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Evangelista FF, de Laet Sant'Ana P, Ferreira WC, Ferreira TA, Dos Santos ML, de Souza AH, de Andrade FAL, da Silva DA, de Barros LD, Colli CM, Nogueira-Melo GA, Costa IN, Falavigna-Guilherme AL. The Brazilian Toxoplasma gondii strain BRI caused greater inflammation and impairment in anxiogenic behavior in mice, which was reverted by rosuvastatin treatment. Parasitol Res 2023; 123:64. [PMID: 38117414 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-08038-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the effect of rosuvastatin treatment on anxiety-related behavior and short- and long-term memory impairment in mice infected with acute RH and BRI strains of Toxoplasma gondii. Balb/C mice were infected intraperitoneally and after 2 h, oral treatment with rosuvastatin (40 mg/kg/day) was initiated for 4 days. Behaviors related to anxiety and locomotion were evaluated in the open field (OF), and short- and long-term memory through the novel object recognition test (NOR). At the end of the experiments, peritoneal fluid, brain, liver, and lung were collected for T. gondii DNA quantification and histopathological analysis. Infection with BRI strain reduced the dwell time and central locomotion in the OF (p < 0.05), indicating anxiogenic type behavior, while treatment with rosuvastatin reversed this response (p < 0.05). RH strain infection did not alter any behavior in the OF (p > 0.05) and both strains impaired short- and long-term memory (NOR test), but with no significant treatment effect (p > 0.05). The BRI strain was shown to be more damaging in relation to anxiogenic type behavior when compared to the RH strain (p < 0.05), whereas rosuvastatin reduced this damaging effect in BRI. The treatment reduced the parasite load in the peritoneal lavage, liver, and lung of animals infected with both acute strains; however, it significantly (p < 0.05) attenuated the inflammatory process only in BRI-infected and treated animals, showing that non-archetypal genotypes are more damaging in rodents. This suggests that rosuvastatin may be a drug with great therapeutic potential against T. gondii mainly to reduce damage from virulent strains.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Luiz Daniel de Barros
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, State University of Londrina (UEL), Londrina, PR, Brazil
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Morais-Silva G, Campbell RR, Nam H, Basu M, Pagliusi M, Fox ME, Chan CS, Iñiguez SD, Ament S, Cramer N, Marin MT, Lobo MK. Molecular, Circuit, and Stress Response Characterization of Ventral Pallidum Npas1-Neurons. J Neurosci 2023; 43:405-418. [PMID: 36443000 PMCID: PMC9864552 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0971-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Altered activity of the ventral pallidum (VP) underlies disrupted motivation in stress and drug exposure. The VP is a very heterogeneous structure composed of many neuron types with distinct physiological properties and projections. Neuronal PAS 1-positive (Npas1+) VP neurons are thought to send projections to brain regions critical for motivational behavior. While Npas1+ neurons have been characterized in the globus pallidus external, there is limited information on these neurons in the VP. To address this limitation, we evaluated the projection targets of the VP Npas1+ neurons and performed RNA-sequencing on ribosome-associated mRNA from VP Npas1+ neurons to determine their molecular identity. Finally, we used a chemogenetic approach to manipulate VP Npas1+ neurons during social defeat stress (SDS) and behavioral tasks related to anxiety and motivation in Npas1-Cre mice. We used a similar approach in females using the chronic witness defeat stress (CWDS). We identified VP Npas1+ projections to the nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, medial and lateral habenula, lateral hypothalamus, thalamus, medial and lateral septum, and periaqueductal gray area. VP Npas1+ neurons displayed distinct translatome representing distinct biological processes. Chemogenetic activation of hM3D(Gq) receptors in VP Npas1+ neurons increased susceptibility to a subthreshold SDS and anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze and open field while the activation of hM4D(Gi) receptors in VP Npas1+ neurons enhanced resilience to chronic SDS and CWDS. Thus, the activity of VP Npas1+ neurons modulates susceptibility to social stressors and anxiety-like behavior. Our studies provide new information on VP Npas1+ neuron circuitry, molecular identity, and their role in stress response.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The ventral pallidum (VP) is a structure connected to both reward-related and aversive brain centers. It is a key brain area that signals the hedonic value of natural rewards. Disruption in the VP underlies altered motivation in stress and substance use disorder. However, VP is a very heterogeneous area with multiple neuron subtypes. This study characterized the projection pattern and molecular signatures of VP Neuronal PAS 1-positive (Npas1+) neurons. We further used tools to alter receptor signaling in VP Npas1+ neurons in stress to demonstrate a role for these neurons in stress behavioral outcomes. Our studies have implications for understanding brain cell type identities and their role in brain disorders, such as depression, a serious disorder that is precipitated by stressful events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gessynger Morais-Silva
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
- Sao Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Laboratory of Pharmacology, Araraquara, Sao Paulo 14800903, Brazil
- Joint Graduate Program in Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos/Sao Paulo State University, CEP 13565-905, São Carlos/Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Rianne R Campbell
