Spatial associations of insects and mites in stored wheat

The Utilization of Inert Materials for the Control of Stored-Product Mites-A Mini Review

Stored-product mites are important pests of stored products, while their presence in storage and processing facilities has a significant effect on public health. On the other hand, inert materials are promising alternatives to conventional pesticides in stored product protection and have provided very good results against storage insects. These formulations can be applied either directly on the product or on surfaces, as dusts or as slurry formulations. In the current paper, we review the factors that affect the efficacy of inert dusts, emphasizing in diatomaceous earths, against stored-product mites. Hence, we address the different biotic and abiotic factors that affect the acaricidal effect of inert materials against different mite species, but also the complexity of such an application, that often arises from the simultaneous presence of plant-feeding mites with their mite predators. Finally, we provide some insights for further research directions.

Unveiling Drimenol: A Phytochemical with Multifaceted Bioactivities

Drimenol, a phytochemical with a distinct odor is found in edible aromatic plants, such as Polygonum minus (known as kesum in Malaysia) and Drimys winteri. Recently, drimenol has received increasing attention owing to its diverse biological activities. This review offers the first extensive overview of drimenol, covering its sources, bioactivities, and derivatives. Notably, drimenol possesses a wide spectrum of biological activities, including antifungal, antibacterial, anti-insect, antiparasitic, cytotoxic, anticancer, and antioxidant effects. Moreover, some mechanisms of its activities, such as its antifungal effects against human mycoses and anticancer activities, have been investigated. However, there are still several crucial issues in the research on drimenol, such as the lack of experimental understanding of its pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, and toxicity. By synthesizing current research findings, this review aims to present a holistic understanding of drimenol, paving the way for future studies and its potential utilization in diverse fields.

Ecological Interactions of Predatory Mites, Cheyletus eruditus (Schrank) (Trombidiformes: Cheyletidae) and Cheyletus malaccensis Oudemans, and Prey, Liposcelis decolor (Pearman) (Psocodea: Liposcelididae), under Different Thermo-Hygrometric Regimes

Predator-prey interactions are linked through trophic relationships, and individual population dynamics are a function of multiple interactions among many ecological factors. The present study considered the efficacy of the predatory mites Cheyletus eruditus (Schrank) (Trombidiformes: Cheyletidae) and Cheyletus malaccensis Oudemans to manage Liposcelis decolor (Pearman) (Psocodea: Liposcelididae). Prey population suppression and progeny replacement efficiency of the predators were assessed under different predator-prey ratios (0:20, 1:20, 2:20, 4:20, and 10:20), temperatures (20, 24, 28, and 32 °C), and relative humidities (RH) (63, 75, and 85%) over 40 days under laboratory conditions of 0:24 (L:D) photoperiod. Suppression of L. decolor population when C. eruditus-related predator-to-prey ratios of 1:20, 2:20, 4:20, and 10:20 were used was ~61.7, 79.7, 85.1, and 87.5%, respectively, relative to the Control ratio (0:20). In the case of C. malaccensis, suppression of 70, 82.1, 92.9, and 96.5%, respectively, was achieved. Although the low 63% RH limited efficacy of these cheyletid mites, both predatory mites caused pest population suppression of ~67.1-97.2% and increased their progeny by ~96.7-844.4% fold for the predator-prey ratios of 1:20, 2:20, 4:20, and 10:20, temperatures of 20, 24, 28, and 32 °C, and RH levels of 63, 75, and 85%. The levels of psocid population suppression achieved indicate the potential of both predatory mites for psocid management.

Natural Warriors against Stored-Grain Pests: The Joint Action of Beauveria bassiana and Steinernema carpocapsae

Tribolium castaneum, Trogoderma granarium, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Sitophilus oryzae, Rhyzopertha dominica, and Cryptolestes ferrugineus are all major pests of stored grains. In this study, the efficiency of single and joint applications of the entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) Steinernema carpocapsae at two different doses (50 and 100 IJs cm-2) and the entomopathogenic fungus (EPF) Beauveria bassiana for the management of the aforementioned pests was estimated. At single treatments, both doses of S. carpocapsae caused higher mortality rates to all six pest species compared to B. bassiana. The combined treatment of EPF and EPN resulted in higher mortality compared to single treatments. Mortality was strongly influenced by the exposure interval and the application dose of the EPN at both single and combined treatments. Maximum mortality was observed for the application of the combined treatment at the high dose of S. carpocapsae and B. bassiana. Among the different insect species tested, the maximum mortality rate was observed for R. dominica (96.62%), followed by S. oryzae (90.48%), T. castaneum (87.23%), C. ferrugineus (76.05%), O. surinamensis (70.74%), and T. granarium (57.71%). The outcomes of this study demonstrate the potential of utilizing specific combinations of EPF and EPN as effective natural enemies against stored-grain pests.

