoms found in functional disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome. Improved dietary treatments for the irritable bowel syndrome have recently been described.

CONCLUSIONS

Food allergies are more common in children, can be life-threatening and are distinct from food intolerances. Food intolerances may pose little risk but since functional disorders are so prevalent, greater efforts to understand adverse effects of foods in functional disorders are warranted.

Clinical spectrum of food allergies: a comprehensive review

Food allergy is defined as an adverse immune response towards food proteins or as a form of a food intolerance associated with a hypersensitive immune response. It should also be reproducible by a double-blind placebo-controlled food challenge. Many reported that food reactions are not allergic but are intolerances. Food allergy often presents to clinicians as a symptom complex. This review focuses on the clinical spectrum and manifestations of various forms of food allergies. According to clinical presentations and allergy testing, there are three types of food allergy: IgE mediated, mixed (IgE/Non-IgE), and non-IgE mediated (cellular, delayed type hypersensitivity). Recent advances in food allergy in early childhood have highlighted increasing recognition of a spectrum of delayed-onset non-IgE-mediated manifestation of food allergy. Common presentations of food allergy in infancy including atopic eczema, infantile colic, and gastroesophageal reflux. These clinical observations are frequently associated with food hypersensitivity and respond to dietary elimination. Non-IgE-mediated food allergy includes a wide range of diseases, from atopic dermatitis to food protein-induced enterocolitis and from eosinophilic esophagitis to celiac disease. The most common food allergies in children include milk, egg, soy, wheat, peanut, treenut, fish, and shellfish. Milk and egg allergies are usually outgrown, but peanut and treenut allergy tends to persist. The prevalence of food allergy in infancy is increasing and may affect up to 15-20 % of infants. The alarming rate of increase calls for a public health approach in the prevention and treatment of food allergy in children.

Prevalence and determinants of gastroesophageal reflux symptoms in adolescents

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is common in adults, and there are increasing secular trends in adult GERD morbidity in many countries. However, population-based study on adolescent GERD was very limited. The specific aims of the study were to explore the prevalence and determinant of GERD symptoms in adolescents.

METHODS

A population-based association study was performed on 1828 students aged 13-16 years from four public junior high schools in Taiwan. The presences of symptoms of GERD, asthma and food allergy, demographic characteristics, and health behaviors were obtained by structured questionnaires.

RESULTS

Complete information of symptoms of GERD and asthma were available for 1745 (95.5%) students. The cumulative and 3-month prevalence rates of GERD symptoms were 20.5% and 8.9%, respectively. Multivariate-adjusted odds ratio of having experienced GERD symptoms were 1.53 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.18-1.98) for ever smoking, 1.52 (95% CI: 1.12-2.26) for bi-ethnicity, 1.70 (95% CI: 1.26-2.29) for food allergy, and 3.59 (95% CI: 2.69-4.82) and 2.43 (95% CI: 1.67-3.53) for having asthma attacks within or more than 1 year before, respectively. Similar results were found for 3-month prevalence.

CONCLUSIONS

The study showed that GERD symptoms were frequent in junior high school students in Taiwan. Food allergy, asthma, and cigarette smoking were independently correlated with the prevalence of GERD symptoms. Psychosocial factors associated with bi-ethnic family may contribute to its development.

[24-h intraesophageal pH determination in children allergic to cow's milk protein at a tertiary care hospital]

BACKGROUND

Cow's milk protein allergy (CMPA) is being seen more frequently on a daily basis in pediatric consultations. It shares symptoms with gastroesophageal reflux (GER), which can complicate the differential diagnosis.

AIMS

To attempt to corroborate the presence of acid GER in children with CMPA, as well as to find a characteristic profile through the 24-hour pH monitoring study in children with GER and CMPA METHODS: The intraesophageal pH monitoring studies performed on 47 children with CMPA were reviewed. The measurements in all the studies were carried out within a 24-hour period using Digitrapper® equipment with a multi-use GeroFlex® catheter, after calibration with pH 7 and pH 1 buffer solutions.

RESULTS

Of the 47 children, 23 were boys (32.4%) and 24 were girls (33.8%) and the mean age was 5±3.7 years. Fourteen of the 47 children (29%) presented with GER, according to the result of the 24-hour intraesophageal measurement. Only 2 of the 47 patients studied fit the phasic profile.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings show the existing relation between the two pathologies. Nevertheless, it is important to determine the presence of non-acid or weak acid reflux, because their existence can increase this association.

