The untold stories of the speech gene, the FOXP2 cancer gene

FOXP2 regulates thyroid cancer cell proliferation and apoptosis via transcriptional activation of RPS6KA6

The transcription factor, forkhead box P2 (FOXP2) has tumor-suppressive effects in several types of cancer. However, the regulatory role and underlying mechanism of FOXP2 in thyroid cancer (THCA) is not completely understood. In the present study, the mRNA expression levels of FOXP2 and ribosomal protein S6 kinase A6 (RPS6KA6) were evaluated using the GEPIA database and THCA cell lines. The association between FOXP2 and RPS6KA6 was analyzed using the LinkedOmics, and GEPIA databases. Then, the binding sites of FOXP2 and the RPS6KA6 promotor was predicted using the JASPAR database, and verified using a dual-luciferase reporter assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation. In addition, functional assays investigating FOXP2 and RPS6KA6 were conducted in the TPC-1 cell line. The data showed that FOXP2 and RPS6KA6 mRNA expression levels were decreased in the THCA tissues, and cell lines. Overexpression of FOXP2 inhibited cell proliferation and promoted apoptosis in the THCA cell lines. Furthermore, RPS6KA6 mRNA expression levels were reduced in THCA and were correlated with FOXP2 expression level. Mechanistic studies revealed that FOXP2 binds directly to the promotor region of RPS6KA6 and modulated the expression level of RPS6KA6 transcriptionally. In addition, rescue experiments showed that knockdown of RPS6KA6 expression reversed the effects of FOXP2 overexpression on THCA cell proliferation and apoptosis, and the regulation of FOXP2/RPS6KA6 may be associated with the PI3K/AKT pathway. In summary, FOXP2 was associated with the proliferation and apoptosis of human THCA cells via the transcriptional activation of RPS6KA6. The FOXP2/RPS6KA6 axis could be a promising target for the treatment of THCA.

Fusion Genes in Prostate Cancer: A Comparison in Men of African and European Descent

Simple Summary

Men of African origin have a 2–3 times greater chance of developing prostate cancer than those of European origin, and of patients that are diagnosed with the disease, men of African descent are 2 times more likely to die compared to white men. Men of African origin are still greatly underrepresented in genetic studies and clinical trials. This, unfortunately, means that new discoveries in cancer treatment are missing key information on the group with a greater chance of mortality. A fusion gene is a hybrid gene formed from two previously independent genes. Fusion genes have been found to be common in all main types of human cancer. The objective of this study was to increase our knowledge of fusion genes in prostate cancer using computational approaches and to compare fusion genes between men of African and European origin. This identified novel gene fusions unique to men of African origin and suggested that this group has a greater number of fusion genes.

Abstract

Prostate cancer is one of the most prevalent cancers worldwide, particularly affecting men living a western lifestyle and of African descent, suggesting risk factors that are genetic, environmental, and socioeconomic in nature. In the USA, African American (AA) men are disproportionately affected, on average suffering from a higher grade of the disease and at a younger age compared to men of European descent (EA). Fusion genes are chimeric products formed by the merging of two separate genes occurring as a result of chromosomal structural changes, for example, inversion or trans/cis-splicing of neighboring genes. They are known drivers of cancer and have been identified in 20% of cancers. Improvements in genomics technologies such as RNA-sequencing coupled with better algorithms for prediction of fusion genes has added to our knowledge of specific gene fusions in cancers. At present AA are underrepresented in genomic studies of prostate cancer. The primary goal of this study was to examine molecular differences in predicted fusion genes in a cohort of AA and EA men in the context of prostate cancer using computational approaches. RNA was purified from prostate tissue specimens obtained at surgery from subjects enrolled in the study. Fusion gene predictions were performed using four different fusion gene detection programs. This identified novel putative gene fusions unique to AA and suggested that the fusion gene burden was higher in AA compared to EA men.

