Climbing Fiber Activation Induced by Footshock in the Cerebellar Vermis Lobule IV/V of Freely Moving Mice

Parallel fibers (PFs) in the cerebellar cortex are involved in a series of coordinated responses in the fear conditioning paradigm induced by footshock. However, whether footshock can activate cerebellar climbing fibers (CFs) remains unclear. In this study, we recorded calcium (Ca2+) activity in CFs by optical fiber photometry in the cerebellar vermis lobule IV/V of freely moving mice with footshock stimulation. We found that the activation of CFs in the lobule IV/V was highly correlated with footshock stimulation but not with the sound stimulation used as a control. This result suggests that afferent information from CFs might be associated with the motor initiation of fear-related behaviors or fear emotion itself. Thus, our results suggest that a characteristic CF signal in the cerebellar cortex might be related to fear processing or footshock-related behaviors (such as startle responses or pain sensation).

Is essential tremor a disorder of GABA dysfunction? No

Although essential tremor is common, its underlying pathophysiology remains uncertain, and several hypotheses seek to explain the tremor mechanism. The GABA hypothesis states that disinhibition of deep cerebellar neurons due to reduced GABAergic input from Purkinje cells results in increased pacemaker activity, leading to rhythmic output to the thalamo-cortical circuit and resulting in tremor. However, some neuroimaging, spectroscopy, and pathology studies have not shown a clear or consistent GABA deficiency in essential tremor, and animal models have indicated that large reductions of Purkinje cell inhibition may improve tremor. Instead, tremor is increasingly attributable to dysfunction in oscillating networks, where altered (but not necessarily reduced) inhibitory signaling can result in tremor. Hypersynchrony of Purkinje cell activity may account for excessive oscillatory cerebellar output, with potential contributions along multiple sites of the olivocerebellar loop. Although older animal tremor models, such as harmaline tremor, have explored contributions from the inferior olivary body, increasing evidence has pointed to the role of aberrant climbing fiber synaptic organization in oscillatory cerebellar activity and tremor generation. New animal models such as hotfoot17j mice, which exhibit abnormal climbing fiber organization due to mutations in Grid2, have recapitulated many features of ET. Similar abnormal climbing fiber architecture and excessive cerebellar oscillations as measured by EEG have been found in humans with essential tremor. Further understanding of hypersynchrony and excessive oscillatory activity in ET phenotypes may lead to more targeted and effective treatment options.

Is essential tremor a degenerative disorder or an electric disorder? Degenerative disorder

Essential tremor (ET) is a highly prevalent neurologic disease and is the most common of the many tremor disorders. ET is a progressive condition with marked clinical heterogeneity, associated with a spectrum of both motor and non-motor features. However, its disease mechanisms remain poorly understood. Much debate has centered on whether ET should be considered a degenerative disorder, with underlying pathological changes in brain causing progressive disease manifestations, or an electric disorder, with overactivity of intrinsically oscillatory motor networks that occur without underlying structural brain abnormalities. Converging data from clinical, neuroimaging and pathological studies in ET now provide considerable evidence for the neurodegenerative hypothesis. A major turning point in this debate is that rigorous tissue-based studies have recently identified a series of structural changes in the ET cerebellum. Most of these pathological changes are centered on the Purkinje cell and connected neuronal populations, which can result in partial loss of Purkinje cells and circuitry reorganizations that would disturb cerebellar function. There is significant overlap in clinical and pathological features of ET with other disorders of cerebellar degeneration, and an increased risk of developing other degenerative diseases in ET. The combined implication of these studies is that ET could be degenerative. The evidence in support of the degenerative hypothesis is presented.

Is the inferior olive central to essential tremor? Yes

We consider the question whether the inferior olive (IO) is required for essential tremor (ET). Much evidence shows that the olivocerebellar system is the main system capable of generating the widespread synchronous oscillatory Purkinje cell (PC) complex spike (CS) activity across the cerebellar cortex that would be capable of generating the type of bursting cerebellar output from the deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN) that could underlie tremor. Normally, synchronous CS activity primarily reflects the effective electrical coupling of IO neurons by gap junctions, and traditionally, ET research has focused on the hypothesis of increased coupling of IO neurons as the cause of hypersynchronous CS activity underlying tremor. However, recent pathology studies of brains from humans with ET and evidence from mutant mice, particularly the hotfoot17 mouse, that largely replicate the pathology of ET, suggest that the abnormal innervation of multiple Purkinje cells (PCs) by climbing fibers (Cfs) is related to tremor. In addition, ET brains show partial PC loss and axon terminal sprouting by surviving PCs. This may provide another mechanism for tremor. It is proposed that in ET, these three mechanisms may promote tremor. They all involve hypersynchronous DCN activity and an intact IO, but the level at which excessive synchronization occurs may be at the IO level (from abnormal afferent activity to this nucleus), the PC level (via aberrant Cfs), or the DCN level (via terminal PC collateral innervation).