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - Hyungwoo Nam
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - Mahashweta Basu
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
- Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - Marco Pagliusi
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, State University of Campinas, SP-13083-872, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Megan E Fox
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - C Savio Chan
- Department of Neuroscience, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611
| | - Sergio D Iñiguez
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79902
| | - Seth Ament
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
- Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - Nathan Cramer
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - Marcelo Tadeu Marin
- Sao Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Laboratory of Pharmacology, Araraquara, Sao Paulo 14800903, Brazil
- Joint Graduate Program in Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos/Sao Paulo State University, CEP 13565-905, São Carlos/Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Mary Kay Lobo
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
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Mineur YS, Garcia-Rivas V, Thomas MA, Soares AR, McKee SA, Picciotto MR. Sex differences in stress-induced alcohol intake: a review of preclinical studies focused on amygdala and inflammatory pathways. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2022; 239:2041-2061. [PMID: 35359158 PMCID: PMC9704113 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-022-06120-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Clinical studies suggest that women are more likely than men to relapse to alcohol drinking in response to stress; however, the mechanisms underlying this sex difference are not well understood. A number of preclinical behavioral models have been used to study stress-induced alcohol intake. Here, we review paradigms used to study effects of stress on alcohol intake in rodents, focusing on findings relevant to sex differences. To date, studies of sex differences in stress-induced alcohol drinking have been somewhat limited; however, there is evidence that amygdala-centered circuits contribute to effects of stress on alcohol seeking. In addition, we present an overview of inflammatory pathways leading to microglial activation that may contribute to alcohol-dependent behaviors. We propose that sex differences in neuronal function and inflammatory signaling in circuits centered on the amygdala are involved in sex-dependent effects on stress-induced alcohol seeking and suggest that this is an important area for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yann S Mineur
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, 34 Park Street, 3Rd Floor Research, New Haven, CT, 06508, USA
| | - Vernon Garcia-Rivas
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, 34 Park Street, 3Rd Floor Research, New Haven, CT, 06508, USA
| | - Merrilee A Thomas
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, 34 Park Street, 3Rd Floor Research, New Haven, CT, 06508, USA
| | - Alexa R Soares
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, 34 Park Street, 3Rd Floor Research, New Haven, CT, 06508, USA
- Yale Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Sherry A McKee
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, 34 Park Street, 3Rd Floor Research, New Haven, CT, 06508, USA
| | - Marina R Picciotto
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, 34 Park Street, 3Rd Floor Research, New Haven, CT, 06508, USA.
- Yale Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, New Haven, CT, USA.
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Rosuvastatin revert memory impairment and anxiogenic-like effect in mice infected with the chronic ME-49 strain of Toxoplasma gondii. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0250079. [PMID: 33857221 PMCID: PMC8049280 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0250079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of rosuvastatin treatment on memory impairment, and anxiogenic-like effects in mice chronically infected with Toxoplasma gondii. For this, Balb/c mice were infected orally with chronic ME-49 strain of Toxoplasma gondii. Oral treatment with rosuvastatin (40mg/kg/day) started on the 51st day post-infection and was performed daily for 21 days. After completion of treatment, anxiety-like effects and locomotion were investigated in the open field (OF) test, whereas novel object recognition (NOR) test was used for evaluation of short- and long-term memory. At the end of the experiments, the brain was collected for Toxoplasma gondii DNA quantification and histopathological analysis. Infection with ME-49 strain decreased the time spent in the center of OF, indicating an anxiogenic effect, without affecting total and peripheral locomotion. Rosuvastatin treatment inhibited the change in the center time. Besides, pharmacological treatment increased total and central locomotion in both non-infected and infected animals. Infection also impaired both short- and long-term memory in the NOR test, and these effects were reverted by rosuvastatin treatment. In addition to effects in behavioral changes, rosuvastatin also reduced parasite load in the brain and attenuated signs of brain inflammation such as perivascular cuffs, inflammatory cell infiltration and tissue damage. These findings indicate for the first time the efficacy of rosuvastatin in treatment of memory impairment and anxiogenic effect evoked by infection with Toxoplasma gondii. These effects might be mediated by reduced cyst load, which in turn decrease inflammation and damage in the brain.