HN1L promotes stem cell-like properties by regulating TGF-β signaling pathway through targeting FOXP2 in prostate cancer

Dysregulated hematological and neurological expressed 1-like (HN1L) has been implicated in carcinogenesis of difference cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma and breast cancer. However, the role of HN1L in the progression of prostate cancer (PCA) remains unknown. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the role of HN1L in stemness and progression of PCA. The expression of HN1L in PCA tissues and cells was determined by quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), western blot analysis, and/or immunohistochemistry (IHC). CD133+ cells were sorted from PCA cells using magnetic fluorescence cell sorting technology and were considered as cancer stem cells (CSCs). Sphere formation assays, transwell assays, and animal experiments were conducted to assess cell stemness, migration, invasion, and in vivo tumorigenesis, respectively. The results showed that HN1L expression was higher in PCA tissues and cells as compared with normal tissues and cells, as well as in CD133+ cells as compared with CD133- cells. HN1L knockdown significantly decreased the expression levels of CSC markers including OCT4 (POU class 5 homeobox 1), CD44, and SRY-box transcription factor 2, inhibited cell migration, invasion, and tumorigenesis and decreased the number of tumor spheroids and CD133+ cell population. Furthermore, we found that HN1L could bind to forkhead box P2 (FOXP2) and positively regulated transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) expression via upregulation of FOXP2. In addition, the overexpression of TGF-β in HN1L-knockdown PCA cells increased the number of tumor spheroids and CD133+ cell population, as well as enhanced cell migration and invasion. Collectively, this study demonstrates that HN1L promotes stem cell-like properties and cancer progression by targeting FOXP2 through TGF-β signaling pathway in PCA.

Exploring the Contribution to ADHD of Genes Involved in Mendelian Disorders Presenting with Hyperactivity and/or Inattention

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by hyperactivity, impulsivity, and/or inattention, which are symptoms also observed in many rare genetic disorders. We searched for genes involved in Mendelian disorders presenting with ADHD symptoms in the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database, to curate a list of new candidate risk genes for ADHD. We explored the enrichment of functions and pathways in this gene list, and tested whether rare or common variants in these genes are associated with ADHD or with its comorbidities. We identified 139 genes, causal for 137 rare disorders, mainly related to neurodevelopmental and brain function. Most of these Mendelian disorders also present with other psychiatric traits that are often comorbid with ADHD. Using whole exome sequencing (WES) data from 668 ADHD cases, we found rare variants associated with the dimension of the severity of inattention symptoms in three genes: KIF11, WAC, and CRBN. Then, we focused on common variants and identified six genes associated with ADHD (in 19,099 cases and 34,194 controls): MANBA, UQCC2, HIVEP2, FOPX1, KANSL1, and AUH. Furthermore, HIVEP2, FOXP1, and KANSL1 were nominally associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (18,382 cases and 27,969 controls), as well as HIVEP2 with anxiety (7016 cases and 14,475 controls), and FOXP1 with aggression (18,988 individuals), which is in line with the symptomatology of the rare disorders they are responsible for. In conclusion, inspecting Mendelian disorders and the genes responsible for them constitutes a valuable approach for identifying new risk genes and the mechanisms of complex disorders.

Decoding the role of coiled-coil motifs in human prion-like proteins

Prions are self-propagating proteins that cause fatal neurodegenerative diseases in humans. However, increasing evidence suggests that eukaryotic cells exploit prion conformational conversion for functional purposes. A recent study delineated a group of twenty prion-like proteins in humans, characterized by the presence of low-complexity glutamine-rich sequences with overlapping coiled-coil (CCs) motifs. This is the case of Mediator complex subunit 15 (MED15), which is overexpressed in a wide range of human cancers. Biophysical studies demonstrated that the prion-like domain (PrLD) of MED15 forms homodimers in solution, sustained by CCs interactions. Furthermore, the same coiled-coil (CC) region plays a crucial role in the PrLD structural transition to a transmissible β-sheet amyloid state. In this review, we discuss the role of CCs motifs and their contribution to amyloid transitions in human prion-like domains (PrLDs), while providing a comprehensive overview of six predicted human prion-like proteins involved in transcription, gene expression, or DNA damage response and associated with human disease, whose PrLDs contain or overlap with CCs sequences. Finally, we try to rationalize how these molecular signatures might relate to both their function and involvement in disease.

