Evaluation of Prebiotic Effects of High-Purity Galactooligosaccharides in vitro and in vivo

Galacto-oligosaccharides regulate intestinal mucosal sialylation to counteract antibiotic-induced mucin dysbiosis

Intestinal mucin offers a physical barrier to maintain host-commensal homeostasis. Glycosylation is essential for the appropriate functioning of mucin. Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) have been used as a prebiotic with proven intestinal benefits, while their regulatory mechanism on mucin remains unclear. This study employed an antibiotic-treated rat model to mimic gut dysbiosis and attempted to restore gut dysbiosis using GOS. The gut microbiome and intestinal mucus O-glycosylations (O-glycans) in the small intestine were profiled by high-throughput sequencing and glycomics. The sialic acid phenotype at the end of O-glycans was further validated with lectin staining. Expressions of key enzymes in sialic acid metabolism and epithelial morphology were determined as well. Antibiotics significantly increased the relative abundance of Escherichia/Shigella and decreased the relative abundance of Lactobacillus. This was accompanied by decreased microbial sialidase activity and increased sialic acid in the digesta, as well as an increase in epithelial sialidase activity. Analysis of key sialylation enzymes showed the upregulation of α 2,6 sialylation (e.g. ST6GALNACs) and downregulation of α 2,3 sialylation (e.g. ST3GALs) after antibiotic treatment. The glycomics results revealed that antibiotics increased core 4 and α 2,6 sialylated O-glycans and decreased core 1, core 3 and α 2,3 sialylated O-glycans in the intestinal mucus of rats, which was further confirmed by lectin staining. Intestinal histology results demonstrated that antibiotic treatment led to the dysbiosis of intestinal mucus homeostasis. To further test the role of microbiota in regulating intestinal mucus sialylation, we supplemented GOS with antibiotics. The results showed that GOS reversed the effects of antibiotics on the gut microbiota and intestinal mucus O-glycans (especially sialylated O-glycans), characterized by an increase of Lactobacillus and α 2,3 sialylated O-glycans and a decrease of Escherichia/Shigella and α 2,6 sialylated O-glycans. What's more, GOS reduced the stimulation of the intestinal mucosa by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) by increasing α 2,3 sialylated intestinal alkaline phosphatase (IAP) to enhance IAP activity, thereby restoring intestinal mucus homeostasis. Overall, GOS counteracts antibiotic-induced mucin deficiency by remedying the gut ecology and changing the mucin sialylation pattern, as reflected by the increase of α 2,3 sialylated O-glycans and the decrease of α 2,6 sialylated O-glycans.

The influence of 'biotics' on the gut microbiome of dogs and cats

A global rise in pet ownership and an increasing tendency towards the humanisation of pets have resulted in a greater focus on improving animal health and longevity. These developments coincide with the increased recognition of the role of the gut microbiome in animal health. The gut microbiome has been shown to play a prominent role in gastrointestinal health, and it is becoming increasingly clear that these health benefits extend beyond the gut and into different physiological systems, such as the immune system. Dietary supplementation with products known as 'biotics', which include probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics and postbiotics, is a strategy used to modify the gut microbiome and promote host health. Although biotics have been successfully used in companion animals, questions remain regarding appropriate biotic selection, mechanisms of action, optimum inclusion levels and safety. This review aims to summarise the effects of biotics on the gut microbiome of dogs and cats and assess their potential role in supporting gastrointestinal health.

Prebiotics Mitigate the Detrimental Effects of High-Fat Diet on memory, anxiety and microglia functionality in Ageing Mice