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Ballaz S, Espinosa N, Bourin M. Does endogenous cholecystokinin modulate alcohol intake? Neuropharmacology 2021; 193:108539. [PMID: 33794246 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Alcohol use disorder or alcoholism is characterized by uncontrollable alcohol use and intoxication, as well as a heightened state of anxiety after alcohol withdrawal. Ethanol-associated stimuli also drive the urge to drink by means of classical conditioning. Alcoholism has been considered a dopamine (DA) dysregulation syndrome that involves the activity of the central amygdala circuitry of anxiety. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is the most abundant neuropeptide in the mammal brain, where it activates two receptors, CCK1 and CCK2. Genetic evidence relates CCK1 receptors to alcoholism in humans. CCK2 activity has been associated with the onset of human anxiety. CCK modulates DA release in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and it is expressed in the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-expressing basket interneurons in the cerebral cortex. CCK interacts with serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmission through 5-HT3 receptors to regulate mesocorticolimbic pathways and with GABA to attenuate anxiety in the amygdala. Finally, CCK stimulates the release of orexins and oxytocin in the hypothalamus, two relevant hypothalamic neuropeptides involved in signaling satiety for ethanol and well-being respectively. Given the "dimmer-switch" function of endogenous CCK in the neurotransmission by 5-HT, DA, GABA, and glutamate in normal and pathological behaviors (Ballaz and Bourin, 2020), we hypothesize that CCK adjusts functioning of the reward and anxiety circuitries altered by ethanol. This review gathers data supporting this hypothesis, and suggests mechanisms underlying a role for endogenous CCK in alcoholism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Ballaz
- School of Biological Sciences & Engineering, Yachay Tech University, Hacienda San José s/n, San Miguel de Urcuquí, Ecuador; School of Medicine, Universidad Espíritu Santo, Samborondón, Ecuador.
| | - Nicole Espinosa
- School of Biological Sciences & Engineering, Yachay Tech University, Hacienda San José s/n, San Miguel de Urcuquí, Ecuador.
| | - Michel Bourin
- Neurobiology of Anxiety and Mood Disorders, University of Nantes, 98, Rue Joseph Blanchart, 44100 Nantes, France.
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Leichtweis KS, Carvalho M, Morais-Silva G, Marin MT, Amaral VCS. Short and prolonged maternal separation impacts on ethanol-related behaviors in rats: sex and age differences. Stress 2020; 23:162-173. [PMID: 31429361 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2019.1653847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Maternal separation (MS) is an animal model widely used to evaluate the influence of early-life stress exposure on ethanol consumption and dependence. The goal of this study was to evaluate the effects of brief and prolonged MS on the pattern of consumption and ethanol conditioned place preference (CPP) in male and female rats during adolescence and adulthood. Wistar rat pups were separated daily from their dams for 15 or 180 minutes during the 2 to 10 postnatal days (PND). In adolescence, half of the litter from each group was evaluated in the ethanol consumption test using the three-bottle test choice paradigm. In addition, using biased procedure, ethanol-conditioned place preference was also evaluated. In adulthood, the other half of the litter was evaluated on the same tests. Our results showed that there are differences in consumption pattern and in alcohol reinforcement between males and females, adolescents and adults. While prolonged MS had no effect on total ethanol consumption in adolescents of both sexes, it induced CPP in these animals. In turn, in adults, previous exposure to prolonged MS increased ethanol consumption without altering ethanol-CPP.Lay summaryGiving the importance of the mother-children (dam-pups when talking about rodents) relationship to proper brain development, the separation of pups from their dam is broadly used as an animal model to study the impact of early-life stress exposure. Here, we used a protocol of brief or prolonged maternal separation to study the impact of early-life stress exposure in the alcohol consumption and conditioned place preference in rats, and how age and sex influence it. We showed that, overall, the prolonged maternal separation increased alcohol consumption in both males and females, but only when animals were tested during the adulthood. In the other hand, prolonged maternal separation increased ethanol conditioned place preference in adolescent rats, both male and female.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamila Souto Leichtweis
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Stricto Sensu em Ciências Aplicadas a Produtos para Saúde (PPGCAPS), Universidade Estadual de Goiás, Anápolis, Brasil
| | - Marielly Carvalho
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Stricto Sensu em Ciências Aplicadas a Produtos para Saúde (PPGCAPS), Universidade Estadual de Goiás, Anápolis, Brasil
| | - Gessynger Morais-Silva
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Araraquara, Brasil
- Programa Interinstitucional de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal de São Carlos/Universidade Estadual Paulista (UFSCar/UNESP), São Carlos, Brasil
| | - Marcelo Tadeu Marin
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Araraquara, Brasil