Regurgitation and gastroesophageal reflux disease in six to nine months old indonesian infants

PURPOSE

Regurgitation is known to peak at the age of 3-4 months, with a sharp decrease around the age of 6 months. Little is known about the natural evolution of infants who still regurgitate after the age of 6 months.

METHODS

Hundred thirty-one infants older than 6 months regurgitating more than once a day were followed for a period of 3 months.

RESULTS

According to our data, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is seldom at this age. Most of the infants regurgitated 3 or more times/day and spit up an estimated volume of more than 15 mL. Eighty-five parents were educated regarding frequency of feeding. There were only 6 infants that still had frequent regurgitation (>3 times/day) despite an appropriate feeding schedule. The Infant GER Questionnaire score reached a score of 0 in 50% of the infants after one month of follow-up and in 81.9% at the third month of follow-up. There was an increase of the "weight for age z-score" trends in infants that still regurgitated at the end of follow-up and a declining z-score in infants that no longer regurgitated. An explanation may be that infants that regurgitate drink larger volumes than infants who do not regurgitate. Conservative treatment (reassurance, dietary treatment, behavioral advice) resulted in a significant better outcome than natural evolution.

CONCLUSION

Regurgitation that persisted after the age of 6 months, strongly decreased during a 3-month follow-up with conservative treatment. GERD is rare in this age group; therefore, anti-reflux medication is only seldom needed.

Nonpharmacological management of gastroesophageal reflux in preterm infants

Gastroesophageal reflux (GOR) is very common among preterm infants, due to several physiological mechanisms. Although GOR should not be usually considered a pathological condition, its therapeutic management still represents a controversial issue among neonatologists; pharmacological overtreatment, often unuseful and potentially harmful, is increasingly widespread. Hence, a stepwise approach, firstly promoting conservative strategies such as body positioning, milk thickening, or changes of feeding modalities, should be considered the most advisable choice in preterm infants with GOR. This review focuses on the conservative management of GOR in the preterm population, aiming to provide a complete overview, based on currently available evidence, on potential benefits and adverse effects of nonpharmacological measures. Nonpharmacological management of GOR might represent a useful tool for neonatologists to reduce the use of antireflux medications, which should be limited to selected cases of symptomatic babies.

Neonatal eosinophilic gastroenteritis: possible in utero sensitization to cow's milk protein

Rectal bleeding in neonates is an alarming sign that suggests a possible serious underlying condition, such as infection or bleeding disorder that would necessitate hospitalization and prompt intervention. We report a case of eosinophilic gastroenteritis caused by cow's milk protein allergy in a one-day- old infant, who presented with frankly bloody stools associated with massive gastrointestinal and peripheral blood eosinophilia prior to initiation of enteral feedings. The patient's outcome was favorable, with complete spontaneous recovery in one week, after a period of bowel rest, parenteral nutrition, and use of amino acid formula. The eosinophilia was also transient and gradually resolving by two months of age. Rectal bleeding secondary to allergic colitis caused by cow's milk sensitization may occur in neonates, and failure to appreciate this possibility may lead to inappropriate diagnostic or therapeutic intervention.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease in neonates and infants : when and how to treat

Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is defined as the involuntary retrograde passage of gastric contents into the esophagus with or without regurgitation or vomiting. It is a frequently experienced physiologic condition occurring several times a day, mostly postprandial and causes no symptoms. These infants are also called 'happy spitters'. GER disease (GERD) occurs when reflux of the gastric contents causes symptoms that affect the quality of life or pathologic complications, such as failure to thrive, feeding or sleeping problems, chronic respiratory disorders, esophagitis, hematemesis, apnea, and apparent life-threatening events. About 70-85 % of infants have regurgitation within the first 2 months of life, and this resolves without intervention in 95 % of infants by 1 year of age. The predominant mechanism causing GERD is transient lower esophageal sphincter (LES) relaxation, which is defined as an abrupt decrease in LES pressure to the level of intragastric pressure, unrelated to swallowing and of relatively longer duration than the relaxation triggered by a swallow. Regurgitation and vomiting are the most common symptoms of infant reflux. A thorough history and physical examination with attention to warning signals suggesting other causes is generally sufficient to establish a clinical diagnosis of uncomplicated infant GER. Choking, gagging, coughing with feedings or significant irritability can be warning signs for GERD or other diagnoses. If there is forceful vomiting, laboratory and radiographic investigation (upper gastrointestinal series) are warranted to exclude other causes of vomiting. Irritability coupled with back arching in infants is thought to be a non-verbal equivalent of heartburn in older children. Other causes of irritability, including cow's milk protein allergy, neurologic disorders, constipation and infection, should be ruled out. The presentation of cow's milk protein allergy overlaps with GERD, and both conditions may co-exist in 42-58 % of infants. In these infants, symptoms decrease significantly within 2-4 weeks after elimination of cow's milk protein from the diet. For non-complicated reflux, no intervention is required for most infants. Effective parental reassurance and education regarding regurgitation and lifestyle changes are usually sufficient to manage infant reflux. Sandifer syndrome, apnea and apparent life-threatening events are the extraesophageal manifestations of GERD in infants. Pharmacotherapeutic agents used to treat GERD encompass antisecretory agents, antacids, surface barrier agents and prokinetics. Currently, North American Society for Pediatric Gasroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) practice guidelines concluded that there is insufficient evidence to justify the routine use of prokinetic agents. Esomeprazole (Nexium) is now approved in the US for short-term treatment of GERD with erosive esophagitis in infants aged from 1 to 12 months. Although Nissen fundoplication is now well established as a treatment option in selected cases of GERD in children, its role in neonates and young infants is unclear and is only reserved for selective infants who did not respond to medical therapy and have life-threatening complications of GERD.

Cow's milk challenge increases weakly acidic reflux in children with cow's milk allergy and gastroesophageal reflux disease

OBJECTIVE

To assess and compare the pattern of reflux in a selected population of infants with cow's milk (CM) allergy (CMA) and suspected gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) while on dietary exclusion and following challenge with CM.

STUDY DESIGN

Seventeen children (median age: 14 months) with a proven diagnosis of CMA and suspected GERD underwent 48-hour multichannel intraluminal impedance-pH monitoring. For the first 24 hours, the infants were kept on amino acid-based formula, and for the subsequent 24 hours, they were challenged with CM.

RESULTS

The total reflux episodes and the number of weakly acidic episodes were higher during CM challenge compared with the amino acid-based formula period [total reflux episodes: 105 (58-127.5) vs 65 (39-87.5), P < .001; weakly acidic episodes: 53 (38.5-60.5) vs 19 (13-26.5), P < .001; median (25th-75th)]. No differences were found for either acid or weakly alkaline episodes (not significant). The number of weakly acidic episodes reaching the proximal, mid, and distal esophagus was higher during CM challenge (P < .001). No differences were found in either acid exposure time or number of long-lasting episodes (not significant).

CONCLUSIONS

In children with CMA and suspected GERD, CM exposure increases the number of weakly acidic reflux episodes. CM challenge during 48-hour multichannel intraluminal impedance-pH monitoring identifies a subgroup of patients with allergen-induced reflux, and in selected cases of children with CMA in whom GERD is suspected, its use could be considered as part of diagnostic work-up.

Serum gastrin concentrations in children with primary gastroesophageal reflux and gastroesophageal reflux secondary to cow's milk allergy

PURPOSE

The assessment of the serum gastrin concentrations and the role of enterohormone in children with primary acid gastroesophageal reflux (GER) and GER secondary to cow's milk allergy (CMA).

MATERIALS/METHODS

138 children were diagnosed with pathological acid GER on the basis of pH-metric examination. 76 (28.8%) patients had primary GER and 62 (23.5%) patients had GER secondary to CMA.Serum gastrin concentration (fasting and postprandial) was assessed before treatment and 1 and 2 years after initiation of the therapy.

RESULTS

The children with primary GER had the fasting gastrin concentration 69.46 ± 11.87 μU/ml before treatment, 77.86 ± 26.35 μU/ml after 1 year and 83.78 ± 25.21 μU/ml after 2 years of treatment. The children with GER secondary to CMA had gastrin concentrations 89.61 ± 26.75, 73.17 ± 19.49 and 73.90 ± 20.31 μU/ml respectively. The mean postprandial gastrin concentration after treatment was higher than before treatment in children with both primary and secondary GER. The primary GER group had postprandial gastrin concentration 96.07 ± 33.51 μU/ml before treatment and 116.06 ± 33.95 μU/ml and 118.48 ± 33.96 μU/ml after 1st and 2nd year of therapy respectively. The secondary GER group had postprandial gastrin concentration 85.33 ± 14.12 μU/ml before treatment and 106.55 ± 24.51 μU/ml and 110.36 ± 24.67 μU/ml after 1st and 2nd year of therapy respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The mean fasting serum gastrin concentrations in patients with primary and secondary GER were similar and mean postprandial concentrations were higher than fasting concentrations in both study groups.