Ageing is characterised by a progressive increase in systemic inflammation and especially neuroinflammation. Neuroinflammation is associated with altered brain states that affect behaviour, such as an increased level of anxiety with a concomitant decline in cognitive abilities. Although multiple factors play a role in the development of neuroinflammation, microglia have emerged as a crucial target. Microglia are the only macrophage population in the CNS parenchyma that plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and in the immune response, which depends on the activation and subsequent deactivation of microglia. Therefore, microglial dysfunction has a major impact on neuroinflammation. The gut microbiota has been shown to significantly influence microglia from birth to adulthood in terms of development, proliferation, and function. Diet is a key modulating factor that influences the composition of the gut microbiota, along with prebiotics that support the growth of beneficial gut bacteria. Although the role of diet in neuroinflammation and behaviour has been well established, its relationship with microglia functionality is less explored. This article establishes a link between diet, animal behaviour and the functionality of microglia. The results of this research stem from experiments on mouse behaviour, i.e., memory, anxiety, and studies on microglia functionality, i.e., cytochemistry (phagocytosis, cellular senescence, and ROS assays), gene expression and protein quantification. In addition, shotgun sequencing was performed to identify specific bacterial families that may play a crucial role in the brain function. The results showed negative effects of long-term consumption of a high fat diet on ageing mice, epitomised by increased body weight, glucose intolerance, anxiety, cognitive impairment and microglia dysfunction compared to ageing mice on a control diet. These effects were a consequence of the changes in gut microbiota modulated by the diet. However, by adding the prebiotics fructo- and galacto-oligosaccharides, we were able to mitigate the deleterious effects of a long-term high-fat diet.

Structural Characterization of Disaccharides Using Cyclic Ion Mobility Spectrometry and Monosaccharide Standards

To understand the mode of action of bioactive oligosaccharides, such as prebiotics, in-depth knowledge about all structural features, including monosaccharide composition, linkage type, and anomeric configuration, is necessary. Current analytical techniques provide limited information about structural features within complex mixtures unless preceded by extensive purification. In this study, we propose an approach employing cyclic ion mobility spectrometry (cIMS) for the in-depth characterization of oligosaccharides, here demonstrated for disaccharides. We were able to separate galactose and glucose anomers by exploiting the high ion mobility resolution of cIMS. Using the obtained monosaccharide mobilograms as references, we determined the composition and anomeric configuration of 4β-galactobiose by studying the monosaccharide fragments generated by collision-induced dissociation (CID) before the ion mobility separation. Drift times and individual MS2 spectra of partially resolved reducing-end anomers of 4β-galactobiose, 4β-galactosylglucose (lactose), and 4β-glucosylglucose (cellobiose) were obtained by deconvolution using CID fragmentation induced in the transfer region between the cIMS cell and TOF analyzer. The composition and anomeric configuration of the reducing end anomers of these disaccharides were identified using cIMS2 approaches, where first each anomer was isolated using cIMS and individually fragmented, and the monosaccharide fragments were again separated by cIMS for comparison with monosaccharide standards. With these results we demonstrate the promising application of cIMS for the structural characterization of isomeric oligosaccharides.

Intraintestinal fermentation of fructo- and galacto-oligosaccharides and the fate of short-chain fatty acids in humans

Consumption of fructo- (FOS) and galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) has health benefits which have been linked in part to short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) production by the gut microbiota. However, detailed knowledge of this process in the human intestine is lacking. We aimed to determine the acute fermentation kinetics of a FOS:GOS mixture in healthy males using a naso-intestinal catheter for sampling directly in the ileum or colon. We studied the fate of SCFA as substrates for glucose and lipid metabolism by the host after infusion of 13C-SCFA. In the human distal ileum, no fermentation of FOS:GOS, nor SCFA production, or bacterial cross-feeding was observed. The relative composition of intestinal microbiota changed rapidly during the test day, which demonstrates the relevance of postprandial intestinal sampling to track acute responses of the microbial community toward interventions. SCFA were vividly taken up and metabolized by the host as shown by incorporation of 13C in various host metabolites.

Higher Short-Chain Fermentable Carbohydrates Are Associated with Lower Body Fat and Higher Insulin Sensitivity in People with Prediabetes