Natural and Synthetic Repellents for Pest Management of the Storage Mite Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank) (Sarcoptiformes: Acaridae)

Simple Summary

The ham mite is the major pest of dry-cured hams, aged cheeses, and specialty pet foods that are high in fats and proteins. Ham mites are also known to cause allergies in some cases for humans. The toxic fumigant gas methyl bromide had been used for years to control this mite pest, but it is being phased out of use due to its impact on the protective ozone layer of the earth’s upper atmosphere. Ham producers now require alternatives to methyl bromide for controlling mites. We conducted laboratory experiments with food-safe synthetic and plant-derived chemical repellents to keep mites away from dry cured hams. Our results showed that several of these repellents could effectively prevent ham mites from contacting and staying on treated pieces of ham, and that they would readily go to untreated ham pieces when given a choice. Further experiments found that mites would not feed on nor produce offspring when held on ham pieces coated with oils from thyme, lemon grass, rose, or a mixture of naturally occurring fat molecules. Our experiments suggest that these food-safe repellents might protect dry-cured hams from mites during their time in aging rooms by application to racks on which hams are aged or to the nets and packaging in which hams are held.

Abstract

The fumigant pesticide methyl bromide (MB) was used for stored products, but it is now banned for most uses in many countries as an ozone-depleting substance. MB was the only pesticide used to manage the ham mite, Tyrophagus putrescentiae, which is the most significant pest of dry cured hams. Effective alternatives to MB are needed to develop integrated pest management (IPM) programs for this pest. This study evaluated plant essential oils and food-safe compounds as repellents to directly protect hams from infestation. Experiments to assess the repellency to orientation, oviposition, and population growth of mites on pieces of aged country hams were conducted. Test compounds at different concentrations were dissolved in respective solvents and compared to the solvent control. Results showed that C8910, a mixture of three short-chain fatty acids, and the sesquiterpene ketone nootkatone had repellency indices of (RI) of 85.6% and 82.3%, respectively, at a concentration of 0.1 mg/cm², when applied to a Petri dish arena. DEET and icaridin were also tested but performed poorly with RIs below 70% even at 0.1 mg/cm².The monoterpene alcohol geraniol had the highest RI of 96.3% at 0.04 mg/cm². Ham pieces dipped in C8910 and nootkatone at 150 ppm each had RIs of 89.3% and 82.8%, respectively. In general, as the concentrations of test compounds increased, the numbers of eggs that were laid on these treated ham cubes decreased after the 48 h exposure time. Ham pieces dipped in different concentrations of test compounds and then inoculated with 20 adult mites showed a significant decrease in mite population growth compared to control pieces after 14 days. The results of these experiments suggest that some plant secondary metabolites and synthetic food-safe compounds could serve as potential alternatives for managing mites on hams.

Developing a Hazomalania voyronii Essential Oil Nanoemulsion for the Eco-Friendly Management of Tribolium confusum, Tribolium castaneum and Tenebrio molitor Larvae and Adults on Stored Wheat

Most insecticides commonly used in storage facilities are synthetic, an issue that generates concerns about food safety and public health. Therefore, the development of eco-friendly pest management tools is urgently needed. In the present study, a 6% (w/w) Hazomalania voyronii essential oil-based nanoemulsion (HvNE) was developed and evaluated for managing Tribolium confusum, T. castaneum, and Tenebrio molitor, as an eco-friendly wheat protectant. Larval and adult mortality was evaluated after 4, 8, and 16 h, and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 days, testing two HvNE concentrations (500 ppm and 1000 ppm). T. confusum and T. castaneum adults and T. molitor larvae were tolerant to both concentrations of the HvNE, reaching 13.0%, 18.7%, and 10.3% mortality, respectively, at 1000 ppm after 7 days of exposure. However, testing HvNE at 1000 ppm, the mortality of T. confusum and T. castaneum larvae and T. molitor adults 7 days post-exposure reached 92.1%, 97.4%, and 100.0%, respectively. Overall, the HvNE can be considered as an effective adulticide or larvicide, depending on the target species. Our results highlight the potential of H. voyronii essential oil for developing green nanoinsecticides to be used in real-world conditions against key stored-product pests.