Milk and soy allergy

Cow's milk allergy (CMA) affects 2% to 3% of young children and presents with a wide range of IgE and non-IgE-mediated clinical syndromes, which have a significant economic and lifestyle effect. It is logical that a review of CMA would be linked to a review of soy allergy because soy formula is often an alternative source of nutrition for infants who do not tolerate cow's milk. This review examines the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, natural history, and diagnosis of cow's milk and soy allergy. Cross-reactivity and management of milk allergy are also discussed.

Gastro-esophageal reflux in early childhood wheezers

Wheezing is common among infants and young children due to peculiar anatomical and physiological properties of their lungs. Gastro-oesophageal reflux (GER) has been incriminated as one of the cause of non-asthmatic wheezing in this age group. The present study evaluates the magnitude of GER and its causal relationship with wheezing in early childhood. All recurrent and persistent wheezers (under two years) were investigated for GER and treated medically where tests were positive. The subjects were further profiled to identify any predictors for GER. Sixty-seven children of less than 2 years age with recurrent or persistent wheezing were evaluated for GER. Mean age of the study subjects at enrolment was 10.8 months and at onset of wheezing was 7.1 (± 3.8 S.D) months. Asthma and wheeze associated lower respiratory tract infection (WALRI) was diagnosed in about 1/3 each of the patients studied. GER studies were positive in over one-third (25/67) of cases. Forty-two percent of children who wheezed by 1 year of age had a positive GER study. Interestingly, nearly half (12/25) of the patients with an abnormal study did not have any clinical suggestion of regurgitation ("silent" GERs). The severity of wheezing was higher among those who had GER versus those who did not (p ≤ 0.048; OR: 3.2). However, only 32% patients showed significant response to anti reflux treatment alone while others had partial response. GER, therefore, is an important cause for recurrent wheezing among children less than 2 years of age, either singularly or as a co-morbidity. The study findings justify investigations for GER among early wheezers; particularly for those who have onset of symptoms by 12 months of age or those who have severe disease.

Histological evaluation of esophageal mucosa in children with acid gastroesophageal reflux

AIM

histological evaluation of esophageal mucosa in children, with regard to the duration of primary acid gastroesophageal reflux (GER) and acid GER secondary to cow's milk allergy and/or other food allergy (CMA/FA) (prospective study).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

264 children of both sexes suspected of GER were enrolled in the study. The age of examined children was 1.5-102 months, mean age 20.78+/-17.23 months. Pathological acid GER was confirmed with pH-monitoring in 138 children (52.3%). Taking into consideration complex differential diagnosis, including oral food challenge test with potentially noxious nutrient (open or blind study), children were assigned into study groups 1 and 2 (primary and secondary GER). Group 1: 76 patients (28.8%) aged 4-102 months (x=25.2+/-27.28 months) with primary GER. Group 2: 62 patients (23.5%) aged 4-74 months (x=21.53+/-17.79 months) with GER secondary to CMA/FA. Children with GERD underwent preliminary and control (after 1 year and 2 years of GERD diagnosis) endoscopic examination of the upper gastroinestinal tract.

RESULTS

Intensity of esophagitis was assessed initially in 25 children from group 1 (32.9%), in 29 children from group 2 (46.8%), and in 9 children from group 3 - reference group (28.1%). Histological evaluation revealed infiltration of inflammatory cells, mainly neutrophils and intraepithelial lymphocytes, and also eosinophils in 10 children (13.2%) with primary GER. Infiltration of eosinophils and lymphocytes was found in 5 children (8.1%) with secondary GER. In 8 children (25.0%) with food allergy there were only lymphocytes. Infiltration of neutrophils and lymphocytes and basal zone hyperplasia or infiltration of eosinophils and lymphocytes with elongation of lamina propria papillae was found in 10 children (13.1%) with primary GER and in 20 children (32.2%) with secondary GER. Differentiation of particular types of inflammatory cells in mucosal infiltration characterized histological picture in the following way: neutrophils in 21 children (27.6%) with primary GER, eosinophils in 22 children (35.5%) with secondary GER, lymphocytes in 15 children (19.7%) in children with primary GER and in 15 children (24.2%) with secondary GER. Histological examination of esophageal mucosa after 1 and 2 years of clinical observation and periodical conservative treatment in children with primary and secondary GER revealed significant alleviation of inflammatory abnormalities (with regard to the type of abnormalities and the number of particular types of inflammatory cells).