The quality of carbohydrates has metabolic consequences in people with prediabetes. However, the causality of short-chain fermentable carbohydrate intakes and metabolic parameters has not been explored in the prediabetic or diabetic population. We investigated associations between different types of carbohydrates, including fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, polyols (FODMAPs), and polysaccharides (dietary fibre), and body composition and glucose/insulin responses in subjects with prediabetes. In this prospective cross-sectional study, 177 subjects with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) (mean age: 60 (54-62) years, 41% men) underwent an assessment of body composition and completed six-point oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTT), Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance (HOMA2-IR), insulin sensitivity, detailed 3-day food records, and physical activity questionnaire. Daily habitual FODMAP intake decreased progressively with increasing BMI, ranging from 7.9 (6.2-12.7) g/d in subjects with normal BMI and 6.6 (4.6-9.9) g/d in subjects with overweight to 5.8 (3.8-9.0) g/d in subjects with obesity (p = 0.038). After adjustment for age and gender, galactooligosaccharides (GOSs) were negatively correlated with body fat (Standardised Beta coefficient β = -0.156, p = 0.006) and positively associated with insulin sensitivity (β = 0.243, p = 0.001). This remained significant after adjustment for macronutrients, fibre, and physical activity (p = 0.035 and p = 0.010, respectively). In individuals with IGT, higher dietary GOS intake was associated with lower body fat and higher insulin sensitivity independent of macronutrients and fibre intake, calling for interventional studies to evaluate the effect of FODMAP intake in prediabetes.

Investigation of the association between habitual dietary FODMAP intake, metabolic parameters, glycemic status, and anthropometric features among apparently healthy overweight and obese individuals

BACKGROUND

The predisposition of humans to metabolic syndrome is affected by many factors, including diet and lifestyle. Fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols (FODMAPs) are a set of carbohydrates that are fermented by gut microbiota. In animal studies, supplementation with FODMAP-rich diets as prebiotics can alter body composition and gut microbiota. This study evaluates any relationship between FODMAP and metabolic syndrome risk factors among adults with metabolic syndrome in Iran.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study is based on sociodemographic information from 347 overweight and obese participants selected from outpatient clinics through public declaration. Participants body composition and anthropometric measures were also determined. A validated Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) with 168 questions was used to collect dietary data. Biochemical parameters, including serum total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), fasting serum glucose (FSG), and insulin levels, were determined by enzymatic methods. In addition, the Homeostasis Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) and Quantitative Insulin Sensitivity Check Index (QUICKI) were calculated.

RESULTS

In moderate FODMAP and low FODMAP groups, lower waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and higher fat-free mass (FFM) were achieved in higher tertiles. In high FODMAP groups, higher systolic blood pressure (SBP) was shown in the higher tertile (P < 0.05). Higher insulin, HOMA-IR, and lower QUICKI in the second tertile of the high FODMAP group were also observed.

CONCLUSION

Findings of this study highlight the potential role of FODMAP in managing metabolic syndrome and open a new field of research.

Functional β-mannooligosaccharides: Sources, enzymatic production and application as prebiotics

One of the emerging non-digestible oligosaccharide prebiotics is β-mannooligosaccharides (β-MOS). β-MOS are β-mannan derived oligosaccharides, they are selectively fermented by gut microbiota, promoting the growth of beneficial microorganisms (probiotics), whereas the growth of enteric pathogens remains unaffected or gets inhibited in their presence, along with production of metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids. β-MOS also exhibit several other bioactive properties and health-promoting effects. Production of β-MOS using the enzymes such as β-mannanases is the most effective and eco-friendly approach. For the application of β-MOS on a large scale, their production needs to be standardized using low-cost substrates, efficient enzymes and optimization of the production conditions. Moreover, for their application, detailed in-vivo and clinical studies are required. For this, a thorough information of various studies in this regard is needed. The current review provides a comprehensive account of the enzymatic production of β-MOS along with an evaluation of their prebiotic and other bioactive properties. Their characterization, structural-functional relationship and in-vivo studies have also been summarized. Research gaps and future prospects have also been discussed, which will help in conducting further research for the commercialization of β-MOS as prebiotics, functional food ingredients and therapeutic agents.

The Effect of Microbiome Therapies on Waist Circumference, a Measure of Central Obesity, in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

BACKGROUND

Microbiome therapies (probiotic, prebiotic, and synbiotics) have been proposed as adjuvants in the control of central obesity; however, their results for patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) remain inconclusive.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the effect of microbiome therapies on central obesity as measured by waist circumference (WC), and to evaluate the effect of microbiome therapies for glycemic parameters (fasting glucose [FPG], fasting insulin [FPI], hemoglobin A1c [HbA1c], and insulin resistance [HOMA1-IR]) in patients with T2D.

