Anthropometric Charts for Infants Born Between 22 and 29 Weeks' Gestation

Racial and Ethnic Differences in Outcomes of Neonates Born at Less Than 30 Weeks' Gestation, 2018-2022

Importance

Previous research has examined outcomes among very preterm newborns by the birthing parent's race and ethnicity, but knowledge about these trends during the COVID-19 pandemic is limited.

Objective

To examine trends in outcomes among Black, Hispanic, and Asian preterm newborns compared with White preterm newborns.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study (2018-2022) took place at 774 neonatal intensive care units in the Vermont Oxford Network. Participants were newborns born at 22 to 29 weeks' gestation.

Exposure

Race and ethnicity.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The primary outcomes were mortality and complications, including respiratory distress syndrome, necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), early-onset sepsis, late-onset sepsis (LOS), severe intraventricular hemorrhage (sIVH), severe retinopathy of prematurity, chronic lung disease, pneumothorax, and complication-free survival.

Results

Among 90 336 newborns (47 215 male [52.3%]; 43 121 female [47.7%]; mean [SD] gestational age, 26.4 [2.1] weeks), 4734 (5.2%) were born to Asian, 20 345 (22.3%) to Hispanic, 31 264 (34.3%) to non-Hispanic Black, and 33 993 (37.3%) to non-Hispanic White birthing individuals. Rates of in-hospital mortality (4831 Black newborns [15.6%]; 3009 Hispanic newborns [14.9%]; and 4886 White newborns [14.4%]), NEC (2374 Black newborns [7.8%]; 1359 Hispanic newborns [6.9%]; and 2137 White newborns [6.5%]), LOS (3846 Black newborns [13.5%]; 2258 Hispanic newborns [12.3%]; and 3575 White newborns [11.5%]), and sIVH (2919 Black newborns [10.3%]; 1673 Hispanic newborns [9.2%]; and 2800 White newborns [9.1%]) were highest among Black and lowest among White newborns. Chronic lung disease and pneumothorax rates were lowest among Black and highest among White newborns. Over the study period, mortality rate differences were slightly higher for Black than White newborns, with no differences by 2022. NEC and LOS rates were consistently higher among Black than White newborns. By 2022, Black newborns had higher rates of NEC (rate difference, 1.3 percentage points; 95% CI, 0.46-2.2 percentage points) and LOS (rate difference, 2.7 percentage points; 95% CI, 1.4-4.0 percentage points). sIVH rates were higher for Black newborns in some years, whereas severe retinopathy of prematurity rates were lower. Hispanic newborns had mortality and complication rates similar to those of White newborns. Black and Hispanic newborns had lower respiratory complication rates and higher complication-free survival than White newborns.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this cohort study, there were no differences in mortality rates between Black and White newborns, but Black newborns had higher rates of NEC and LOS. Continued quality improvement and addressing social determinants of health are critical for promoting health equity in hospital outcomes and beyond.

Pharmacological tightrope: risperidone's balancing act in cri du chat syndrome

BACKGROUND

This case report describes an infrequent instance of risperidone-induced hyperprolactinemia in a 23-year-old nonverbal male with cri du chat syndrome.

CASE PRESENTATION

Risperidone, initially prescribed to manage aggressive behaviors, resulted in bilateral gynecomastia and hyperprolactinemia. Tapering of risperidone led to resolution of these symptoms but exposed a resurgence of excessive masturbation, a behavior previously suppressed by the medication. Reintroduction of risperidone controlled this behavior, suggesting its potential role in managing compulsive behaviors in this population.

CONCLUSION

This case underscores the complex interaction between pharmacological treatment and behavioral symptoms in neurodevelopmental disorders. It highlights the necessity for meticulous monitoring and individualized treatment approaches in managing such cases.

CASE PRESENTATION

Initially prescribed for managing aggressive behaviors, Risperidone led to bilateral gynecomastia and hyperprolactinemia in the patient. Gradual tapering of Risperidone alleviated these symptoms but unveiled a resurgence of excessive masturbation, a behavior previously suppressed by the medication. Reintroduction of Risperidone mitigated this behavior, suggesting its potential efficacy in managing compulsive tendencies in this demographic.

CONCLUSION

This case highlights the intricate interplay between pharmacological interventions and the complex behavioral manifestations of neurodevelopmental disorders. It underscores the importance of vigilant monitoring and personalized treatment strategies in such cases.