Deficits Associated With Loss of STIM1 in Purkinje Neurons Including Motor Coordination Can Be Rescued by Loss of Septin 7

Septins are cytoskeletal proteins that can assemble to form heteromeric filamentous complexes and regulate a range of membrane-associated cellular functions. SEPT7, a member of the septin family, functions as a negative regulator of the plasma membrane–localized store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) channel, Orai in Drosophila neurons, and in human neural progenitor cells. Knockdown of STIM, a Ca²⁺ sensor in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and an integral component of SOCE, leads to flight deficits in Drosophila that can be rescued by partial loss of SEPT7 in neurons. Here, we tested the effect of reducing and removing SEPT7 in mouse Purkinje neurons (PNs) with the loss of STIM1. Mice with the complete knockout of STIM1 in PNs exhibit several age-dependent changes. These include altered gene expression in PNs, which correlates with increased synapses between climbing fiber (CF) axons and Purkinje neuron (PN) dendrites and a reduced ability to learn a motor coordination task. Removal of either one or two copies of the SEPT7 gene in STIM1^KO PNs restored the expression of a subset of genes, including several in the category of neuron projection development. Importantly, the rescue of gene expression in these animals is accompanied by normal CF-PN innervation and an improved ability to learn a motor coordination task in aging mice. Thus, the loss of SEPT7 in PNs further modulates cerebellar circuit function in STIM1^KO animals. Our findings are relevant in the context of identifying SEPT7 as a putative therapeutic target for various neurodegenerative diseases caused by reduced intracellular Ca²⁺ signaling.

Essential tremor

Essential tremor (ET) is one of the most common movement disorders, with a reported >60 million affected individuals worldwide. The definition and underlying pathophysiology of ET are contentious. Patients present primarily with motor features such as postural and action tremors, but may also have other non-motor features, including cognitive impairment and neuropsychiatric symptoms. Genetics account for most of the ET risk but environmental factors may also be involved. However, the variable penetrance and challenges in validating data make gene-environment analysis difficult. Structural changes in cerebellar Purkinje cells and neighbouring neuronal populations have been observed in post-mortem studies, and other studies have found GABAergic dysfunction and dysregulation of the cerebellar-thalamic-cortical circuitry. Commonly prescribed medications include propranolol and primidone. Deep brain stimulation and ultrasound thalamotomy are surgical options in patients with medically intractable ET. Further research in post-mortem studies, and animal and cell-based models may help identify new pathophysiological clues and therapeutic targets and, together with advances in omics and machine learning, may facilitate the development of precision medicine for patients with ET.

Cerebellar oscillations driven by synaptic pruning deficits of cerebellar climbing fibers contribute to tremor pathophysiology

Essential tremor (ET) is one of the most common movement disorders and the prototypical disorder for abnormal rhythmic movements. However, the pathophysiology of tremor generation in ET remains unclear. Here, we used autoptic cerebral tissue from patients with ET, clinical data, and mouse models to report that synaptic pruning deficits of climbing fiber (CF)-to-Purkinje cell (PC) synapses, which are related to glutamate receptor delta 2 (GluRδ2) protein insufficiency, cause excessive cerebellar oscillations and might be responsible for tremor. The CF-PC synaptic pruning deficits were correlated with the reduction in GluRδ2 expression in the postmortem ET cerebellum. Mice with GluRδ2 insufficiency and CF-PC synaptic pruning deficits develop ET-like tremor that can be suppressed with viral rescue of GluRδ2 protein. Step-by-step optogenetic or pharmacological inhibition of neuronal firing, axonal activity, or synaptic vesicle release confirmed that the activity of the excessive CF-to-PC synapses is required for tremor generation. In vivo electrophysiology in mice showed that excessive cerebellar oscillatory activity is CF dependent and necessary for tremor and optogenetic-driven PC synchronization was sufficient to generate tremor in wild-type animals. Human validation by cerebellar electroencephalography confirmed that excessive cerebellar oscillations also exist in patients with ET. Our findings identify a pathophysiologic contribution to tremor at molecular (GluRδ2), structural (CF-to-PC synapses), physiological (cerebellar oscillations), and behavioral levels (kinetic tremor) that might have clinical applications for treating ET.

Increased Purkinje Cell Complex Spike and Deep Cerebellar Nucleus Synchrony as a Potential Basis for Syndromic Essential Tremor. A Review and Synthesis of the Literature

We review advances in understanding Purkinje cell (PC) complex spike (CS) physiology that suggest increased CS synchrony underlies syndromic essential tremor (ET). We searched PubMed for papers describing factors that affect CS synchrony or cerebellar circuits potentially related to tremor. Inferior olivary (IO) neurons are electrically coupled, with the degree of coupling controlled by excitatory and GABAergic inputs. Clusters of coupled IO neurons synchronize CSs within parasagittal bands via climbing fibers (Cfs). When motor cortex is stimulated in rats at varying frequencies, whisker movement occurs at ~10 Hz, correlated with synchronous CSs, indicating that the IO/CS oscillatory rhythm gates movement frequency. Intra-IO injection of the GABA_A receptor antagonist picrotoxin increases CS synchrony, increases whisker movement amplitude, and induces tremor. Harmaline and 5-HT_2a receptor activation also increase IO coupling and CS synchrony and induce tremor. The hotfoot17 mouse displays features found in ET brains, including cerebellar GluRδ2 deficiency and abnormal PC Cf innervation, with IO- and PC-dependent cerebellar oscillations and tremor likely due to enhanced CS synchrony. Heightened coupling within the IO oscillator leads, through its dynamic control of CS synchrony, to increased movement amplitude and, when sufficiently intense, action tremor. Increased CS synchrony secondary to aberrant Cf innervation of multiple PCs likely also underlies hotfoot17 tremor. Deep cerebellar nucleus (DCN) hypersynchrony may occur secondary to increased CS synchrony but might also occur from PC axonal terminal sprouting during partial PC loss. Through these combined mechanisms, increased CS/DCN synchrony may plausibly underlie syndromic ET.