METHODS

SCOPUS, Pubmed, EBSCO, and LILACS databases were searched for studies that investigated the effect of microbiome therapies on WC up to June 1, 2022. Heterogeneity was determined using Cochran's Q test and quantified using the inconsistency index. The random effects model was used to calculate the pooled difference in means (DM) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI). Egger's test and Beggs-Muzamar's test were used to assess publication bias.

RESULTS

Fifteen reports were included (443 treated and 387 controls). Overall, a significant decrease in WC was found (DM = -0.97 cm; 95% confidence interval [95%CI] = -1.74 to -0.20; P = 0.014); however, when stratified by type of microbiome therapy, only probiotics significantly decreased WC (DM = -0.62 cm; 95%CI = -1.00 to -0.24; P = 0.002). No effect was observed for prebiotics and synbiotics. With respect to glycemic parameters, HbA1c, FPG, and HOMA1-IR significantly decrease with microbiome therapies (P ≤ 0.001). When stratified by the type of therapy, for probiotic treatments, HbA1c, FPG, and HOMA1-IR scores decrease (P < 0.001). For prebiotic treatments, HbA1c and FPG (P ≤ 0.001) levels decrease, whereas FPI increased (P = 0.012). Synbiotic treatments were only associated with an increase in FPI (P = 0.031).

CONCLUSION

Findings indicate that using probiotics alone improved WC in patients with T2D. Both probiotics and prebiotics decreased HbA1c and FPG; however, prebiotics and synbiotics resulted in an increase in FPI. The formulation of the therapy (single vs multi) had no difference on the effect.

Impact of TOTUM-63, a fibre and polyphenol rich plant-based composition, on gut and pancreatic hormone secretion in diet-induced obese mice

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

TOTUM-63, a fibre and polyphenol rich plant-based composition, has been demonstrated to significantly improve body weight and glucose homeostasis in animal models of obesity. Our study aimed at exploring whether the mechanisms include modulation of gut (glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP), glucagon-like petide-1 (GLP-1), cholecystokinin (CCK), peptide YY (PYY)) and pancreatic (insulin, glucagon) hormones, all important regulators of glucose control, appetite and body weight.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Male C57BL/6JRJ mice were assigned to either standard chow (CON), high fat diet (HF, 60% energy from fat) or HF-TOTUM-63 (HF diet 60% supplemented with TOTUM-63 2.7%) for 10 weeks. In vivo glucose homeostasis (oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), intraperitoneal pyruvate tolerance test (ipPTT)), glucose-induced portal vein hormone concentration, gut hormone gene expression and protein content as well as enteroendocrine cell contents were assessed at the end of the dietary intervention. The present study evidenced that TOTUM-63 reduced food intake, limited weight gain and improved glucose and pyruvate tolerance of HF-fed animals. This was associated with an increase in PYY content in the colon, an altered pattern of PYY secretion between fasted and glucose-stimulated states, and with a significant improvement in the portal vein concentration of GLP-1, insulin and glucagon, but not GIP and CCK, in response to glucose stimulation.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these data suggest that TOTUM-63 might have a specific impact on gut L-cells and on the expression and secretion of GLP-1 and PYY incretins, potentially contributing to the reduced food intake, body weight gain and improved glucose homeostasis.

Sodium alginate and galactooligosaccharides ameliorate metabolic disorders and alter the composition of the gut microbiota in mice with high-fat diet-induced obesity

We aimed to investigate the effects of sodium alginate (SA) and galactooligosaccharides (GOS) on the metabolism and gut microbiota of high-fat diet (HFD)-fed obese mice. GOS and SA delayed high-fat diet-induced obesity, reduced the epididymal fat and liver indices, and improved the circulating lipid profile. Low- and high-dose GOS reduced weight gain by 48.8 % and 35.3 %, and low- and high-dose SA reduced it by 37.7 % and 34.4 %, respectively. GOS and SA reduced blood glucose concentration, probably by increasing the expression of glucose transporter 4. GOS and SA increased the expression of tight junction proteins (ZO-1 and occludin), reduced the D-lactic acid (D-LA) and lipopolysaccharide concentrations, and reduced the expression of toll-like receptors, consistent with improved intestinal barrier function. GOS and SA also increased the abundance of Bacteroidota, Bifidobacterium, and Lactobacillus; and reduced that of Patescibacteria in the gut. The abundance of Parabacteroides positively correlated with the circulating low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) concentration; that of Lactobacillus negatively correlated with LDL-C, D-LA, and tumor necrosis factor-α concentration; and that of Bifidobacterium positively correlated with high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol concentration, according to Spearman correlation analysis. In conclusion, SA and GOS ameliorate obesity and the associated metabolic disorders in mice, and also modulate their gut microbial composition.