The transcribed ultraconserved region uc.160+ enhances processing and A-to-I editing of the miR-376 cluster: hypermethylation improves glioma prognosis

Transcribed ultraconserved regions (T‐UCRs) are noncoding RNAs derived from DNA sequences that are entirely conserved across species. Their expression is altered in many tumor types, and, although a role for T‐UCRs as regulators of gene expression has been proposed, their functions remain largely unknown. Herein, we describe the epigenetic silencing of the uc.160+ T‐UCR in gliomas and mechanistically define a novel RNA–RNA regulatory network in which uc.160+ modulates the biogenesis of several members of the miR‐376 cluster. This includes the positive regulation of primary microRNA (pri‐miRNA) cleavage and an enhanced A‐to‐I editing on its mature sequence. As a consequence, the expression of uc.160+ affects the downstream, miR‐376‐regulated genes, including the transcriptional coregulators RING1 and YY1‐binding protein (RYBP) and forkhead box P2 (FOXP2). Finally, we elucidate the clinical impact of our findings, showing that hypermethylation of the uc.160+ CpG island is an independent prognostic factor associated with better overall survival in lower‐grade gliomas, highlighting the importance of T‐UCRs in cancer pathophysiology.

Increased locomotor activity via regulation of GABAergic signalling in foxp2 mutant zebrafish-implications for neurodevelopmental disorders

Recent advances in the genetics of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) have identified the transcription factor FOXP2 as one of numerous risk genes, e.g. in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). FOXP2 function is suggested to be involved in GABAergic signalling and numerous studies demonstrate that GABAergic function is altered in NDDs, thus disrupting the excitation/inhibition balance. Interestingly, GABAergic signalling components, including glutamate-decarboxylase 1 (Gad1) and GABA receptors, are putative transcriptional targets of FOXP2. However, the specific role of FOXP2 in the pathomechanism of NDDs remains elusive. Here we test the hypothesis that Foxp2 affects behavioural dimensions via GABAergic signalling using zebrafish as model organism. We demonstrate that foxp2 is expressed by a subset of GABAergic neurons located in brain regions involved in motor functions, including the subpallium, posterior tuberculum, thalamus and medulla oblongata. Using CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing we generated a novel foxp2 zebrafish loss-of-function mutant that exhibits increased locomotor activity. Further, genetic and/or pharmacological disruption of Gad1 or GABA-A receptors causes increased locomotor activity, resembling the phenotype of foxp2 mutants. Application of muscimol, a GABA-A receptor agonist, rescues the hyperactive phenotype induced by the foxp2 loss-of-function. By reverse translation of the therapeutic effect on hyperactive behaviour exerted by methylphenidate, we note that application of methylphenidate evokes different responses in wildtype compared to foxp2 or gad1b loss-of-function animals. Together, our findings support the hypothesis that foxp2 regulates locomotor activity via GABAergic signalling. This provides one targetable mechanism, which may contribute to behavioural phenotypes commonly observed in NDDs.

High Expression of FOXP2 Is Associated with Worse Prognosis in Glioblastoma

OBJECTIVE

FOXP2 expression has been associated with the prognosis of some tumors, but the role of FOXP2 in glioblastoma remains unclear. The aim of the present work is to study the role of FOXP2 as a prognostic biomarker in glioblastoma.

METHODS

This is a retrospective observational case series study in which the expression of FOXP2 has been analyzed both at protein level (immunohistochemistry, n = 62) and at mRNA level (RNAseq, in a cohort of glioblastoma patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas [TCGA] database, n = 148). Other molecular and clinical data have also been included in the study, with special focus on miRNA expression data. Survival analysis using log-rank test and COX-regression have been used. Non-parametric statistical tests were also used to study differences between low and high FOXP2 expression groups.