Essential tremor pathology: neurodegeneration and reorganization of neuronal connections

Essential tremor (ET) is the most common tremor disorder globally and is characterized by kinetic tremor of the upper limbs, although other clinical features can also occur. Postmortem studies are a particularly important avenue for advancing our understanding of the pathogenesis of ET; however, until recently, the number of such studies has been limited. Several recent postmortem studies have made important contributions to our understanding of the pathological changes that take place in ET. These studies identified abnormalities in the cerebellum, which primarily affected Purkinje cells (PCs), basket cells and climbing fibres, in individuals with ET. We suggest that some of these pathological changes (for example, focal PC axonal swellings, swellings in and regression of the PC dendritic arbor and PC death) are likely to be primary and degenerative. By contrast, other changes, such as an increase in PC recurrent axonal collateral formation and hypertrophy of GABAergic basket cell axonal processes, could be compensatory responses to restore cerebellar GABAergic tone and cerebellar cortical inhibitory efficacy. Such compensatory responses are likely to be insufficient, enabling the disease to progress. Here, we review the results of recent postmortem studies of ET and attempt to place these findings into an anatomical-physiological disease model.

Current Opinions and Consensus for Studying Tremor in Animal Models

Tremor is the most common movement disorder; however, we are just beginning to understand the brain circuitry that generates tremor. Various neuroimaging, neuropathological, and physiological studies in human tremor disorders have been performed to further our knowledge of tremor. But, the causal relationship between these observations and tremor is usually difficult to establish and detailed mechanisms are not sufficiently studied. To overcome these obstacles, animal models can provide an important means to look into human tremor disorders. In this manuscript, we will discuss the use of different species of animals (mice, rats, fruit flies, pigs, and monkeys) to model human tremor disorders. Several ways to manipulate the brain circuitry and physiology in these animal models (pharmacology, genetics, and lesioning) will also be discussed. Finally, we will discuss how these animal models can help us to gain knowledge of the pathophysiology of human tremor disorders, which could serve as a platform towards developing novel therapies for tremor.

Climbing fiber-Purkinje cell synaptic pathology in tremor and cerebellar degenerative diseases

Changes in climbing fiber-Purkinje cell (CF-PC) synaptic connections have been found in the essential tremor (ET) cerebellum, and these changes are correlated with tremor severity. Whether these postmortem changes are specific to ET remains to be investigated. We assessed CF-PC synaptic pathology in the postmortem cerebellum across a range of degenerative movement disorders [10 Parkinson's disease (PD) cases, 10 multiple system atrophy (MSA) cases, 10 spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1) cases, and 20 ET cases] and 25 controls. We observed differences in terms of CF pathological features across these disorders. Specifically, PD cases and ET cases both had more CFs extending into the parallel fiber (PF) territory, but ET cases had more complex branching and increased length of CFs in the PF territory along with decreased CF synaptic density compared to PD cases. MSA cases and SCA1 cases had the most severely reduced CF synaptic density and a marked paucity of CFs extending into the PF territory. Furthermore, CFs in a subset of MSA cases formed collateral branches parallel to the PC layer, a feature not seen in other diagnostic groups. Using unsupervised cluster analysis, the cases and controls could all be categorized into four clusters based on the CF pathology and features of PC pathology, including counts of PCs and their axonal torpedoes. ET cases and PD cases co-segregated into two clusters, whereas SCA1 cases and MSA cases formed another cluster, separate from the control cluster. Interestingly, the presence of resting tremor seemed to be the clinical feature that separated the cases into the two ET-PD clusters. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that these degenerative movement disorders seem to differ with respect to the pattern of CF synaptic pathology they exhibit. It remains to be determined how these differences contribute to the clinical presentations of these diseases.

Role of primary afferents in the developmental regulation of motor axon synapse numbers on Renshaw cells

Motor function in mammalian species depends on the maturation of spinal circuits formed by a large variety of interneurons that regulate motoneuron firing and motor output. Interneuron activity is in turn modulated by the organization of their synaptic inputs, but the principles governing the development of specific synaptic architectures unique to each premotor interneuron are unknown. For example, Renshaw cells receive, at least in the neonate, convergent inputs from sensory afferents (likely Ia) and motor axons, raising the question of whether they interact during Renshaw cell development. In other well-studied neurons, such as Purkinje cells, heterosynaptic competition between inputs from different sources shapes synaptic organization. To examine the possibility that sensory afferents modulate synaptic maturation on developing Renshaw cells, we used three animal models in which afferent inputs in the ventral horn are dramatically reduced (ER81(-/-) knockout), weakened (Egr3(-/-) knockout), or strengthened (mlcNT3(+/-) transgenic). We demonstrate that increasing the strength of sensory inputs on Renshaw cells prevents their deselection and reduces motor axon synaptic density, and, in contrast, absent or diminished sensory afferent inputs correlate with increased densities of motor axons synapses. No effects were observed on other glutamatergic inputs. We conclude that the early strength of Ia synapses influences their maintenance or weakening during later development and that heterosynaptic influences from sensory synapses during early development regulates the density and organization of motor inputs on mature Renshaw cells.

GDNF-induced cerebellar toxicity: A brief review

Recombinant-methionyl human glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is known for its neurorestorative and neuroprotective effects in rodent and primate models of Parkinson's disease (PD). When administered locally into the putamen of Parkinsonian subjects, early clinical studies showed its potential promise as a disease-modifying agent. However, the development of GDNF for the treatment of PD has been significantly clouded by findings of cerebellar toxicity after continuous intraputamenal high-dose administration in a 6-month treatment/3-month recovery toxicology study in rhesus monkeys. Specifically, multifocal cerebellar Purkinje cell loss affecting 1-21% of the cerebellar cortex was observed in 4 of 15 (26.7%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 10.5-52.4%) animals treated at the highest dose level tested (3000μg/month). No cerebellar toxicity was observed at lower doses (450 and 900μg/month) in the same study, or at similar or higher doses (up to 10,000μg/month) in subchronic or chronic toxicology studies testing intermittent intracerebroventricular administration. While seemingly associated with the use of GDNF, the pathogenesis of the cerebellar lesions has not been fully understood to date. This review integrates available information to evaluate potential pathogenic mechanisms and provide a consolidated assessment of the findings. While other explanations are considered, the existing evidence is most consistent with the hypothesis that leakage of GDNF into cerebrospinal fluid during chronic infusions into the putamen down-regulates GDNF receptors on Purkinje cells, and that subsequent acute withdrawal of GDNF generates the observed lesions. The implications of these findings for clinical studies with GDNF are discussed.