Recent developments in microbial production of high-purity galacto-oligosaccharides

Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) are used as prebiotic ingredients in various food and pharmaceutical formulations. Currently, production of GOS involves the enzymatic conversion of lactose by transgalactosylation using β-galactosidase. The purity of the resulting product is low, typically limited to up to 55% GOS on total carbohydrate basis due to the presence of non-reacted lactose, and the formation of by-products glucose and galactose. In industrial practice high-purity GOS is manufactured by removing the unwanted mono- and disaccharides from raw GOS with simulated moving bed (SMB) chromatography. This purification step is associated with high processing cost that increases the price of pure GOS and limits its marketability. The last decades have witnessed a growing interest in developing competitive biotechnological processes that could replace chromatography. This paper presents a comprehensive review on the recent advancements of microbial GOS purification, a process commonly referred to as selective fermentation or selective metabolism. Purification strategies include: (i) removal of glucose alone or together with galactose by lactose negative yeast species, that typically results in purity values below 60% due to remaining lactose; (ii) removal of both mono- and disaccharides by combining the fast monosaccharide metabolizing capacity of some yeast species with efficient lactose consumption by certain lactose positive microbes, reaching GOS purity in the range of 60-95%; and (iii) the application of selected strains of Kluyveromyces species with high lactose metabolizing activity to achieve high-purity GOS that is practically free from lactose and monosaccharides.

Effects of the Administration of Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis CECT 7210 and Lactobacillus rhamnosus HN001 and Their Synbiotic Combination With Galacto-Oligosaccharides Against Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli F4 in an Early Weaned Piglet Model

We evaluated the potential of multi-strain probiotic (Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis CECT 7210 and Lactobacillus rhamnosus HN001) with or without galacto-oligosaccharides against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) F4 infection in post-weaning pigs. Ninety-six piglets were distributed into 32 pens assigned to five treatments: one non-challenged (CTR+) and four challenged: control diet (CTR-), with probiotics (>3 × 10¹⁰ CFU/kg body weight each, PRO), prebiotic (5%, PRE), or their combination (SYN). After 1 week, animals were orally inoculated with ETEC F4. Feed intake, weight, and clinical signs were recorded. On days 4 and 8 post-inoculation (PI), one animal per pen was euthanized and samples from blood, digesta, and tissues collected. Microbiological counts, ETEC F4 real-time PCR (qPCR) quantification, fermentation products, serum biomarkers, ileal histomorphometry, and genotype for mucin 4 (MUC4) polymorphism were determined. Animals in the PRO group had similar enterobacteria and coliform numbers to the CTR+ group, and the ETEC F4 prevalence, the number of mitotic cells at day 4 PI, and villus height at day 8 PI were between that observed in the CTR+ and CTR- groups. The PRO group exhibited reduced pig major acute-phase protein (Pig-MAP) levels on day 4 PI. The PRE diet group presented similar reductions in ETEC F4 and Pig-MAP, but there was no effect on microbial groups. The SYN group showed reduced fecal enterobacteria and coliform counts after the adaptation week but, after the inoculation, the SYN group showed lower performance and more animals with high ETEC F4 counts at day 8 PI. SYN treatment modified the colonic fermentation differently depending on the MUC4 polymorphism. These results confirm the potential of the probiotic strains and the prebiotic to fight ETEC F4, but do not show any synergy when administered together, at least in this animal model.