CONCLUSIONS

The value of histological findings obtained in own studies comprises the role of food allergy in pathogenesis of GER and is related to GER's contribution, both direct (primary reflux) and indirect (secondary reflux), to triggering off morphological results and clinical outcomes of esophagitis.

Relationship between silent gastroesophageal reflux and food sensitization in infants and young children with recurrent wheezing

It is known that early childhood wheezing associated with sensitization to allergens, including food, has an increased risk of developing asthma later during school age. Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is well known to be associated with asthma. The purpose of this study was to determine whether there is an association between silent GER and food sensitization in infants and young children with recurrent wheezing. Eighty-five infants or young children with recurrent wheezing, and no gastrointestinal symptoms, underwent 24 hr esophageal pH monitoring, as well as total serum IgE and specific IgE testing for eggs and milk. Among the 85 subjects, 48.2% had significant GER. There was no significant difference in the GER between atopic and non-atopic recurrent wheezers (41.7% and 50.8%, respectively). The sensitization rate to food (eggs or milk) was 12.2% and 20.5% in the GER and non-GER groups, respectively and showed no statistically significant difference between the two groups (P=0.34). In conclusion, about half of infants and young children with recurrent wheezing and no gastrointestinal symptoms have silent GER. The silent GER may not contribute to food sensitization in infants and young children with recurrent wheezing.

Cow's milk protein allergy in children: a practical guide

A joint study group on cow's milk allergy was convened by the Emilia-Romagna Working Group for Paediatric Allergy and by the Emilia-Romagna Working Group for Paediatric Gastroenterology to focus best practice for diagnosis, management and follow-up of cow's milk allergy in children and to offer a common approach for allergologists, gastroenterologists, general paediatricians and primary care physicians.

The report prepared by the study group was discussed by members of Working Groups who met three times in Italy. This guide is the result of a consensus reached in the following areas. Cow's milk allergy should be suspected in children who have immediate symptoms such as acute urticaria/angioedema, wheezing, rhinitis, dry cough, vomiting, laryngeal edema, acute asthma with severe respiratory distress, anaphylaxis. Late reactions due to cow's milk allergy are atopic dermatitis, chronic diarrhoea, blood in the stools, iron deficiency anaemia, gastroesophageal reflux disease, constipation, chronic vomiting, colic, poor growth (food refusal), enterocolitis syndrome, protein-losing enteropathy with hypoalbuminemia, eosinophilic oesophagogastroenteropathy. An overview of acceptable means for diagnosis is included. According to symptoms and infant diet, three different algorithms for diagnosis and follow-up have been suggested.

Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN)

OBJECTIVE

To develop a North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) international consensus on the diagnosis and management of gastroesophageal reflux and gastroesophageal reflux disease in the pediatric population.

METHODS

An international panel of 9 pediatric gastroenterologists and 2 epidemiologists were selected by both societies, which developed these guidelines based on the Delphi principle. Statements were based on systematic literature searches using the best-available evidence from PubMed, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, and bibliographies. The committee convened in face-to-face meetings 3 times. Consensus was achieved for all recommendations through nominal group technique, a structured, quantitative method. Articles were evaluated using the Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine Levels of Evidence. Using the Oxford Grades of Recommendation, the quality of evidence of each of the recommendations made by the committee was determined and is summarized in appendices.

RESULTS

More than 600 articles were reviewed for this work. The document provides evidence-based guidelines for the diagnosis and management of gastroesophageal reflux and gastroesophageal reflux disease in the pediatric population.

CONCLUSIONS

This document is intended to be used in daily practice for the development of future clinical practice guidelines and as a basis for clinical trials.

Natural evolution of regurgitation in healthy infants

OBJECTIVES

To determine the natural history of infant regurgitation during the first year of life.