- Programa Interinstitucional de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal de São Carlos/Universidade Estadual Paulista (UFSCar/UNESP), São Carlos, Brasil
| | - Vanessa Cristiane Santana Amaral
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Stricto Sensu em Ciências Aplicadas a Produtos para Saúde (PPGCAPS), Universidade Estadual de Goiás, Anápolis, Brasil
- Campus Anápolis de Ciências Exatas e Tecnológicas Henrique Santillo (CCET), Universidade Estadual de Goiás, Anápolis, Brasil
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Santos-Rocha JB, Rae M, Teixeira AMA, Teixeira SA, Munhoz CD, Muscará MN, Marcourakis T, Szumlinski KK, Camarini R. Involvement of neuronal nitric oxide synthase in cross-sensitization between chronic unpredictable stress and ethanol in adolescent and adult mice. Alcohol 2018; 68:71-79. [PMID: 29525685 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2017.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Revised: 09/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The peculiar neurochemical profile of the adolescent brain renders it differently susceptible to several stimuli, including stress and/or drug exposure. Among several stress mediators, nitric oxide (NO) has a role in stress responses. We have demonstrated that adolescent mice are less sensitive to ethanol-induced sensitization than adult mice. The present study investigated whether chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) induces behavioral sensitization to ethanol in adolescent and adult Swiss mice, and investigated the influence of Ca2+-dependent nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity in the phenomenon. Adolescent and adult mice were exposed to repeated 1.8 g/kg ethanol or CUS and challenged with saline or ethanol. A neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) inhibitor, 7-nitroindazole (7NI), was administered along with ethanol and CUS to test its effects on behavioral sensitization. Both adolescent and adult mice displayed cross-sensitization between CUS and ethanol in adult mice, with adolescents showing a lower degree of sensitization than adults. nNOS inhibition by 7NI reduced both ethanol sensitization and cross-sensitization. All age differences in the Ca2+-dependent NOS activity in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex were in the direction of greater activity in adults than in adolescents. Adolescents showed lower sensitivity to cross-sensitization between CUS and ethanol, and the nitric oxide (NO) system seems to have a pivotal role in ethanol-induced behavioral sensitization and cross-sensitization in both adolescent and adult mice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariana Rae
- Departmento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | | | - Simone Aparecida Teixeira
- Departmento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Carolina Demarchi Munhoz
- Departmento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Nicolas Muscará
- Departmento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Tania Marcourakis
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Karen K Szumlinski
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-9660, United States
| | - Rosana Camarini
- Departmento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil.
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Wolstenholme JT, Mahmood T, Harris GM, Abbas S, Miles MF. Intermittent Ethanol during Adolescence Leads to Lasting Behavioral Changes in Adulthood and Alters Gene Expression and Histone Methylation in the PFC. Front Mol Neurosci 2017; 10:307. [PMID: 29018328 PMCID: PMC5622951 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2017.00307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Adolescents primarily consume alcohol in binges, which can be particularly harmful to the developing frontal cortex and increase risk for an adult alcohol use disorder. We conducted a study investigating immediate and long lasting changes to the prefrontal cortex (PFC) transcriptome to determine the molecular mechanisms underlying adult ethanol behavioral sensitivity following binge ethanol in adolescence. DBA/2J mice were orally dosed with 4 g/kg ethanol intermittently from day 29 to 42. Adolescent mice were tested for anxiety-like behavior and ethanol sensitivity using the loss of righting reflex task. As adults, mice were tested for cognitive changes using the novel object recognition task, ethanol-induced anxiolysis and ethanol sensitivity. Adolescent binge ethanol altered ethanol sensitivity in young mice and led to lasting memory deficits in the object recognition test and greater ethanol sensitivity in adulthood. Using genomic profiling of transcripts in the PFC, we found that binge ethanol reduced myelin-related gene expression and altered chromatin modifying genes involved in histone demethylation at H3K9 and H3K36. We hypothesize that ethanol's actions on histone methylation may be a switch for future transcriptional changes that underlie the behavioral changes lasting into adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer T Wolstenholme
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States.,VCU Alcohol Research Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Tariq Mahmood
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Guy M Harris
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Shahroze Abbas
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Michael F Miles
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States.,VCU Alcohol Research Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States.,Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
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