The impact of oligosaccharide content, glycosidic linkages and lactose content of galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) on the expression of mucus-related genes in goblet cells

Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) have been reported to modulate the function of intestinal goblet cells and to improve mucus barrier function. However, GOS is available in many structurally different compositions and it is unknown how GOS structural diversity impacts this modulation of goblet cells. This study aims to investigate the effects of oligosaccharide content and glycosidic linkages of GOS on expression of genes associated with the secretory function of goblet cells. To investigate the effect of oligosaccharide content, LS174T cells were incubated with (β1 → 4)GOS of variable transgalactosylated oligosaccharides and lactose (Lac) composition. To investigate the effect of glycosidic linkages, we compared the effects of (β1 → 4)GOS with (β1 → 3)GOS, and with a mixture of α-linked oligosaccharides (lactose-derived oligosaccharides-LDO). The changes in mRNA expression of mucus-related genes were assessed by RT-PCR. GOS containing Lac significantly enhanced the expression of MUC2, TFF3 and RETNLB but not of Golgi sulfotransferases genes. In contrast, GOS without Lac did not impact these genes. Lac alone significantly enhanced MUC2, TFF3, RETNLB, CHST5, and GAL3ST2 genes suggesting that Lac might be responsible for goblet cell modulation in (β1 → 4)GOS preparations. (β1 → 3)GOS induced the expression of MUC2 and TFF3, and downregulated the RETNLB gene. Compared with the (β1 → 3) and GOS (β1 → 4)GOS, the α-linked LDO significantly upregulated the expression MUC2, TFF3, RETNLB and the Golgi sulfotransferases genes. We identify structural features of GOS that contribute to enhanced mucus integrity. Our study might lead to better GOS formulations for foods to prevent or treat different types of intestinal disorders.

Biotechnological approaches for the production of designer cheese with improved functionality

Cheese is a product of ancient biotechnological practices, which has been revolutionized as a functional food product in many parts of the world. Bioactive compounds, such as peptides, polysaccharides, and fatty acids, have been identified in traditional cheese products, which demonstrate functional properties such as antihypertensive, antioxidant, immunomodulation, antidiabetic, and anticancer activities. Besides, cheese-making probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) exert a positive impact on gut health, aiding in digestion, and improved nutrient absorption. Advancement in biotechnological research revealed the potential of metabolite production with prebiotics and bioactive functions in several strains of LAB, yeast, and filamentous fungi. The application of specific biocatalyst producing microbial strains enhances nutraceutical value, resulting in designer cheese products with multifarious health beneficial effects. This review summarizes the biotechnological approaches applied in designing cheese products with improved functional properties.

Opportunities of prebiotics for the intestinal health of monogastric animals

The goal of prebiotic applications from different sources is to improve the gut ecosystem where the host and microbiota can benefit from prebiotics. It has already been recognized that prebiotics have potential roles in the gut ecosystem because gut microbiota ferment complex dietary macronutrients and carry out a broad range of functions in the host body, such as the production of nutrients and vitamins, protection against pathogens, and maintenance of immune system balance. The gut ecosystem is very crucial and can be affected by numerous factors consisting of dietary constituents and commensal bacteria. This review focuses on recent scientific evidence, confirming a beneficial effect of prebiotics on animal health, particularly in terms of protection against pathogenic bacteria and increasing the number of beneficial bacteria that may improve epithelial cell barrier functions. It has also been reviewed that modification of the gut ecosystem through the utilization of prebiotics significantly affects the intestinal health of animals. However, the identification and characterization of novel potential prebiotics remain a topical issue and elucidation of the metagenomics relationship between gut microbiota alteration and prebiotic substances is necessary for future prebiotic studies.

Changes in the Gut Microbiome after Galacto-Oligosaccharide Administration in Loperamide-Induced Constipation

Unbalanced dietary habits and the consumption of high protein and instant foods cause an increase in constipation. Here, we evaluated the effects of galacto-oligosaccharide (GOS) on a rat model of loperamide-induced constipation by measuring various biological markers and cecal microbiota. The fecal water content and intestinal transit ratio significantly increased in the GOS-administered (GL and GH) groups than in the control group (p < 0.05, p < 0.01, and p < 0.001, respectively). The length of intestinal mucosa (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively) and area of crypt cells were (p < 0.01, both) significantly increased in the GOS-administered groups compared to the control group. The distribution of interstitial cells of Cajal, which is related to the intestinal movement, showed a significant increase in GOS-administered groups than in the control group (p < 0.01, both). The relative abundance of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), especially Lactobacillus and Lactococcus, significantly increased in the GL group than in the control group. Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and the gut microbiota in the GL groups. These results demonstrated that GOS administration effectively alleviates constipation by increasing LAB proliferation in the intestinal microbiota and SCFA production.