METHODS

Parents recorded prospectively the frequency of regurgitation for 1 week before consultation during the first year of life. A sub-group analysis according to the method of feeding was planned.

RESULTS

A total of 130 infants of an original sample of 163 (80%) newborns were followed up for 1 year. Daily spilling was highest during the first month of life (73%) and decreased gradually to 50% during the fifth month of life. During the first 2 months of life, 20% of the infants regurgitated more than four times per day. After the age of 12 months, only 4% of the infants had daily regurgitations. Exclusively breastfed infants did regurgitate less than partially breastfed infants. Weight gain was influenced by the frequency of regurgitation, especially in partially breastfed infants.

CONCLUSION

Regurgitation in infancy is common, decreasing from birth, and tends to disappear by 12 months of age. Weight gain during the first 4 months of life is decreased in infants who regurgitate more than four times a day. Our data suggest that exclusively breastfed infants regurgitate less than partially breastfed babies.

Acid gastroesophageal reflux and intensity of symptoms in children with gastroesophageal reflux disease. Comparison of primary gastroesophageal reflux and gastroesophageal reflux secondary to food allergy

The ability to differentiate between primary and secondary causes of gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is extremely important during the diagnostic procedure. At the same time, the quality of symptoms and the intensity of the course of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) should be estimated. Acid GER is assessed using 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring; the results of this diagnostic test should always be interpreted alongside the clinical picture.

PURPOSE

To establish the interdependence between the intensity of the clinical symptoms and the acid reflux index in children with primary GER and GER secondary to cow's milk protein allergy (CMA) and/or other food allergies (FA).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 138 children of various ages with symptoms of GERD were included in the study. The diagnostic procedure included 24-hour pH monitoring of the esophagus with a 2-channel probe (distal and proximal lead). For this purpose, ESPGAN diagnostic criteria were implemented. The type and intensity of typical manifestations of GERD were assessed with the help of our own scoring system. This diagnostic and therapeutic algorithm which includes an oral food challenge test, was applied to 138 children in order to differentiate primary GER from GER secondary to CMA/FA.

RESULTS

Primary GERD was diagnosed in 76 patients (55.1%) with a mean age: x=25.20 months+/-27.28 (group 1) and GERD secondary to CMA/FA was confirmed in 62 children (44.9%) with a mean age: x=21.53 months+/-17.79 (group 2). The most important pH-metric parameter analyzed in study groups 1 and 2 was the GER index: total and supine. An assessment of the intensity of symptoms and a comparative analysis of intensity was evaluated against the GER index: total and supine. Among study group 1, the following gradation of symptoms was found: in 31 children (40.8%)-degree 3, in 33 children (43.4%)-degree 4, and in 12 children (15.8%)-degree 5, whereas among the patients in group 2:25 (40.3%) were in degree 3, 27 (43.6%) were in degree 4, and 10 (16.1%) were in degree 5. It was estimated that the higher the GER result in both total and supine positions (for both leads), the higher the level of symptoms noted. This interdependence was demonstrated for both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

In seeking to determine any etiopathogenetic connection between primary GER or GER secondary to CMA/FA and their clinical consequences, 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring with a 2-channel probe is recommended, since it provides for better clinical control of GERD and its appropriate treatment.

Manometric study of lower esophageal sphincter in children with primary acid gastroesophageal reflux and acid gastroesophageal reflux secondary to food allergy

PURPOSE

The comparison of values of selected lower esophageal sphincter (LES) manometric parameters measured in children suspected of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) (preliminary study) and in children with primary acid GER and acid GER secondary to cow's milk allergy and/or other food (CMA/FA) in relation to the duration of the disease (prospective study).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring was performed on 264 children of both sexes suspected of GERD (mean age x=20.78+/-17.23 months). Pathological acid gastroesophageal reflux (GER) was diagnosed and divided into primary and secondary reflux in 138 children (52.3%). 76 patients (28.8%) (x=25.2+/-27.28 months) with primary GER made up Group 1. Group 2 consisted of 62 patients (23.5%) (x=21.53+/-17.79 months) with GER secondary to CMA/FA. 32 patients (12.1%) (x=23.7+/-12.63 months) with CMA/FA symptoms made up Group 3 (reference group). Prospective assessment of LES manometric parameters, i.e. resting LES pressure and LES length, was performed on 138 children with GER. Manometric parameters, resting LES pressure and LES length, measured at the preliminary study (0) and control studies (after 1, 2 and 8 years), were prospectively assessed in 138 children. The assessment resulted from clinical observation and/or conservative treatment.