RESULTS

Patients with a high expression of FOXP2 protein showed a worse prognosis than those patients with low expression in progression-free survival (hazard ratio 1.711; P = 0.034) and overall survival (hazard ratio 1.809; P = 0.014). These associations were still statistically significant in multivariate analysis. No prognostic association was found with FOXP2 RNA expression. Interestingly, 2 miRNAs that target FOXP2 (hsa-miR-181a-2-3p and hsa-miR-20a-3p) showed an interaction effect on overall survival with FOXP2 expression. A low level of these miRNA expression was associated with a significantly worse prognosis in patients with high FOXP2 RNA expression (log-rank test; P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Greater expression of FOXP2 at the protein level is associated with a worse prognosis. This protein expression may be regulated by the expression of specific miRNAs that target FOXP2 mRNA: hsa-miR-181a-2-3p and hsa-miR-20a-3p.

FOXA2-Interacting FOXP2 Prevents Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition of Breast Cancer Cells by Stimulating E-Cadherin and PHF2 Transcription

FOXP2, a member of forkhead box transcription factor family, was first identified as a language-related gene that played an important role in language learning and facial movement. In addition, FOXP2 was also suggested regulating the progression of cancer cells. In previous studies, we found that FOXA2 inhibited epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in breast cancer cells. In this study, by identifying FOXA2-interacting proteins from FOXA2-pull-down cell lysates with Mass Spectrometry Analysis, we found that FOXP2 interacted with FOXA2. After confirming the interaction between FOXP2 and FOXA2 through Co-IP and immunofluorescence assays, we showed a correlated expression of FOXP2 and FOXA2 existing in clinical breast cancer samples. The overexpression of FOXP2 attenuated the mesenchymal phenotype whereas the stable knockdown of FOXP2 promoted EMT in breast cancer cells. Even though FOXP2 was believed to act as a transcriptional repressor in most cases, we found that FOXP2 could activate the expression of tumor suppressor PHF2. Meanwhile, we also found that FOXP2 could endogenously bind to the promoter of E-cadherin and activate its transcription. This transcriptional activity of FOXP2 relied on its interaction with FOXA2. Furthermore, the stable knockdown of FOXP2 enhanced the metastatic capacity of breast cancer cells in vivo. Together, the results suggested that FOXP2 could inhibit EMT by activating the transcription of certain genes, such as E-cadherin and PHF2, in concert with FOXA2 in breast cancer cells.

Meta-analysis of global and high throughput public gene array data for robust vascular gene expression discovery in chronic rhinosinusitis: Implications in controlled release

BACKGROUND

Chronic inflammation is known to cause alterations in vascular homeostasis that directly affects blood vessel morphogenesis, angiogenesis, and tissue permeability. These phenomena have been investigated and exploited for targeted drug delivery applications in the context of cancers and other disease processes. Vascular pathophysiology and its associated genes and signaling pathways, however, have not been systematically investigated in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS). Understanding the interplay between key vascular signaling pathways and top biomarkers associated with CRS may facilitate the development of new targeted delivery strategies and treatment paradigms. Herein, we report findings from a gene meta-analysis to identify key vascular pathways and top genes involved in CRS.

METHODS

Proprietary software (Illumina BaseSpace Correlation Engine) and open-access data sets were used to perform a gene meta-analysis to systematically determine significant differences between key vascular biomarkers and vascular signaling pathways expressed in sinonasal tissue biopsies of controls and patients with CRS.

RESULTS

Thirteen studies were initially identified, and then reduced to five after applying exclusion principle algorithms. Genes associated with vasculature development and blood vessel morphogenesis signaling pathways were identified to be overexpressed among the top 15 signaling pathways. Out of many significantly upregulated genes, the levels of pro angiogenic genes such as early growth response (EGR3), platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule (PECAM1) and L-selectin (SELL) were particularly significant in patients with CRS compared to controls.