Intestinal Sensing by Gut Microbiota: Targeting Gut Peptides

There are more than 2 billion overweight and obese individuals worldwide, surpassing for the first time, the number of people affected by undernutrition. Obesity and its comorbidities inflict a heavy burden on the global economies and have become a serious threat to individuals' wellbeing with no immediate cure available. The causes of obesity are manifold, involving several factors including physiological, metabolic, neural, psychosocial, economic, genetics and the environment, among others. Recent advances in genome sequencing and metagenomic profiling have added another dimension to this complexity by implicating the gut microbiota as an important player in energy regulation and the development of obesity. As such, accumulating evidence demonstrate the impact of the gut microbiota on body weight, adiposity, glucose, lipid metabolism, and metabolic syndrome. This also includes the role of microbiota as a modulatory signal either directly or through its bioactive metabolites on intestinal lumen by releasing chemosensing factors known to have a major role in controlling food intake and regulating body weight. The importance of gut signaling by microbiota signaling is further highlighted by the presence of taste and nutrient receptors on the intestinal epithelium activated by the microbial degradation products as well as their role in release of peptides hormones controlling appetite and energy homeostasis. This review present evidence on how gut microbiota interacts with intestinal chemosensing and modulates the release and activity of gut peptides, particularly GLP-1 and PYY.

Anxiety, Depression, and the Microbiome: A Role for Gut Peptides

The complex bidirectional communication between the gut and the brain is finely orchestrated by different systems, including the endocrine, immune, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems. Moreover, increasing evidence supports the role of the microbiome and microbiota-derived molecules in regulating such interactions; however, the mechanisms underpinning such effects are only beginning to be resolved. Microbiota-gut peptide interactions are poised to be of great significance in the regulation of gut-brain signaling. Given the emerging role of the gut-brain axis in a variety of brain disorders, such as anxiety and depression, it is important to understand the contribution of bidirectional interactions between peptide hormones released from the gut and intestinal bacteria in the context of this axis. Indeed, the gastrointestinal tract is the largest endocrine organ in mammals, secreting dozens of different signaling molecules, including peptides. Gut peptides in the systemic circulation can bind cognate receptors on immune cells and vagus nerve terminals thereby enabling indirect gut-brain communication. Gut peptide concentrations are not only modulated by enteric microbiota signals, but also vary according to the composition of the intestinal microbiota. In this review, we will discuss the gut microbiota as a regulator of anxiety and depression, and explore the role of gut-derived peptides as signaling molecules in microbiome-gut-brain communication. Here, we summarize the potential interactions of the microbiota with gut hormones and endocrine peptides, including neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, pancreatic polypeptide, cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide, corticotropin-releasing factor, oxytocin, and ghrelin in microbiome-to-brain signaling. Together, gut peptides are important regulators of microbiota-gut-brain signaling in health and stress-related psychiatric illnesses.

Significance of Microbiota in Obesity and Metabolic Diseases and the Modulatory Potential by Medicinal Plant and Food Ingredients

Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of three or more metabolic disorders including insulin resistance, obesity, and hyperlipidemia. Obesity has become the epidemic of the twenty-first century with more than 1.6 billion overweight adults. Due to the strong connection between obesity and type 2 diabetes, obesity has received wide attention with subsequent coining of the term "diabesity." Recent studies have identified unique contributions of the immensely diverse gut microbiota in the pathogenesis of obesity and diabetes. Several mechanisms have been proposed including altered glucose and fatty acid metabolism, hepatic fatty acid storage, and modulation of glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1. Importantly, the relationship between unhealthy diet and a modified gut microbiota composition observed in diabetic or obese subjects has been recognized. Similarly, the role of diet rich in polyphenols and plant polysaccharides in modulating gut bacteria and its impact on diabetes and obesity have been the subject of investigation by several research groups. Gut microbiota are also responsible for the extensive metabolism of polyphenols thus modulating their biological activities. The aim of this review is to shed light on the composition of gut microbes, their health importance and how they can contribute to diseases as well as their modulation by polyphenols and polysaccharides to control obesity and diabetes. In addition, the role of microbiota in improving the oral bioavailability of polyphenols and hence in shaping their antidiabetic and antiobesity activities will be discussed.