(Quasi)-Binomial vs. Gaussian Models to Evaluate Thiamethoxam, Pirimiphos-Methyl, Alpha-Cypermethrin and Deltamethrin on Different Types of Storage Bag Materials Against Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

The Mediterranean flour moth, Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and the confused flour beetle, Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) are worldwide spread and notorious organisms of numerous stored-products. Both species are dangerous for bagged commodities as penetrators and invaders. The aim of the current study was to examine the efficacy of thiamethoxam, pirimiphos-methyl, alpha-cypermethrin, and deltamethrin, against E. kuehniella and T. confusum larvae, on different types of storage bag materials, i.e., woven propylene, biaxially oriented polypropylene and kraft paper through a (quasi)-binomial modeling approach. The type of the tested storage bag material did not affect the mortality rates of both species when treated with the tested insecticides. Thiamethoxam and pirimiphos-methyl showed statistically significant higher mortality rates on E. kuehniella and T. confusum (beta coefficient = 0.141; p-value < 0.05) compared to alpha-cypermethrin and deltamethrin. In addition, T. confusum exhibited significantly higher mortality rate in comparison to E. kuehniella. Our results also showed that the tested doses and surface treatments had a significant effect on the mortality E. kuehniella and T. confusum larvae. Significantly higher mortality rates were recorded when larvae were exposed on bag materials having both surfaces treated or on the single treated surface than when they were exposed on the untreated surface. Our findings can be useful towards an effective management strategy against stored-product insect pests.

Assessment of Insecticidal Activity of Benzylisoquinoline Alkaloids from Chilean Rhamnaceae Plants against Fruit-Fly Drosophila melanogaster and the Lepidopteran Crop Pest Cydia pomonella

The Chilean plants Discaria chacaye, Talguenea quinquenervia (Rhamnaceae), Peumus boldus (Monimiaceae), and Cryptocarya alba (Lauraceae) were evaluated against Codling moth: Cydia pomonella L. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster (Diptera: Drosophilidae), which is one of the most widespread and destructive primary pests of Prunus (plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines, apricots, almonds), pear, walnuts, and chestnuts, among other. Four benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (coclaurine, laurolitsine, boldine, and pukateine) were isolated from the above mentioned plant species and evaluated regarding their insecticidal activity against the codling moth and fruit fly. The results showed that these alkaloids possess acute and chronic insecticidal effects. The most relevant effect was observed at 10 µg/mL against D. melanogaster and at 50 µg/mL against C. pomonella, being the alteration of the feeding, deformations, failure in the displacement of the larvae in the feeding medium of D. melanogaster, and mortality visible effects. In addition, the docking results show that these type of alkaloids present a good interaction with octopamine and ecdysone receptor showing a possible action mechanism.

Improving Stored Product Insect Pest Management: From Theory to Practice

Integrated pest management (IPM) is being more widely used for managing stored product insects [...].

Do temperature, relative humidity and interspecific competition alter the population size and the damage potential of stored-product insect pests? A hierarchical multilevel modeling approach

The premises of stored agricultural products and food consists of a complex ecosystem in which several pests can seriously affect the quality and quantity of the products. In this study we utilize a 4-level hierarchical linear multilevel model in order to assess the effect of temperature, relative humidity (RH) and interspecific competition on the population size and damage potential of the larger grain borer, Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae) and the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae). As RH was increased, we observed higher percentage of live insects, while increased levels of temperature significantly decreased the percentage of live insects. The combination of R. dominica and P. truncatus lead to reduction of the percentages of live insects in comparison to single species treatments. However, P. truncatus is more damaging than R. dominica in maize, based on the proportion of damaged kernels which were infested by each insect species. We expect our results to have bearing in the management of these species.

Health Hazards Associated with Arthropod Infestation of Stored Products

Insects and mites are common inhabitants and accidental invaders of food, including durable commodities, and their presence can have both direct and indirect effects on human health. The most common direct effect is contamination of food with arthropod fragments and related contaminants, which may be allergenic or even carcinogenic. The most important indirect effect is that their presence can change the storage microenvironment, making durable products suitable for the rapid development of fungi and other microorganisms. Some of these fungi can produce toxins (e.g., aflatoxins) that endanger human health. Insects may actively or passively contribute to the spread of microorganisms, increasing product contamination, and they may host bacteria that have developed antibiotic resistance, contributing to their spread in food. Several species also may host, attract, or transmit tapeworms, predators, or parasitoids that may affect health. This review synthesizes research on these topics and suggests directions for future research.