Sculpting neural circuits by axon and dendrite pruning

The assembly of functional neural circuits requires the combined action of progressive and regressive events. Regressive events encompass a variety of inhibitory developmental processes, including axon and dendrite pruning, which facilitate the removal of exuberant neuronal connections. Most axon pruning involves the removal of axons that had already made synaptic connections; thus, axon pruning is tightly associated with synapse elimination. In many instances, these developmental processes are regulated by the interplay between neurons and glial cells that act instructively during neural remodeling. Owing to the importance of axon and dendritic pruning, these remodeling events require precise spatial and temporal control, and this is achieved by a range of distinct molecular mechanisms. Disruption of these mechanisms results in abnormal pruning, which has been linked to brain dysfunction. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of axon and dendritic pruning will be instrumental in advancing our knowledge of neural disease and mental disorders.

Abnormal climbing fibre-Purkinje cell synaptic connections in the essential tremor cerebellum

Structural changes in Purkinje cells have been identified in the essential tremor cerebellum, although the mechanisms that underlie these changes remain poorly understood. Climbing fibres provide one of the major excitatory inputs to Purkinje cells, and climbing fibre-Purkinje cell connections are essential for normal cerebellar-mediated motor control. The distribution of climbing fibre-Purkinje cell synapses on Purkinje cell dendrites is dynamically regulated and may be altered in disease states. The aim of the present study was to examine the density and distribution of climbing fibre-Purkinje cell synapses using post-mortem cerebellar tissue of essential tremor cases and controls. Using vesicular glutamate transporter type 2 immunohistochemistry, we labelled climbing fibre-Purkinje cell synapses of 12 essential tremor cases and 13 age-matched controls from the New York Brain Bank. Normally, climbing fibres form synapses mainly on the thick, proximal Purkinje cell dendrites in the inner portion of the molecular layer, whereas parallel fibres form synapses on the thin, distal Purkinje cell spiny branchlets. We observed that, compared with controls, essential tremor cases had decreased climbing fibre-Purkinje cell synaptic density, more climbing fibres extending to the outer portion of the molecular layer, and more climbing fibre-Purkinje cell synapses on the thin Purkinje cell spiny branchlets. Interestingly, in essential tremor, the increased distribution of climbing fibre-Purkinje cell synapses on the thin Purkinje cell branchlets was inversely associated with clinical tremor severity, indicating a close relationship between the altered distribution of climbing fibre-Purkinje cell connections and tremor. These findings suggest that abnormal climbing fibre-Purkinje cell connections could be of importance in the pathogenesis of essential tremor.

Synapse elimination in the developing cerebellum

Neural circuits in neonatal animals contain numerous redundant synapses that are functionally immature. During the postnatal period, unnecessary synapses are eliminated while functionally important synapses become stronger and mature. The climbing fiber (CF) to the Purkinje cell (PC) synapse is a representative model for the analysis of postnatal refinement of neuronal circuits in the central nervous system. PCs are initially innervated by multiple CFs with similar strengths around postnatal day 3 (P3). Only a single CF is selectively strengthened during P3–P7 (functional differentiation), and the strengthened CF undergoes translocation from soma to dendrites of PCs from P9 on (dendritic translocation). Following the functional differentiation, supernumerary CF synapses on the soma are eliminated, which proceeds in two distinct phases: the early phase from P7 to around P11 and the late phase from around P12 to P17. Here, we review our current understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms of CF synapse elimination in the developing cerebellum.

Neuronal Nogo-A negatively regulates dendritic morphology and synaptic transmission in the cerebellum

Neuronal signal integration as well as synaptic transmission and plasticity highly depend on the morphology of dendrites and their spines. Nogo-A is a membrane protein enriched in the adult central nervous system (CNS) myelin, where it restricts the capacity of axons to grow and regenerate after injury. Nogo-A is also expressed by certain neurons, in particular during development, but its physiological function in this cell type is less well understood. We addressed this question in the cerebellum, where Nogo-A is transitorily highly expressed in the Purkinje cells (PCs) during early postnatal development. We used general genetic ablation (KO) as well as selective overexpression of Nogo-A in PCs to analyze its effect on dendritogenesis and on the formation of their main input synapses from parallel (PFs) and climbing fibers (CFs). PC dendritic trees were larger and more complex in Nogo-A KO mice and smaller than in wild-type in Nogo-A overexpressing PCs. Nogo-A KO resulted in premature soma-to-dendrite translocation of CFs and an enlargement of the CF territory in the molecular layer during development. Although spine density was not influenced by Nogo-A, the size of postsynaptic densities of PF-PC synapses was negatively correlated with the Nogo-A expression level. Electrophysiological studies revealed that Nogo-A negatively regulates the strength of synaptic transmission at the PF-PC synapse. Thus, Nogo-A appears as a negative regulator of PC input synapses, which orchestrates cerebellar connectivity through regulation of synapse morphology and the size of the PC dendritic tree.