DISCUSSION

Key vascular biomarkers and signaling pathways were significantly overexpressed in patients with CRS compared to controls, suggesting a contribution of vascular dysfunction in CRS pathophysiology. Vascular dysregulation and permeability may afford opportunities to develop drug delivery systems to improve efficacy and reduce toxicity of CRS treatment.

Use of signals of positive and negative selection to distinguish cancer genes and passenger genes

A major goal of cancer genomics is to identify all genes that play critical roles in carcinogenesis. Most approaches focused on genes positively selected for mutations that drive carcinogenesis and neglected the role of negative selection. Some studies have actually concluded that negative selection has no role in cancer evolution. We have re-examined the role of negative selection in tumor evolution through the analysis of the patterns of somatic mutations affecting the coding sequences of human genes. Our analyses have confirmed that tumor suppressor genes are positively selected for inactivating mutations, oncogenes, however, were found to display signals of both negative selection for inactivating mutations and positive selection for activating mutations. Significantly, we have identified numerous human genes that show signs of strong negative selection during tumor evolution, suggesting that their functional integrity is essential for the growth and survival of tumor cells.

lncRNA PART1, manipulated by transcriptional factor FOXP2, suppresses proliferation and invasion in ESCC by regulating the miR‑18a‑5p/SOX6 signaling axis

An increasing number of studies have demonstrated that long non-coding (lnc)RNAs are associated with tumor invasion, metastasis and the prognosis of patients with a variety of different tumors. However, the roles of lncRNA prostate androgen regulated transcript 1 (PART1) in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) remain unknown. In the present study, reverse transcription-quantitative PCR was performed to investigate the levels of PART1, SRY-box transcription factor 6 (SOX6) and miR-18a-5p in ESCC tissues and cells. The functions of PART1 in ESCC were demonstrated using Cell Counting Kit-8 and Matrigel assays. Promoter activity and dual-luciferase reporter assays, RNA immunoprecipitation and western blot analyses were also used to determine the potential mechanisms of PART1 in ESCC cell lines. It was found that PART1 and SOX6 were both downregulated in ESCC tissues and cells, and their low expression levels were associated with TNM stage, lymph node metastasis and poor prognosis in patients with ESCC. Forkhead box protein P2 (FOXP2) exhibited low expression level in ESCC tissues, and its expression was positively correlated with PART1 expression level in ESCC tissues. FOXP2 was found to bind to the promoter region of PART1 to regulate its expression in ESCC cells. Functionally, PART1 overexpression suppressed cell proliferation and invasion, whereas PART1 downregulation promoted cell proliferation and invasion in the ESCC cell lines. Mechanistically, PART1 functions as a competing endogenous (ce)RNA by sponging miR-18a-5p, resulting in the upregulation of the downstream target gene, SOX6, coupled with the inactivation of the β-catenin/c-myc signaling axis, to suppress ESCC cell proliferation and invasion. In conclusion, data from the present study unveil a potential ceRNA regulatory pathway, in which PART1 affects SOX6 expression level by sponging miR-18a-5p, to ultimately suppress ESCC development and progression.

β-catenin regulates FOXP2 transcriptional activity via multiple binding sites

The transcription factor forkhead box protein P2 (FOXP2) is a highly conserved key regulator of embryonal development. The molecular mechanisms of how FOXP2 regulates embryonal development, however, remain elusive. Using RNA sequencing, we identified the Wnt signaling pathway as key target of FOXP2‐dependent transcriptional regulation. Using cell‐based assays, we show that FOXP2 transcriptional activity is regulated by the Wnt coregulator β‐catenin and that β‐catenin contacts multiple regions within FOXP2. Using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, we uncovered the molecular details of these interactions. β‐catenin contacts a disordered FOXP2 region with α‐helical propensity via its folded armadillo domain, whereas the intrinsically disordered β‐catenin N terminus and C terminus bind to the conserved FOXP2 DNA‐binding domain. Using RNA sequencing, we confirmed that β‐catenin indeed regulates transcriptional activity of FOXP2 and that the FOXP2 α‐helical motif acts as a key regulatory element of FOXP2 transcriptional activity. Taken together, our findings provide first insight into novel regulatory interactions and help to understand the intricate mechanisms of FOXP2 function and (mis)‐regulation in embryonal development and human diseases.