Differences When Classifying Small for Gestational Age Preterm Infants According to the Growth Chart Applied

OBJECTIVE

Consensus around the ideal chart to classify preterm babies is scant. It is particularly relevant in small for gestational age (SGA) infants due to its clinical and therapeutic implications. The aim of the study was to compare Olsen, Intergrowth-21st, and Fenton growth charts, regarding the classification at birth and incidence of SGA preterm infants.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective study of 529 preterm infants ≤ 32 weeks of gestational age. Birth weight Z-score was calculated applying the three growth charts and ponderal index (PI) was also estimated. Incidence of SGA (birth weight < 10th percentile) and clinical outcome were compared according to the chart used.

RESULTS

Incidence of SGA was significantly higher (p < 0.001) with Olsen (101 cases, 19.1%) compared with Intergrowth-21st (75 cases, 14.2%) and Fenton (53 cases, 10%). Differences were also found with PI of SGA preterm infants, as those infants classified by Olsen were mostly symmetric (PI > 10th percentile), while Fenton and Intergrowth-21st identified less symmetric SGA infants. Kappa concordance between Intergrowth-21st and Fenton was 0.805, Intergrowth-21st versus Olsen 0.824, and Fenton versus Olsen 0.641. No differences were observed on neonatal morbidities or mortality.

CONCLUSION

Significant differences were detected when classifying very preterm infants at birth according to the growth chart, mainly among symmetric SGA. Concordance between Fenton and Olsen was poor, but Intergrowth-21st showed high concordance with Fenton and Olsen. However, further research is needed to select the ideal chart. Variability in the population selected to create the curves and the accuracy dating the pregnancy are factors that may have explained differences.

KEY POINTS

· Very preterm infants are differently classified at birth with various growth charts.. · Higher incidence of small for gestational age infants with Olsen compared with Fenton or Intergrowth.. · Variability in population selection and accuracy in dating pregnancy may have explained differences..

Fitness of INTERGROWTH-21st birth weight standards for Chinese-ethnicity babies

OBJECTIVE

To determine the fitness of the INTERGROWTH-21st birth weight standards (INTERGROWTH21) for ethnic Chinese babies compared with a local reference (FOK2003).

DESIGN

Population-based analysis of territory-wide birth data.

SETTING

All public hospitals in Hong Kong.

PARTICIPANTS

Live births between 24 and 42 complete weeks' gestation during 2006-2017.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Babies' birth weight Z-scores were calculated using published methods. The two references were compared in three aspects: (1) the proportions of large-for-gestational-age (LGA) or small-for-gestational-age (SGA) infants, (2) the gestation-specific and sex-specific mean birth weight Z-scores and (3) the predictive power for SGA-related complications.

RESULTS

488 896 infants were included. Using INTERGROWTH21, among neonates born <33 weeks' gestation, the mean birth weight Z-scores per week were closer to zero (-0.2 to 0.05), while most of them were further from zero (0.06 to 0.34) after excluding infants with a high risk of abnormal intrauterine growth. Compared with FOK2003, INTERGROWTH21 classified smaller proportions of infants as SGA (8.3% vs 9.6%) and LGA (6.6% vs 7.9%), especially SGA among preterm infants (13.1% vs 17.0%). The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for predicting SGA-related complications was greater with FOK2003 (0.674, 95% CI 0.670 to 0.677) than INTERGROWTH21 (0.658, 95% CI 0.655 to 0.661) (p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

INTERGROWTH21 performed less well than FOK2003, a local reference for ethnic Chinese babies, especially in infants born <33 weeks' gestation. Although the differences are clinically small, both these references performed poorly for extremely preterm infants, and thus a more robust chart based on a larger sample of appropriately selected infants is needed.

From growth charts to growth status: how concepts of optimal growth and tempo influence the interpretation of growth measurements

Growth measurements are largely uninterpretable without comparison to a growth chart. Consequently, the characteristics of a growth chart become an integral component of the interpretation of growth measurements. The concepts of optimal growth and tempo are well recognised by auxologists, yet their implications for interpretation of growth measurements remain problematic. This narrative review discusses the concept of optimal growth and how it serves as a guiding principle in the development and use of growth charts. The challenges of operationalising tempo for growth assessment are also discussed. Illustrative examples highlight the importance of these two central concepts in the use and interpretation of growth measurements.

Newborn screen metabolic panels reflect the impact of common disorders of pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and maternal diabetes profoundly affect fetal and newborn growth, yet disturbances in intermediate metabolism and relevant mediators of fetal growth alterations remain poorly defined. We sought to determine whether there are distinct newborn screen metabolic patterns among newborns affected by maternal hypertensive disorders or diabetes in utero.