The complement system: an unexpected role in synaptic pruning during development and disease

An unexpected role for the classical complement cascade in the elimination of central nervous system (CNS) synapses has recently been discovered. Complement proteins are localized to developing CNS synapses during periods of active synapse elimination and are required for normal brain wiring. The function of complement proteins in the brain appears analogous to their function in the immune system: clearance of cellular material that has been tagged for elimination. Similarly, synapses tagged with complement proteins may be eliminated by microglial cells expressing complement receptors. In addition, developing astrocytes release signals that induce the expression of complement components in the CNS. In the mature brain, early synapse loss is a hallmark of several neurodegenerative diseases. Complement proteins are profoundly upregulated in many CNS diseases prior to signs of neuron loss, suggesting a reactivation of similar developmental mechanisms of complement-mediated synapse elimination potentially driving disease progression.

Comparative analyses of Purkinje cell gene expression profiles reveal shared molecular abnormalities in models of different polyglutamine diseases

Polyglutamine (PolyQ) diseases have common features that include progressive selective neurodegeneration and the formation of protein aggregates. There is growing evidence to suggest that critical nuclear events lead to transcriptional alterations in PolyQ diseases such as spinocerebellar ataxia type 7 (SCA7) and Huntington's disease (HD), conditions which share a cerebellar degenerative phenotype. Taking advantage of laser capture microdissection technique, we compared the Purkinje cell (PC) gene expression profiles of two transgenic polyQ mouse models (HD: R6/2; SCA7: P7E) by microarray analysis that was validated by real time quantitative PCR. A large number of transcriptional alterations were detected in the R6/2 transgenic model of HD. Similar decreases in the same mRNAs, such as phospholipase C, β 3, purkinje cell protein 2 (Pcp2) and aldolase C, were found in both models. A decrease in aldolase C and phospholipase C, β 3, may lead to an increase in the vulnerability of PCs to excitotoxic events. Furthermore, downregulation of mRNAs mediated by the Pcp2-promoter is common in both models. Thus, our data reveal shared molecular abnormalities in different polyQ disorders.

Climbing fiber synapse elimination in cerebellar Purkinje cells

Innervation of Purkinje cells (PCs) by multiple climbing fibers (CFs) is refined into mono-innervation during the first three postnatal weeks of rodents' lives. In this review article, we will integrate the current knowledge on developmental process and mechanisms of CF synapse elimination. In the 'creeper' stage of CF innervation (postnatal day 0 (P0)∼), CFs creep among PC somata to form transient synapses on immature dendrites. In the 'pericellular nest' stage (P5∼), CFs densely surround and innervate PC somata. CF innervation is then displaced to the apical portion of PC somata in the 'capuchon' stage (P9∼), and translocate to dendrites in the 'dendritic' (P12∼) stage. Along with the developmental changes in CF wiring, functional and morphological distinctions become larger among CF inputs. PCs are initially innervated by more than five CFs with similar strengths (∼P3). During P3-7 only a single CF is selectively strengthened (functional differentiation), and it undergoes dendritic translocation from P9 on (dendritic translocation). Following the functional differentiation, perisomatic CF synapses are eliminated nonselectively; this proceeds in two distinct phases. The early phase (P7-11) is conducted independently of parallel fiber (PF)-PC synapse formation, while the late phase (P12-17) critically depends on it. The P/Q-type voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channel in PCs triggers selective strengthening of single CF inputs, promotes dendritic translocation of the strengthened CFs, and drives the early phase of CF synapse elimination. In contrast, the late phase is mediated by the mGluR1-Gαq-PLCβ4-PKCγ signaling cascade in PCs driven at PF-PC synapses, whose structural connectivity is stabilized and maintained by the GluRδ2-Cbln1-neurexin system.

Abnormal nuclear envelope in the cerebellar Purkinje cells and impaired motor learning in DYT11 myoclonus-dystonia mouse models

Myoclonus-dystonia (M-D) is a movement disorder characterized by myoclonic jerks with dystonia. DYT11 M-D is caused by mutations in SGCE which codes for ɛ-sarcoglycan. SGCE is maternally imprinted and paternally expressed. Abnormal nuclear envelope has been reported in mouse models of DYT1 generalized torsion dystonia. However, it is not known whether similar alterations occur in DYT11 M-D. We developed a mouse model of DYT11 M-D using paternally inherited Sgce heterozygous knockout (Sgce KO) mice and reported that they had myoclonus and motor coordination and learning deficits in the beam-walking test. However, the specific brain regions that contribute to these phenotypes have not been identified. Since ɛ-sarcoglycan is highly expressed in the cerebellar Purkinje cells, here we examined the nuclear envelope in these cells using a transmission electron microscope and found that they are abnormal in Sgce KO mice. Our results put DYT11 M-D in a growing family of nuclear envelopathies. To analyze the effect of loss of ɛ-sarcoglycan function in the cerebellar Purkinje cells, we produced paternally inherited cerebellar Purkinje cell-specific Sgce conditional knockout (Sgce pKO) mice. Sgce pKO mice showed motor learning deficits, while they did not show abnormal nuclear envelope in the cerebellar Purkinje cells, robust motor deficits, or myoclonus. The results suggest that ɛ-sarcoglycan in the cerebellar Purkinje cells contributes to the motor learning, while loss of ɛ-sarcoglycan in other brain regions may contribute to nuclear envelope abnormality, myoclonus and motor coordination deficits.

