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Federico S, Pozzetti L, Papa A, Carullo G, Gemma S, Butini S, Campiani G, Relitti N. Modulation of the Innate Immune Response by Targeting Toll-like Receptors: A Perspective on Their Agonists and Antagonists. J Med Chem 2020; 63:13466-13513. [PMID: 32845153 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c01049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a class of proteins that recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damaged-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and they are involved in the regulation of innate immune system. These transmembrane receptors, localized at the cellular or endosomal membrane, trigger inflammatory processes through either myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) or TIR-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-β (TRIF) signaling pathways. In the last decades, extensive research has been performed on TLR modulators and their therapeutic implication under several pathological conditions, spanning from infections to cancer, from metabolic disorders to neurodegeneration and autoimmune diseases. This Perspective will highlight the recent discoveries in this field, emphasizing the role of TLRs in different diseases and the therapeutic effect of their natural and synthetic modulators, and it will discuss insights for the future exploitation of TLR modulators in human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Federico
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Department of Excellence 2018-2022, University of Siena, via Aldo Moro 2, 53100, Siena, Italy
| | - Luca Pozzetti
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Department of Excellence 2018-2022, University of Siena, via Aldo Moro 2, 53100, Siena, Italy
| | - Alessandro Papa
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Department of Excellence 2018-2022, University of Siena, via Aldo Moro 2, 53100, Siena, Italy
| | - Gabriele Carullo
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Department of Excellence 2018-2022, University of Siena, via Aldo Moro 2, 53100, Siena, Italy
| | - Sandra Gemma
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Department of Excellence 2018-2022, University of Siena, via Aldo Moro 2, 53100, Siena, Italy
| | - Stefania Butini
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Department of Excellence 2018-2022, University of Siena, via Aldo Moro 2, 53100, Siena, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Campiani
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Department of Excellence 2018-2022, University of Siena, via Aldo Moro 2, 53100, Siena, Italy
| | - Nicola Relitti
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Department of Excellence 2018-2022, University of Siena, via Aldo Moro 2, 53100, Siena, Italy
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Moormann AM, Nixon CE, Forconi CS. Immune effector mechanisms in malaria: An update focusing on human immunity. Parasite Immunol 2019; 41:e12628. [PMID: 30972776 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2018] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The past decade has witnessed dramatic decreases in malaria-associated mortality and morbidity around the world. This progress has largely been due to intensified malaria control measures, implementation of rapid diagnostics and establishing a network to anticipate and mitigate antimalarial drug resistance. However, the ultimate tool for malaria prevention is the development and implementation of an effective vaccine. To date, malaria vaccine efforts have focused on determining which of the thousands of antigens expressed by Plasmodium falciparum are instrumental targets of protective immunity. The antigenic variation and antigenic polymorphisms arising in parasite genes under immune selection present a daunting challenge for target antigen selection and prioritization, and is a given caveat when interpreting immune recall responses or results from monovalent vaccine trials. Other immune evasion strategies executed by the parasite highlight the myriad of ways in which it can become a recurrent infection. This review provides an update on immune effector mechanisms in malaria and focuses on our improved ability to interrogate the complexity of human immune system, accelerated by recent methodological advances. Appreciating how the human immune landscape influences the effectiveness and longevity of antimalarial immunity will help explain which conditions are necessary for immune effector mechanisms to prevail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann M Moormann
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts
| | - Christina E Nixon
- Department of Pathology and Lab Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
| | - Catherine S Forconi
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts
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Parra M, Yang J, Weitner M, Derrick S, Yang A, Schmidt T, Singh B, Moreno A, Akkoyunlu M. TACI Contributes to Plasmodium yoelii Host Resistance by Controlling T Follicular Helper Cell Response and Germinal Center Formation. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2612. [PMID: 30473702 PMCID: PMC6237915 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The delay in parasite-specific B cell development leaves people in malaria endemic areas vulnerable to repeated Plasmodium infections. Here, we investigated the role of transmembrane activator and calcium-modulator and cyclophilin ligand interactor (TACI), a molecule involved in the generation of antigen-specific antibody secreting cells, in host response to non-lethal Plasmodium yoelii infection. We found that TACI deficiency not only resulted in higher peak parasitemia levels in P. yoelii challenged mice, but also led to a delay in parasite clearance and anti-P. yoelii Merozoite Surface Protein 1(C-terminal 19-kDa fragment [rMSP-119]) protein and anti-rMSP-119 and anti-P. yoelii IgG antibody development. There was also a delay in the generation of splenic high affinity antibody secreting cells that recognize rMSP-119 protein as compared to wild-type mice. Interestingly, coinciding with the delay in parasite clearance there was a delay in the resolution of T follicular helper (TFH) cell and germinal center (GC) B cell responses in TACI -/- mice. The persistence of TFH and GC B cells is likely a result of enhanced interaction between TFH and GC B cells because inducible costimulator ligand (ICOSL) expression was significantly higher on TACI -/- GC B cells than wild-type cells. The difference in the kinetics of GC reaction appeared to also impact the emergence of plasma cells (PC) because there was a delay in the generation of TACI -/- mice PC. Nevertheless, following the recovery from P. yoelii infection, TACI -/- and wild-type mice were both protected from a rechallenge infection. Establishment of protective B cell response was responsible for the resolution of parasitemia because B cells purified from recovered TACI -/- or wild-type mice were equally protective when introduced to naïve wild-type mice prior to P. yoelii challenge. Thus, despite the increased susceptibility of TACI -/- mice to P. yoelii infection and a delay in the development of protective antibody levels, TACI -/- mice are able to clear the infection and resist rechallenge infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcela Parra