Controlling infestation of a chocolate factory by Plodia interpunctella by combining mating disruption and the parasitoid Habrobracon hebetor

A field experiment of 4 years' duration was carried out to evaluate the efficacy of combining the mating disruption (MD) formulation Dismate ZETA ((9Z,12E)-tetradecadienyl acetate), with the parasitoid Habrobracon hebetor against the Indianmeal moth Plodia interpunctella in a chocolate factory. The experimental period began early in 2011 and ended in late 2014. Begane Dismate dispensers were placed in the facility from 2011 to 2014 and H. hebetor was released in 2014. Pheromone-baited traps were used to monitor the flight activity of the male moths and oviposition Petri dish traps were placed to assess the progeny production of P. interpunctella females. Following the start of MD, a decrease in the number of P. interpunctella males caught in monitoring traps was observed from 2011 to 2013. A further decline in the moth population was noted in 2014, when MD was combined with the release of parasitoids. The presence of larvae in the oviposition cups was occasionally observed throughout the monitoring period, from 2011 to 2014. This study demonstrates that the combined system of MD and parasitoids is an effective and reliable technique that can be used to successfully control P. interpunctella.

Detection and localization of Solitalea-like and Cardinium bacteria in three Acarus siro populations (Astigmata: Acaridae)

Bacteria associated with mites influence their fitness, nutrition and reproduction. Previously, we found Solitalea-like (Sphingobacteriales) and Candidatus Cardinium (Cytophagales) bacteria in the stored product mite Acarus siro L. by cloning and using pyrosequencing. In this study, taxon-specific primers targeting 16S rRNA gene were used to detect and quantify the bacteria in mites and eggs of three A. siro populations. The specific probes for fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) were used to localize Solitalea-like and Cardinium bacteria in mite bodies. The population growth as an indirect estimator of fitness was used to describe the mite-bacteria interactions on (1) control diet; (2) rifampicin supplemented diet; (3) tetracycline supplemented diet; (4) rifampicin pretreated mites; (5) tetracycline pretreated mites. Solitalea-like 16S rRNA gene sequences from A. siro formed a separate cluster together with sequences from Tyrophagus putrescentiae. qPCR analysis indicated that number of Solitalea-like bacteria 16S rRNA gene copies was ca. 100× higher than that of Cardinium and the numbers differed between populations. FISH analysis localized Solitalea-like bacteria in the parenchymal tissues, mesodeum and food bolus of larvae, nymphs and adults. Solitalea-like, but not Cardinium bacteria were detected by taxon-specific primers in mites and eggs of all three investigated populations. None of the antibiotic treatments eliminated Solitalea-like bacteria in the A. siro populations tested. Rifampicin pretreatment significantly decreased the population growth. The numbers of Solitalea-like bacteria did not correlate with the population growth as a fitness indicator. This study demonstrated that A. siro can host Solitalea-like bacteria either alone or together with Cardinium. We suggest that Solitalea-like bacteria are shared by vertical transfer in A. siro populations.

Capture of Tribolium castaneum and Tribolium confusum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in Floor Traps: The Effect of Previous Captures

The impact of prior captures on the trapping performance of floor traps was evaluated for the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), and the confused flour beetle, Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), in laboratory conditions. The effect of trap seeding, adding adults of the same or different species, was evaluated in order to determine possible effects of prior captures in the trap on each species' behavioral responses. The presence of seeded beetles of the same species resulted in an increase in beetle captures for both T. castaneum and T. confusum, but when traps were seeded with the opposite species, there was no increase in beetle captures for either species, and for T. castaneum overall captures in both seeded and unseeded traps was reduced. Overall, T. castaneum tended to have greater captures than T. confusum regardless of the treatment. When the two species were released together, this negated the increased response to seeded traps observed in the single-species treatments. These findings suggest the potential that the presence of beetles in a trap may be influencing the response of beetles in a nearby trap and that T. castaneum and T. confusum when they occur together may influence each other's response to traps.

Comparison of the effect of insecticides on three strains of Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Acari: Astigmata) using an impregnated filter paper test and a growth test

BACKGROUND

In this study, we compared the efficacy of insecticides against three strains of Tyrophagus putrescentiae using an impregnated filter paper test and a growth test. We tested the suppressive activity of commercial insecticides and their analytical standards (pirimiphos-methyl, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, chlorfenapyr, β-cyfluthrin).