METHODS

A retrospective observational study investigating distinct newborn screen metabolites in conjunction with data linked to birth and hospitalization records in the state of California between 2005 and 2010.

RESULTS

A total of 41,333 maternal-infant dyads were included. Infants of diabetic mothers demonstrated associations with short-chain acylcarnitines and free carnitine. Infants born to mothers with preeclampsia with severe features and chronic hypertension with superimposed preeclampsia had alterations in acetylcarnitine, free carnitine, and ornithine levels. These results were further accentuated by size for gestational age designations.

CONCLUSIONS

Infants of diabetic mothers demonstrate metabolic signs of incomplete beta oxidation and altered lipid metabolism. Infants of mothers with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy carry analyte signals that may reflect oxidative stress via altered nitric oxide signaling. The newborn screen analyte composition is influenced by the presence of these maternal conditions and is further associated with the newborn size designation at birth.

IMPACT

Substantial differences in newborn screen analyte profiles were present based on the presence or absence of maternal diabetes or hypertensive disorder of pregnancy and this finding was further influenced by the newborn size designation at birth. The metabolic health of the newborn can be examined using the newborn screen and is heavily impacted by the condition of the mother during pregnancy. Utilizing the newborn screen to identify newborns affected by common conditions of pregnancy may help relate an infant's underlying biological disposition with their clinical phenotype allowing for greater risk stratification and intervention.

Establishing Postnatal Growth Monitoring Curves of Preterm Infants in China: Allowing for Continuous Use from 24 Weeks of Preterm Birth to 50 Weeks

Background: Early postnatal growth monitoring and nutrition assessment for preterm infants is a public health and clinical concern. We aimed to establish a set of postnatal growth monitoring curves of preterm infants to better help clinicians make in-hospital and post-discharge nutrition plan of these vulnerable infants. Methods: We collected weight, length and head circumference data from a nationwide survey in China between 2015 and 2018. Polynomial regression and the modified LMS methods were employed to construct the smoothed weight, length and head circumference growth curves. Results: We established the P₃, P₁₀, P₂₅, P₅₀, P₇₅, P₉₀, P₉₇ reference curves of weight, length and head circumference that allowed for continuous use from 24 weeks of preterm birth to 50 weeks and developed a set of user-friendly growth monitoring charts. We estimated approximate ranges of weight gain per day and length and head circumference gains per week. Conclusions: Our established growth monitoring curves, which can be used continuously without correcting gestational age from 24 weeks of preterm birth to 50 weeks, may be useful for assessment of postnatal growth trajectories, definition of intrauterine growth retardation at birth, and classification of early nutrition status for preterm infants.

Quantile contours and allometric modelling for risk classification of abnormal ratios with an application to asymmetric growth-restriction in preterm infants

We develop an approach to risk classification based on quantile contours and allometric modelling of multivariate anthropometric measurements. We propose the definition of allometric direction tangent to the directional quantile envelope, which divides ratios of measurements into half-spaces. This in turn provides an operational definition of directional quantile that can be used as cutoff for risk assessment. We show the application of the proposed approach using a large dataset from the Vermont Oxford Network containing observations of birthweight (BW) and head circumference (HC) for more than 150,000 preterm infants. Our analysis suggests that disproportionately growth-restricted infants with a larger HC-to-BW ratio are at increased mortality risk as compared to proportionately growth-restricted infants. The role of maternal hypertension is also investigated.

Updates on Assessment and Monitoring of the Postnatal Growth of Preterm Infants

Assessing and monitoring the physical growth of preterm infants is fundamental to NICU care. The goals of nutritional care are to approximate the growth and body composition of the healthy fetus and to support optimal brain development while minimizing future cardiometabolic risk. Both poor and excessive growth predict adverse long-term health outcomes. Growth curves are clinical tools used to assess the preterm infant's growth status. Several growth curves for preterm infants were developed in the past decade. To use them effectively, clinicians need to understand how each growth curve was developed; the underlying reference population; intended use; and strengths and limitations. Intrauterine growth curves are references that use size at birth to represent healthy fetal growth. These curves serve 2 purposes-to assign size classifications at birth and to monitor postnatal growth. The INTERGROWTH-21 ^st preterm postnatal growth standards were developed to compare the postnatal growth of preterm infants to that of healthy preterm infants rather than the fetus. Individualized weight growth curves account for the water weight loss that frequently occurs after birth. In addition, body mass index (BMI) curves are now available. In this review, we discuss the main characteristics of growth curves used for preterm infants as well as the use of percentiles, z scores, and their change over time to evaluate size and growth status. We also review the differences in body composition between preterm infants at term-equivalent age and term-born infants and the potential role of monitoring proportionality of growth using BMI curves.