- US Food and Drug Administration, Division of Bacterial Allergenic and Parasitic Diseases, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Jiyeon Yang
- US Food and Drug Administration, Division of Bacterial Allergenic and Parasitic Diseases, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Megan Weitner
- US Food and Drug Administration, Division of Bacterial Allergenic and Parasitic Diseases, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Steven Derrick
- US Food and Drug Administration, Division of Bacterial Allergenic and Parasitic Diseases, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Amy Yang
- US Food and Drug Administration, Division of Bacterial Allergenic and Parasitic Diseases, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Thomas Schmidt
- US Food and Drug Administration, Division of Bacterial Allergenic and Parasitic Diseases, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Balwan Singh
- Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Alberto Moreno
- Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Mustafa Akkoyunlu
- US Food and Drug Administration, Division of Bacterial Allergenic and Parasitic Diseases, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
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Hussein KE, Bahey-El-Din M, Sheweita SA. Immunization with the outer membrane proteins OmpK17 and OmpK36 elicits protection against Klebsiella pneumoniae in the murine infection model. Microb Pathog 2018; 119:12-18. [PMID: 29626658 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2018.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Revised: 02/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Klebsiella pneumoniae is a Gram-negative bacterium that is increasingly reported as a serious nosocomial and community-acquired pathogen. In the current study, two K. pneumoniae antigens, OmpK17 and OmpK36, as well as their fusion protein cognate F36/17 were investigated as potential vaccine candidates in a murine infection model. Three immunoadjuvants, namely the Gram-positive Enhancer Matrix (GEM) adjuvant, synthetic hemozoin (Hz) adjuvant and incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA) were evaluated. Genes of OmpK17 and OmpK36 antigens as well as their fusion protein were cloned in Escherichia coli for recombinant expression. Mice were immunized thrice with the individual recombinant purified antigens adjuvanted with one of the three adjuvants. Two weeks after the last booster, animals were challenged with a lethal dose of K. pneumoniae and immune protection parameters were assessed. Animals immunized with GEM- or Hz-adjuvanted K. pneumoniae antigens did not show significant protection upon bacterial challenge. Animals immunized with subcutaneous IFA-adjuvanted antigens showed the best results with survival percentages of 50, 60 and 50% for groups immunized with OmpK17, OmpK36 and F36/17, respectively. Serum IgG1, rather than IgG2a, antibodies were the most prevalent following vaccination indicating bias towards T helper type 2 (Th2) immune response. Opsonophagocytic assays demonstrated significant percentage killing in case of animals immunized with IFA-adjuvanted antigens. Overall, OmpK17 and OmpK36 are promising vaccine antigens which are worthy of further optimization of the immunization conditions, particularly the used immunoadjuvants, in order to achieve full protection against K. pneumoniae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kawther E Hussein
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research (IGSR), Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Mohammed Bahey-El-Din
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Salah A Sheweita
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research (IGSR), Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
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Al-Quraishy S, Dkhil MA, Alomar S, Abdel-Baki AAS, Delic D, Wunderlich F, Araúzo-Bravo MJ. Blood-stage malaria of Plasmodium chabaudi induces differential Tlr expression in the liver of susceptible and vaccination-protected Balb/c mice. Parasitol Res 2016; 115:1835-43. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-4923-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Israely T, Melamed S, Achdout H, Erez N, Politi B, Waner T, Lustig S, Paran N. TLR3 and TLR9 agonists improve postexposure vaccination efficacy of live smallpox vaccines. PLoS One 2014; 9:e110545. [PMID: 25350003 PMCID: PMC4211728 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Eradication of smallpox and discontinuation of the vaccination campaign resulted in an increase in the percentage of unvaccinated individuals, highlighting the need for postexposure efficient countermeasures in case of accidental or deliberate viral release. Intranasal infection of mice with ectromelia virus (ECTV), a model for human smallpox, is curable by vaccination with a high vaccine dose given up to 3 days postexposure. To further extend this protective window and to reduce morbidity, mice were vaccinated postexposure with Vaccinia-Lister, the conventional smallpox vaccine or Modified Vaccinia Ankara, a highly attenuated vaccine in conjunction with TLR3 or TLR9 agonists. We show that co-administration of the TLR3 agonist poly(I:C) even 5 days postexposure conferred protection, avoiding the need to increase the vaccination dose. Efficacious treatments prevented death, ameliorated disease symptoms, reduced viral load and maintained tissue integrity of target organs. Protection was associated with significant elevation of serum IFNα and anti-vaccinia IgM antibodies, modulation of IFNγ response, and balanced activation of NK and T cells. TLR9 agonists (CpG ODNs) were less protective than the TLR3 agonist poly(I:C). We show that activation of type 1 IFN by poly(I:C) and protection is achievable even without co-vaccination, requiring sufficient amount of the viral antigens of the infective agent or the vaccine. This study demonstrated the therapeutic potential of postexposure immune modulation by TLR activation, allowing to alleviate the disease symptoms and to further extend the protective window of postexposure vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomer Israely