RESULTS

The mean value of resting LES pressure (mm Hg) before treatment was x=11.75+/-3.98 in Group 1, x=11.05+/-3.31 in Group 2, and x=14.17+/-3.86 in Group 3 (reference group). After 2 years of clinical observation, the mean value of resting LES pressure accounted for x=13.71+/-3.88 in Group 1, x=13.01+/-2.94 in Group 2, and x=17.92+/-3.36 in Group 3. The mean LES length (cm) before treatment accounted for x=1.68+/-0.72 in Group 1, x=1.78+/-0.70 in Group 2, and x=2.0+/-0.86 in Group 3. After 2 years of clinical observation, the mean LES length was x=2.80+/-0.40 in Group 1, x=2.76+/-0.40 in Group 2, and x=2.97+/-0.48 in Group 3. 12 children with persistent GERD (Group 1) and 8 children with persistent GERD and food allergy (Group 2) underwent manometric evaluation of LES after 8 years. No statistical differentiation of the mean values of resting LES pressure and LES length were shown in examined children of Groups 1 and 2 during prospective studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Manometric studies of LES assessing only resting LES pressure and its length in the examined children with acid GER do not clearly differentiate GER into primary and secondary refluxes to food allergy.

Allergic gastrointestinal motility disorders in infancy and early childhood

Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease, constipation and colic are among the most common disorders in infancy and early childhood. In at least a subset of infants with these functional disorders, improvement after dietary elimination of specific food proteins has been demonstrated. Gastrointestinal food allergy should therefore be considered in the differential diagnosis of infants presenting with persistent regurgitation, constipation or irritable behaviour, particularly if conventional treatment has not been beneficial. The diagnosis of food protein-induced gastrointestinal motility disorders is hampered by the absence of specific clinical features or useful laboratory markers. Gastrointestinal biopsies before commencing a hypoallergenic diet may provide the most important diagnostic clues. Early recognition is essential for the optimal management of these patients to prevent nutritional sequelae or aversive feeding behaviours. Treatment relies on hypoallergenic formulae, as well as maternal elimination diets in breast-fed infants. Further research is required to better define the pathological mechanisms and diagnostic markers of paediatric allergic gastrointestinal motility disorders. The following article will present three instructive cases followed by discussion of the clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment and natural history of food allergic motility disorders in infancy and early childhood.

24-hour esophageal pH-monitoring in children suspected of gastroesophageal reflux disease: Analysis of intraesophageal pH monitoring values recorded in distal and proximal channel at diagnosis

AIM: To assess values of 24-h esophageal pH-monitoring parameters with dual-channel probe (distal and proximal channel) in children suspected of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

METHODS: 264 children suspected of gastroesophageal reflux (GER) were enrolled in a study (mean age χ = 20.78 ± 17.23 mo). The outcomes of this study, immunoallerrgological tests and positive result of oral food challenge test with a potentially noxious nutrient, enabled to qualify children into particular study groups.

RESULTS: 32 (12.1%) infants (group 1) had physiological GER diagnosed. Pathological acid GER was confirmed in 138 (52.3%) children. Primary GER was diagnosed in 76 (28.8%) children (group 2) and GER secondary to allergy to cow milk protein and/or other food (CMA/FA) in 62 (23.5%) children (group 3). 32 (12.1%) of them had CMA/FA (group 4-reference group), and in remaining 62 (23.5%) children neither GER nor CMA/FA was confirmed (group 5). Mean values of pH monitoring parameters measured in distal and proximal channel were analyzed in individual groups. This analysis showed statistically significant differentiation of mean values in the case of: number of episodes of acid GER, episodes of acid GER lasting > 5 min, duration of the longest episode of acid GER in both channels, acid GER index total and supine in proximal channel. Statistically significant differences of mean values among examined groups, especially between group 2 and 3 in the case of total acid GER index (only distal channel) were confirmed.

CONCLUSION: 24-h esophageal pH monitoring confirmed pathological acid GER in 52.3% of children with typical and atypical symptoms of GERD. The similar pH-monitoring values obtained in group 2 and 3 confirm the necessity of implementation of differential diagnosis for primary vs secondary cause of GER.