Virtual NEURON: a strategy for merged biochemical and electrophysiological modeling

Because of its highly branched dendrite, the Purkinje neuron requires significant computational resources if coupled electrical and biochemical activity are to be simulated. To address this challenge, we developed a scheme for reducing the geometric complexity; while preserving the essential features of activity in both the soma and a remote dendritic spine. We merged our previously published biochemical model of calcium dynamics and lipid signaling in the Purkinje neuron, developed in the Virtual Cell modeling and simulation environment, with an electrophysiological model based on a Purkinje neuron model available in NEURON. A novel reduction method was applied to the Purkinje neuron geometry to obtain a model with fewer compartments that is tractable in Virtual Cell. Most of the dendritic tree was subject to reduction, but we retained the neuron's explicit electrical and geometric features along a specified path from spine to soma. Further, unlike previous simplification methods, the dendrites that branch off along the preserved explicit path are retained as reduced branches. We conserved axial resistivity and adjusted passive properties and active channel conductances for the reduction in surface area, and cytosolic calcium for the reduction in volume. Rallpacks are used to validate the reduction algorithm and show that it can be generalized to other complex neuronal geometries. For the Purkinje cell, we found that current injections at the soma were able to produce similar trains of action potentials and membrane potential propagation in the full and reduced models in NEURON; the reduced model produces identical spiking patterns in NEURON and Virtual Cell. Importantly, our reduced model can simulate communication between the soma and a distal spine; an alpha function applied at the spine to represent synaptic stimulation gave similar results in the full and reduced models for potential changes associated with both the spine and the soma. Finally, we combined phosphoinositol signaling and electrophysiology in the reduced model in Virtual Cell. Thus, a strategy has been developed to combine electrophysiology and biochemistry as a step toward merging neuronal and systems biology modeling.

Olivary climbing fiber alterations in PN40 rat cerebellum following postnatal ethanol exposure

Developmental ethanol exposure in rats during postnatal days (PN) 4-6 is known to cause significant loss of the cerebellar Purkinje cells. It is not known what happens to the surviving neurons as they continue to develop. This study was designed to quantify the interactions between the olivary climbing fibers and the Purkinje cells when the cerebellar circuits have matured. Rat pups were treated with a daily dose of ethanol (4.5g/kg body weight) delivered by intragastric intubation on PN4, PN4-6, or PN7-9. The interactions between the climbing fibers and the Purkinje cells were examined on PN40 using confocal microscopy. Mid-vermal cerebellar sections were stained with antibodies to calbindin-D28k (to visualize Purkinje cells) and vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VGluT2, to visualize climbing fibers). Confocal z-stack images were obtained from Lobule 1 and analyzed with Imaris software to quantify the staining of the two antibodies. The VGluT2 immunostaining was significantly reduced and this was associated with alterations in the synaptic integrity, and synaptic number per Purkinje cell with only a single exposure on PN4 enough to cause the alterations. Previously, we demonstrated similar deficits in climbing fiber innervation when analyzed on PN14 (Pierce, Hayar, Williams, and Light, 2010). The present study confirms that these alterations are sustained and further identifies the decreased synaptic density as well as alterations to the general morphology of the molecular layer of the cerebellar cortex that are the result of the binge ethanol exposure.

Ablation of glutamate receptor GluRδ2 in adult Purkinje cells causes multiple innervation of climbing fibers by inducing aberrant invasion to parallel fiber innervation territory

Glutamate receptor GluRδ2 is exclusively expressed in Purkinje cells (PCs) from early development and plays key roles in parallel fiber (PF) synapse formation, elimination of surplus climbing fibers (CFs), long-term depression, motor coordination, and motor learning. To address its role in adulthood, we previously developed a mouse model of drug-induced GluRδ2 ablation in adult PCs (Takeuchi et al., 2005). In that study, we demonstrated an essential role to maintain the connectivity of PF-PC synapses, based on the observation that both mismatching of presynaptic and postsynaptic specializations and disconnection of PF-PC synapses are progressively increased after GluRδ2 ablation. Here, we pursued its role for CF wiring in adult cerebellum. In parallel with the disconnection of PF-PC synapses, ascending CF branches exhibited distal extension to innervate distal dendrites of the target and neighboring PCs. Furthermore, transverse CF branches, a short motile collateral rarely forming synapses in wild-type animals, displayed aberrant mediolateral extension to innervate distal dendrites of neighboring and remote PCs. Consequently, many PCs were wired by single main CF and other surplus CFs innervating a small part of distal dendrites. Electrophysiological recording further revealed that surplus CF-EPSCs characterized with slow rise time and small amplitude emerged after GluRδ2 ablation, and increased progressively both in number and amplitude. Therefore, GluRδ2 is essential for maintaining CF monoinnervation in adult cerebellum by suppressing aberrant invasion of CF branches to the territory of PF innervation. Thus, GluRδ2 fuels heterosynaptic competition and gives PFs the competitive advantages over CFs throughout the animal's life.

Development of an anatomical technique for visualizing the mode of climbing fiber innervation in Purkinje cells and its application to mutant mice lacking GluRδ2 and Ca(v)2.1

In the adult cerebellum, a single climbing fiber (CF) innervates proximal dendrites of Purkinje cells (PCs). This monoinnervation is established by the developmental elimination of surplus CFs through homosynaptic competition among multiply innervating CFs and heterosynaptic competition between CFs and parallel fibers, i.e., granule cell axons innervating distal PC dendrites. Although the developmental process of CF monoinnervation and defects in it in mutant and experimental animal models have been extensively studied by electrophysiological techniques, for quite some time this subject was poorly understood from a morphological perspective due to a lack of neuroanatomical methods that could distinguish CFs with different neuronal origins. Soon after the identification of type 2 vesicular glutamate transporter (VGluT2) that selectively detects CF terminals in the molecular layer, we developed a novel method of combined anterograde tracer labeling and VGluT2 immunohistochemistry. This method enables us to identify the mode (mono vs. multiple) of CF innervation and the site of multiple innervation. Since then, we have applied this method to various kinds of gene-manipulated mice manifesting ataxia and other cerebellar phenotypes. In this review, we summarize experimental procedures for the combined tracer/VGluT2 labeling method, and then introduce what we have learned by applying this method in studies on the role of GluRδ2 and Ca(v)2.1 in CF monoinnervation. This method has provided informative anatomical correlates to electrophysiological data and vice versa, and will extend our knowledge of the molecular and cellular mechanisms for the development, plasticity, degeneration, and repair of the CF-PC projection system.