- Department of Infectious diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Sharon Melamed
- Department of Infectious diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Hagit Achdout
- Department of Infectious diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Noam Erez
- Department of Infectious diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Boaz Politi
- Department of Infectious diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Trevor Waner
- Department of Infectious diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Shlomo Lustig
- Department of Infectious diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona, Israel
| | - Nir Paran
- Department of Infectious diseases, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness-Ziona, Israel
- * E-mail:
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Pothlichet J, Quintana-Murci L. The genetics of innate immunity sensors and human disease. Int Rev Immunol 2013; 32:157-208. [PMID: 23570315 DOI: 10.3109/08830185.2013.777064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Since their discovery, innate immunity microbial sensors have been increasingly studied and shown to play a critical role in innate responses to microbes in several experimental in vitro, ex vivo, and animal models. However, their role in the human response to infection in natural conditions has just started to be deciphered, by means of clinical studies of primary immunodeficiencies and epidemiological genetic studies. Here, we summarize the major findings concerning the genetic diversity of the various families of microbial sensors in humans, and of other molecules involved in the signaling pathways they trigger. Specifically, we review the genetic associations, revealed by both clinical and epidemiological genetics studies, of microbial sensors from five different families: Toll-like receptors, C-type lectin receptors, NOD-like receptors, RIG-I-like receptors, and cytosolic DNA sensors. In particular, we consider the relationships between variation at the genes encoding these molecules and susceptibility to and the severity of infectious diseases and other clinical conditions associated with immune dysfunction, including autoimmunity, inflammation, allergy, and cancer. Despite the fact that the genetic links between innate immunity sensors and human disorders remain still limited, human genetics studies are increasingly improving our understanding of the genuine functions of microbial sensors and downstream signaling molecules in the natural setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Pothlichet
- Institut Pasteur, Unit of Human Evolutionary Genetics, Paris, France
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Liu J, Xu C, Liu YL, Matsuo H, Hsieh RPF, Lo JF, Tseng PH, Yuan CJ, Luo Y, Xiang R, Chuang TH. Activation of rabbit TLR9 by different CpG-ODN optimized for mouse and human TLR9. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2012; 35:443-51. [PMID: 22560893 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2012.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2011] [Revised: 03/24/2012] [Accepted: 03/28/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic CpG-oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-ODN) are potent adjuvants that accelerate and boost antigen-specific immune responses. Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) is the cellular receptor for these CpG-ODN. Previous studies have shown species-specific activation of mouse TLR9 (mTLR9) and human TLR9 (hTLR9) by their optimized CpG-ODN. The interaction between rabbit TLR9 (rabTLR9) and CpG-ODN, however, has not been previously investigated. Here, we cloned and characterized rabTLR9 and comparatively investigated the activation of the rabbit, mouse, and human TLR9 by CpG-ODN. The complete open reading frame of rabTLR9 encodes 1028 amino acid residues, which share 70.6% and 75.5% of the identities of mTLR9 and hTLR9, respectively. Rabbit TLR9 is preferentially expressed in immune cells rich tissues, and is localized in intracellular vesicles. While mTLR9 and hTLR9 displayed species-specific recognition of their optimized CpG-ODN, rabbit TLR9 was activated by these CpG-ODN without any preference. This result suggests that rabTLR9 has a broader ligand-recognition profile than mouse and human TLR9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Liu
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, United States
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Functionally Distinct Subpopulations of CpG-Activated Memory B Cells. Sci Rep 2012; 2:345. [PMID: 22468229 PMCID: PMC3315693 DOI: 10.1038/srep00345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 03/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
During the human B cell (Bc) recall response, rapid cell division results in multiple Bc subpopulations. The TLR-9 agonist CpG oligodeoxynucleotide, combined with cytokines, causes Bc activation and division in vitro and increased CD27 surface expression in a sub-population of Bc. We hypothesized that the proliferating CD27lo subpopulation, which has a lower frequency of antibody-secreting cells (ASC) than CD27hi plasmablasts, provides alternative functions such as cytokine secretion, costimulation, or antigen presentation. We performed genome-wide transcriptional analysis of CpG activated Bc sorted into undivided, proliferating CD27lo and proliferating CD27hi subpopulations. Our data supported an alternative hypothesis, that CD27lo cells are a transient pre-plasmablast population, expressing genes associated with Bc receptor editing. Undivided cells had an active transcriptional program of non-ASC B cell functions, including cytokine secretion and costimulation, suggesting a link between innate and adaptive Bc responses. Transcriptome analysis suggested a gene regulatory network for CD27lo and CD27hi Bc differentiation.