METHODS

The strains of T. putrescentiae originated from a laboratory, a field and dog food. The mortality of the mites due to active ingredients and analytical standards was tested using an impregnated filter paper test after 24 h. Lethal doses, LD50 , LD95 and LD99 were determined. A growth test was used to observe the suppressive effect of the active ingredients on mites at 21 days after application of the active ingredients to wheat grain. The effective doses ED50 , ED95 and ED99 were determined, indicating the concentration at which the population was reduced by 50, 95 and 99% more than control.

RESULTS

Cypermethrin, β-cyfluthrin and a formulation of deltamethrin with piperonylbutoxide in the pesticide K-Othrine showed low toxicity to mites. High toxicity was observed for chlorfenapyr (LD50 : 0.1-1 µg cm(-2) ; ED50 : 0.11-1.2 µg g(-1) ) and pirimiphos-methyl (LD50 : 0.01-0.06 µg cm(-2) ; ED50 : 0.2-12 µg g(-1) ). We did not find significant differences among the compared strains in terms of their sensitivity to highly toxic insecticides.

CONCLUSION

The obtained results showed that a filter paper test is a more sensitive method of identifying differences in pesticide susceptibility among strains, but the efficacy of pesticides against one species should be tested using a growth test.

Growth-suppressive effect of the α-amylase inhibitor of Triticum aestivum on stored-product mites varies by the species and type of diet

A naturally occurring α-amylase inhibitor (α-AI) of Triticum aestivum protects wheat grain from gramnivorous arthropod pests. The α-AI (Type-I) was incorporated into carbohydrate and protein diets to test its inhibitory activity on the stored-product mites Acarus siro, Lepidoglyphus destructor and Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Acari: Astigmata). Growth tests of mites fed the various diets were used to compare the suppressive effects. The final population size of mites attained from an initial population of 50 specimens maintained under controlled conditions (85 % relative humidity and 25 °C) was compared after 21 days of cultivation. The results showed that α-AI in the concentration in the range of 0.01-1 mg g(-1) did not suppress the growth of the tested stored-product mites. α-AI at a concentration of 10 mg g(-1) exerted a growth-suppressive effect that depended on the diet and species of the mites. The growth rate of A. siro was affected by the type of diet and was higher on carbohydrate diet than on the protein diet, the suppressive effect of α-AI was on the both diets. The growth-suppressive effect of α-AI on L. destructor and T. putrescentiae was significant when they were fed the protein diet but not when they were fed the carbohydrate diet. The higher resistance of tested mites to α-AI (proteinaceous) compared to non-proteinaceous acarbose corresponds to a powerful proteotolytic system in the mite gut. The results are discussed in terms of the adaptability of mites to utilize the starch from food sources.

A review of current statistical methodologies for in-storage sampling and surveillance in the grains industry

Effective, statistically robust sampling and surveillance strategies form an integral component of large agricultural industries such as the grains industry. Intensive in-storage sampling is essential for pest detection, integrated pest management (IPM), to determine grain quality and to satisfy importing nation's biosecurity concerns, while surveillance over broad geographic regions ensures that biosecurity risks can be excluded, monitored, eradicated or contained within an area. In the grains industry, a number of qualitative and quantitative methodologies for surveillance and in-storage sampling have been considered. Primarily, research has focussed on developing statistical methodologies for in-storage sampling strategies concentrating on detection of pest insects within a grain bulk; however, the need for effective and statistically defensible surveillance strategies has also been recognised. Interestingly, although surveillance and in-storage sampling have typically been considered independently, many techniques and concepts are common between the two fields of research. This review aims to consider the development of statistically based in-storage sampling and surveillance strategies and to identify methods that may be useful for both surveillance and in-storage sampling. We discuss the utility of new quantitative and qualitative approaches, such as Bayesian statistics, fault trees and more traditional probabilistic methods and show how these methods may be used in both surveillance and in-storage sampling systems.

A review on the factors affecting mite growth in stored grain commodities

A thorough review of the literature has identified the key factors and interactions that affect the growth of mite pests on stored grain commodities. Although many factors influence mite growth, the change and combinations of the physical conditions (temperature, relative humidity and/or moisture content) during the storage period are likely to have the greatest impact, with biological factors (e.g. predators and commodity) playing an important role. There is limited information on the effects of climate change, light, species interactions, local density dependant factors, spread of mycotoxins and action thresholds for mites. A greater understanding of these factors may identify alternative control techniques. The ability to predict mite population dynamics over a range of environmental conditions, both physical and biological, is essential in providing an early warning of mite infestations, advising when appropriate control measures are required and for evaluating control measures. This information may provide a useful aid in predicting and preventing mite population development as part of a risk based decision support system.