Alcohol withdrawal and brain injuries: beyond classical mechanisms

Unmanaged sudden withdrawal from the excessive consumption of alcohol (ethanol) adversely alters neuronal integrity in vulnerable brain regions such as the cerebellum, hippocampus, or cortex. In addition to well known hyperexcitatory neurotransmissions, ethanol withdrawal (EW) provokes the intense generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the activation of stress-responding protein kinases, which are the focus of this review article. EW also inflicts mitochondrial membranes/membrane potential, perturbs redox balance, and suppresses mitochondrial enzymes, all of which impair a fundamental function of mitochondria. Moreover, EW acts as an age-provoking stressor. The vulnerable age to EW stress is not necessarily the oldest age and varies depending upon the target molecule of EW. A major female sex steroid, 17β-estradiol (E2), interferes with the EW-induced alteration of oxidative signaling pathways and thereby protects neurons, mitochondria, and behaviors. The current review attempts to provide integrated information at the levels of oxidative signaling mechanisms by which EW provokes brain injuries and E2 protects against it.

Human ataxias: a genetic dissection of inositol triphosphate receptor (ITPR1)-dependent signaling

A persistent mystery about the ataxias has been why mutations in genes--many of which are expressed widely in the brain--primarily cause ataxia, and not, for example, epilepsy or dementia. Why should a polyglutamine stretch in the TATA-binding protein (that is important in all cells) particularly disrupt cerebellar coordination? We propose that advances in the genetics of cerebellar ataxias suggest a rational hypothesis for how so many different genes lead to predominantly cerebellar defects. We argue that the unifying feature of many genes involved in cerebellar ataxias is their impact on the signaling protein ITPR1 (inositiol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor type 1), that underlies coincidence detection in Purkinje cells and could play an important role in cerebellar coordination.

Ethanol withdrawal acts as an age-specific stressor to activate cerebellar p38 kinase

We investigated whether protein kinase p38 plays a role in the brain-aging changes associated with repeated ethanol withdrawal (EW). Ovariectomized young, middle-age and older rats, with or without 17β-estradiol (E2) implantation, received a 90-day ethanol with repeated withdrawal. They were tested for active pP38 expression in cerebellar Purkinje neurons and whole-cerebellar lysates using immunohistochemistry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. They were also tested for the Rotarod task to determine the behavioral manifestation of cerebellar neuronal stress and for reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial protein carbonyls to determine oxidative mechanisms. Middle-age EW rats showed higher levels of pP38-positive Purkinje neurons/cerebellar lysates, which coincided with increased mitochondrial protein oxidation than other diet/age groups. Exacerbated motor deficit due to age-EW combination also began at the middle-age. In comparison, ROS contents peaked in older EW rats. E2 treatment mitigated each of the EW effects to a different extent. Collectively, pP38 may mediate the brain-aging changes associated with pro-oxidant EW at vulnerable ages and in vulnerable neurons in a manner protected by estrogen.

Cbln1 accumulates and colocalizes with Cbln3 and GluRdelta2 at parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses in the mouse cerebellum

Cbln1 (a.k.a. precerebellin) is secreted from cerebellar granule cells as homohexamer or in heteromeric complexes with Cbln3. Cbln1 plays crucial roles in regulating morphological integrity of parallel fiber (PF)-Purkinje cell (PC) synapses and synaptic plasticity. Cbln1-knockout mice display severe cerebellar phenotypes that are essentially indistinguishable from those in glutamate receptor GluRdelta2-null mice, and include severe reduction in the number of PF-PC synapses and loss of long-term depression of synaptic transmission. To understand better the relationship between Cbln1, Cbln3 and GluRdelta2, we performed light and electron microscopic immunohistochemical analyses using highly specific antibodies and antigen-exposing methods, i.e. pepsin pretreatment for light microscopy and postembedding immunogold for electron microscopy. In conventional immunohistochemistry, Cbln1 was preferentially associated with non-terminal portions of PF axons in the molecular layer but rarely overlapped with Cbln3. In contrast, antigen-exposing methods not only greatly intensified Cbln1 immunoreactivity in the molecular layer, but also revealed its high accumulation in the synaptic cleft of PF-PC synapses. No such synaptic accumulation was evident at other PC synapses. Furthermore, Cbln1 now came to overlap almost completely with Cbln3 and GluRdelta2 at PF-PC synapses. Therefore, the convergence of all three molecules provides the anatomical basis for a common signaling pathway regulating circuit development and synaptic plasticity in the cerebellum.

The ataxic Cacna1a-mutant mouse rolling nagoya: an overview of neuromorphological and electrophysiological findings

Homozygous rolling Nagoya natural mutant mice display a severe ataxic gait and frequently roll over to their side or back. The causative mutation resides in the Cacna1a gene, encoding the pore-forming α₁ subunit of Ca_v2.1 type voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels. These channels are crucially involved in neuronal Ca²⁺ signaling and in neurotransmitter release at many central synapses and, in the periphery, at the neuromuscular junction. We here review the behavioral, histological, biochemical, and neurophysiological studies on this mouse mutant and discuss its usefulness as a model of human neurological diseases associated with Ca_v2.1 dysfunction.