Racial and Ethnic Differences Over Time in Outcomes of Infants Born Less Than 30 Weeks' Gestation

OBJECTIVES

To examine changes in care practices over time by race and ethnicity and whether the decrease in hospital mortality and severe morbidities has benefited infants of minority over infants of white mothers.

METHODS

Infants 22 to 29 weeks' gestation born between January 2006 and December 2017 at a Vermont Oxford Network center in the United States were studied. We examined mortality and morbidity rate differences and 95% confidence intervals for African American and Hispanic versus white infants by birth year. We tested temporal differences in mortality and morbidity rates between white and African American or Hispanic infants using a likelihood ratio test on nested binomial regression models.

RESULTS

Disparities for certain care practices such as antenatal corticosteroids and for some in-hospital outcomes have narrowed over time for minority infants. Compared with white infants, African American infants had a faster decline for mortality, hypothermia, necrotizing enterocolitis, and late-onset sepsis, whereas Hispanic infants had a faster decline for mortality, respiratory distress syndrome, and pneumothorax. Other morbidities showed a constant rate difference between African American and Hispanic versus white infants over time. Despite the improvements, outcomes including hypothermia, mortality, necrotizing enterocolitis, late-onset sepsis, and severe intraventricular hemorrhage remained elevated by the end of the study period, especially among African American infants.

CONCLUSIONS

Racial and ethnic disparities in vital care practices and certain outcomes have decreased. That the quality deficit among minority infants occurred for several care practice measures and potentially modifiable outcomes suggests a critical role for quality improvement initiatives tailored for minority-serving hospitals.

Preterm newborn's postnatal growth patterns: how to evaluate them

OBJECTIVES

There are several factors that influence the postnatal growth of preterm infants. It is crucial to define how to evaluate the growth rate of each preterm child and its individual trajectory, the type of growth curve, either with parameters of prescriptive curves for healthy preterm infants with no morbidities or, in the case of preterm infants and their "bundle of vulnerabilities", growth curves that may represent how they are actually growing, with the aim of directing appropriate nutritional care to each gestational age range.

DATA SOURCES

The main studies with growth curves for growth monitoring and the appropriate nutritional adjustments that prioritized the individual trajectory of postnatal growth rate were reviewed. PubMed and Google Scholar were searched.

DATA SYNTHESIS

The use of longitudinal neonatal data with different gestational ages and considering high and medium-risk pregnancies will probably be essential to evaluate the optimal growth pattern.

CONCLUSIONS

Prioritizing and knowing the individual growth trajectory of each preterm child is an alternative for preterm infants with less than 33 weeks of gestational age. For larger preterm infants born at gestational age >33 weeks, the Intergrowth 21st curves are adequate.

Sex Differences in Mortality and Morbidity of Infants Born at Less Than 30 Weeks' Gestation

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether changes in mortality and morbidities have benefited male more than female infants.

METHODS

Infants of gestational ages 22 to 29 weeks born between January 2006 and December 2016 at a Vermont Oxford Network center in the United States were studied. We examined mortality and morbidity rate differences and 95% confidence intervals by sex and birth year. We tested temporal differences in mortality and morbidity rates between boys and girls by means of a likelihood ratio test (LRT) on nested binomial regression models with log links.

RESULTS

A total of 205 750 infants were studied; 97 048 (47.2%) infants were girls. The rate for mortality and chronic lung disease decreased over time faster for boys than for girls (LRT P < .001 for mortality; P = .006 for lung disease). Restricting to centers that remained throughout the entire study period did not change all the above but additionally revealed a significant year-sex interaction for respiratory distress syndrome, with a faster decline among boys (LRT P = .04). Morbidities, including patent ductus arteriosus, necrotizing enterocolitis, early-onset sepsis, late-onset sepsis, severe intraventricular hemorrhage, severe retinopathy of prematurity, and pneumothorax, revealed a constant rate difference between boys and girls over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with girls, male infants born at <30 weeks' gestation experienced faster declines in mortality, respiratory distress syndrome, and chronic lung disease over an 11-year period. Future research should investigate which causes of death declined among boys and whether their improved survival has been accompanied by a change in their neurodevelopmental impairment rate.