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Chen L, He Z, Qin L, Li Q, Shi X, Zhao S, Chen L, Zhong N, Chen X. Antitumor effect of malaria parasite infection in a murine Lewis lung cancer model through induction of innate and adaptive immunity. PLoS One 2011; 6:e24407. [PMID: 21931708 PMCID: PMC3170332 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2011] [Accepted: 08/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Lung cancer is the most common malignancy in humans and its high fatality means that no effective treatment is available. Developing new therapeutic strategies for lung cancer is urgently needed. Malaria has been reported to stimulate host immune responses, which are believed to be efficacious for combating some clinical cancers. This study is aimed to provide evidence that malaria parasite infection is therapeutic for lung cancer. Methodology/Principal Findings Antitumor effect of malaria infection was examined in both subcutaneously and intravenously implanted murine Lewis lung cancer (LLC) model. The results showed that malaria infection inhibited LLC growth and metastasis and prolonged the survival of tumor-bearing mice. Histological analysis of tumors from mice infected with malaria revealed that angiogenesis was inhibited, which correlated with increased terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated (TUNEL) staining and decreased Ki-67 expression in tumors. Through natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity activity, cytokine assays, enzyme-linked immunospot assay, lymphocyte proliferation, and flow cytometry, we demonstrated that malaria infection provided anti-tumor effects by inducing both a potent anti-tumor innate immune response, including the secretion of IFN-γ and TNF-α and the activation of NK cells as well as adaptive anti-tumor immunity with increasing tumor-specific T-cell proliferation and cytolytic activity of CD8+ T cells. Notably, tumor-bearing mice infected with the parasite developed long-lasting and effective tumor-specific immunity. Consequently, we found that malaria parasite infection could enhance the immune response of lung cancer DNA vaccine pcDNA3.1-hMUC1 and the combination produced a synergistic antitumor effect. Conclusions/Significance Malaria infection significantly suppresses LLC growth via induction of innate and adaptive antitumor responses in a mouse model. These data suggest that the malaria parasite may provide a novel strategy or therapeutic vaccine vector for anti-lung cancer immune-based therapy.
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MESH Headings
- Adaptive Immunity/immunology
- Animals
- Apoptosis
- Cancer Vaccines/immunology
- Carcinoma, Lewis Lung/blood supply
- Carcinoma, Lewis Lung/immunology
- Carcinoma, Lewis Lung/parasitology
- Carcinoma, Lewis Lung/surgery
- Cell Proliferation
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Immunity, Innate/immunology
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/immunology
- Malaria/parasitology
- Mice
- Neoplasm Metastasis
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/immunology
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/pathology
- Parasites/immunology
- Plasmodium yoelii/immunology
- Th1 Cells/immunology
- Vaccines, DNA/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Chen
- Center for Infection and Immunity, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- CAS-FS Biotech and Pharmaceutical Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Foshan, China
| | - Zhengxiang He
- Center for Infection and Immunity, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- CAS-FS Biotech and Pharmaceutical Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Foshan, China
| | - Li Qin
- Center for Infection and Immunity, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- CAS-FS Biotech and Pharmaceutical Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Foshan, China
| | - Qinyan Li
- Center for Infection and Immunity, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- CAS-FS Biotech and Pharmaceutical Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Foshan, China
| | - Xibao Shi
- Center for Infection and Immunity, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Siting Zhao
- Center for Infection and Immunity, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ling Chen
- Center for Infection and Immunity, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Nanshan Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Disease, First Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- * E-mail: (XC) (NZ); (NZ) (XC)
| | - Xiaoping Chen
- Center for Infection and Immunity, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- CAS-FS Biotech and Pharmaceutical Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Foshan, China
- * E-mail: (XC) (NZ); (NZ) (XC)
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