GluRdelta2 expression in the mature cerebellum of hotfoot mice promotes parallel fiber synaptogenesis and axonal competition

Glutamate receptor delta 2 (GluRdelta2) is selectively expressed in the cerebellum, exclusively in the spines of the Purkinje cells (PCs) that are in contact with parallel fibers (PFs). Although its structure is similar to ionotropic glutamate receptors, it has no channel function and its ligand is unknown. The GluRdelta2-null mice, such as knockout and hotfoot have profoundly altered cerebellar circuitry, which causes ataxia and impaired motor learning. Notably, GluRdelta2 in PC-PF synapses regulates their maturation and strengthening and induces long term depression (LTD). In addition, GluRdelta2 participates in the highly territorial competition between the two excitatory inputs to the PC; the climbing fiber (CF), which innervates the proximal dendritic compartment, and the PF, which is connected to spiny distal branchlets. Recently, studies have suggested that GluRdelta2 acts as an adhesion molecule in PF synaptogenesis. Here, we provide in vivo and in vitro evidence that supports this hypothesis. Through lentiviral rescue in hotfoot mice, we noted a recovery of PC-PF contacts in the distal dendritic domain. In the proximal domain, we observed the formation of new spines that were innervated by PFs and a reduction in contact with the CF; ie, the pattern of innervation in the PC shifted to favor the PF input. Moreover, ectopic expression of GluRdelta2 in HEK293 cells that were cocultured with granule cells or in cerebellar Golgi cells in the mature brain induced the formation of new PF contacts. Collectively, our observations show that GluRdelta2 is an adhesion molecule that induces the formation of PF contacts independently of its cellular localization and promotes heterosynaptic competition in the PC proximal dendritic domain.

Axonal competition in the synaptic wiring of the cerebellar cortex during development and in the mature cerebellum

Purkinje cell (PC) dendrites are made by a proximal dendritic domain, which is provided with scattered clusters of spines innervated by a single climbing fiber (CF) and by a distal domain with a high density of spines innervated by parallel fibers (PFs). Following block of electrical activity a spine increase occurs in the proximal domain and the new spines are innervated by the PFs while the number of synaptic contacts formed by the CF is reduced. Also the GABAergic input expands its territory of innervation on the proximal domain, which undergoes a profound restructuring of the glutamate and GABA receptors. Excitatory-like postsynaptic assemblies appear not only on the new spines, but also on the smooth region of the dendrite and both of them may be innervated by GABAergic terminals. In this case GABA receptors coexist with the glutamate receptors leading to the formation of hybrid synapses. In contrast, PF synapses contain solely glutamate receptors. Thus, the expression of glutamate receptors appears to be an intrinsic property of the PC, while the expression of the GABA receptors is induced by the presence of GABAergic terminals. The data highlight an important feature of the CF input; its electrical activity, in addition to inducing a powerful phasic excitation and a tonic inhibition, controls the finer architecture of the cerebellar cortex.

Activity-dependent plasticity of developing climbing fiber-Purkinje cell synapses

Elimination of redundant synapses and strengthening of the surviving ones are crucial steps in the development of the nervous system. Both processes can be readily followed at the climbing fiber to Purkinje cell synapse in the cerebellum. Shortly after birth, around five equally strong climbing fiber synapses are established. Subsequently, one of these five synaptic connections starts to grow in size and synaptic strength, while the others degenerate and eventually disappear. Both the elimination of the redundant climbing fiber synapses and the strengthening of the surviving one depend on a combination of a genetically coded blueprint and synaptic activity. Recently, it has been shown that synaptic activity affects the synaptic strength of developing climbing fibers. Remarkably, the same pattern of paired activity of the presynaptic climbing fiber and the postsynaptic Purkinje cell resulted in strengthening of already "large" climbing fibers and weakening of already "weak" climbing fibers. In this review, we will integrate the current knowledge of synaptic plasticity of climbing fibers with that of other processes affecting climbing fiber development.

Influence of parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapse formation on postnatal development of climbing fiber-Purkinje cell synapses in the cerebellum

The climbing fiber (CF) to Purkinje cell (PC) synapse in the cerebellum provides an ideal model for the study of developmental rearrangements of neural circuits. At birth, each PC is innervated by multiple CFs. These surplus CFs are eliminated during postnatal development, and mono innervation is attained by postnatal day 20 (P20) in mice. Earlier studies on spontaneous mutant mice and animals with "hypogranular" cerebella indicate that regression of surplus CFs requires normal generation of granule cells and their axons, parallel fibers (PFs), and normal formation of PF-PC synapses. Our understanding of how PF-PC synapse formation affects development of CF-PC synapse has been greatly advanced by analyses of mutant mice deficient in glutamate receptor delta2 subunit (GluRdelta2), an orphan receptor expressed selectively in PCs. Deletion of GluRdelta2 results in impairment of PF-PC synapse formation, which leads to defects in development of CF-PC synapses. In this article, we review how impaired PF-PC synapse formation affects wiring of CFs to PCs based mostly on our data on GluRdelta2 knockout mice. We propose a new scheme that CF-PC synapses are shaped by the three consecutive events, namely functional differentiation of multiple CFs into one strong and a few weak inputs from P3 to P7, "early phase" of CF synapse elimination from P7 to around P11, and "late phase" of CF synapse elimination from around P12. Normal PF-PC synapse formation is required for the "late phase" of CF synapse elimination.