Neonatal and fetal growth charts to identify preterm infants <30 weeks gestation at risk of adverse outcomes

BACKGROUND

It is unclear whether a neonatal or a fetal growth standard is a better predictor of adverse in-hospital newborn infant outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to evaluate and compare the power of birthweight for gestational age to predict adverse neonatal outcomes using neonatal and fetal growth charts. Gestational age-specific birthweight was examined either as a percentile score or as a binary indicator for birthweight <10th percentile (small for gestational age) with the use of 3 fetal growth charts (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, World Health Organization, and Intergrowth-21st) and 1 neonatal sex-specific birthweight chart.

STUDY DESIGN

Inborn singleton infants from 2006-2014 with gestational age between 22 and 29 weeks and who were enrolled at 1 of the 852 US centers that were participating in the Vermont Oxford Network were studied. Outcomes included death, necrotizing enterocolitis, severe intraventricular hemorrhage, severe retinopathy of prematurity, and chronic lung disease. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was used to assess the predictive power of birthweight for gestational age, either as a score or as a small-for-gestational-age indicator, with the use of the 4 charts. We also examined the relative risks of the outcomes by comparing small-for-gestational-age and non-small-for-gestational-age infants with the use of the 4 charts.

RESULTS

The percentage of small-for-gestational-age newborn infants ranged from 25.9-29.7% when with used the fetal growth charts. In contrast, the percentage was 10% when we used the neonatal charts. The areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves were similar across the 4 classification methods and were all <0.60, which suggests a poor predictive power. Small-for-gestational-age status, as classified by the neonatal chart, showed stronger associations with death, necrotizing enterocolitis, severe retinopathy of prematurity, and chronic lung disease, compared with those associations that were based on the other classification methods.

CONCLUSION

Neither the neonatal nor the fetal growth charts are predictive of adverse infant in-hospital outcomes. In contrast to fetal charts, the use of the neonatal charts results in stronger associations between small-for-gestational-age and adverse outcomes.

In-Hospital Outcomes in Large for Gestational Age Infants at 22-29 Weeks of Gestation

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the risks of mortality and morbidities in large for gestational age (LGA) infants relative to appropriate for gestational age infants born at 22-29 weeks of gestation.

STUDY DESIGN

Data on 156 587 infants were collected between 2006 and 2014 in 852 US centers participating in the Vermont Oxford Network. We defined LGA as sex-specific birth weight above the 90th centile for gestational age measured in days. Generalized additive models with smoothing splines on gestational age by LGA status were fitted on mortality and morbidity outcomes to estimate adjusted relative risks and their 95% CIs.

RESULTS

Compared with appropriate for gestational age infants, being born LGA was associated with decreased risks of mortality, respiratory distress syndrome, patent ductus arteriosus, necrotizing enterocolitis, late-onset sepsis, severe retinopathy of prematurity, and chronic lung disease. Early onset sepsis and severe intraventricular hemorrhage were increased among LGA infants, but these risks were not homogeneous across the gestational age range.

CONCLUSIONS

Being born LGA was associated with lower risks for all the examined outcomes except for early onset sepsis and severe intraventricular hemorrhage.

Morbidity and Mortality in Small for Gestational Age Infants at 22 to 29 Weeks' Gestation

OBJECTIVES

To identify the relative risks of mortality and morbidities for small for gestational age (SGA) infants in comparison with non-SGA infants born at 22 to 29 weeks' gestation.

METHODS

Data were collected (2006-2014) on 156 587 infants from 852 US centers participating in the Vermont Oxford Network. We defined SGA as sex-specific birth weight <10th centile for gestational age (GA) in days. Binomial generalized additive models with a thin plate spline term on GA by SGA were used to calculate the adjusted relative risks and 95% confidence intervals for outcomes by GA.

RESULTS

Compared with non-SGA infants, the risk of patent ductus arteriosus decreased for SGA infants in early GA and then increased in later GA. SGA infants were also at increased risks of mortality, respiratory distress syndrome, necrotizing enterocolitis, late-onset sepsis, severe retinopathy of prematurity, and chronic lung disease. These risks of adverse outcomes, however, were not homogeneous across the GA range. Early-onset sepsis was not different between the 2 groups for the majority of GAs, although severe intraventricular hemorrhage was decreased among SGA infants for only gestational week 24 through week 25.

CONCLUSIONS

SGA was associated with additional risks to mortality and morbidities, but the risks differed across the GA range.