Database

Expression data are available in the GEO database under the accession number GSE138938.

Complex Analysis of Retroposed Genes' Contribution to Human Genome, Proteome and Transcriptome

Gene duplication is a major driver of organismal evolution. One of the main mechanisms of gene duplications is retroposition, a process in which mRNA is first transcribed into DNA and then reintegrated into the genome. Most gene retrocopies are depleted of the regulatory regions. Nevertheless, examples of functional retrogenes are rapidly increasing. These functions come from the gain of new spatio-temporal expression patterns, imposed by the content of the genomic sequence surrounding inserted cDNA and/or by selectively advantageous mutations, which may lead to the switch from protein coding to regulatory RNA. As recent studies have shown, these genes may lead to new protein domain formation through fusion with other genes, new regulatory RNAs or other regulatory elements. We utilized existing data from high-throughput technologies to create a complex description of retrogenes functionality. Our analysis led to the identification of human retroposed genes that substantially contributed to transcriptome and proteome. These retrocopies demonstrated the potential to encode proteins or short peptides, act as cis- and trans- Natural Antisense Transcripts (NATs), regulate their progenitors’ expression by competing for the same microRNAs, and provide a sequence to lncRNA and novel exons to existing protein-coding genes. Our study also revealed that retrocopies, similarly to retrotransposons, may act as recombination hot spots. To our best knowledge this is the first complex analysis of these functions of retrocopies.

Molecular networks of FOXP family: dual biologic functions, interplay with other molecules and clinical implications in cancer progression

Though Forkhead box P (FOXP) transcription factors comprising of FOXP1, FOXP2, FOXP3 and FOXP4 are involved in the embryonic development, immune disorders and cancer progression, the underlying function of FOXP3 targeting CD4 + CD25+ regulatory T (Treg) cells and the dual roles of FOXP proteins as an oncogene or a tumor suppressor are unclear and controversial in cancers to date. Thus, the present review highlighted research history, dual roles of FOXP proteins as a tumor suppressor or an oncogene, their molecular networks with other proteins and noncoding RNAs, cellular immunotherapy targeting FOXP3, and clinical implications in cancer progression.

MiR-9-5p Inhibits Glioblastoma Cells Proliferation Through Directly Targeting FOXP2 (Forkhead Box P2)

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most malignant tumor in the central nervous system and the treatment is still unsatisfactory because the mechanism of the disease remains unclear. The abnormal expression of miRNAs and its target proteins play a crucial role in the development of glioblastoma. In this study, we demonstrated that high expression of miR-9-5p and low expression of forkhead box P2 (FOXP2) were related with better outcome in patients with GBM, and down regulated FOXP2 expression was able to inhibit glioma cells proliferation by cell cycle arrest. Furthermore, we found that FOXP2 was the target protein of miR-9-5p in luciferase assay. The results of this study suggest a novel regulatory mechanism that miR-9-5p can inhibit glioma cells proliferation by downregulating FOXP2.

Upregulated microRNA‑671‑3p promotes tumor progression by suppressing forkhead box P2 expression in non‑small‑cell lung cancer

In the present study, the expression of microRNA (miR)‑671‑3p in non‑small‑cell lung cancer (NSCLC) was detected via reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis, and its role in cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration and invasion was investigated via Cell Counting Kit‑8, colony formation, flow cytometry, Transwell and scratch assays, respectively. It was observed that the expression of miR‑671‑3p was upregulated in NSCLC tissues and cell lines (A549 and H1975). Treatment with miR‑671‑3p inhibitors suppressed cell proliferation, migration and invasion, and increased apoptosis in vitro, suggesting that miR‑671‑3p functions as an oncogene in NSCLC. In addition, forkhead box P2 (FOXP2) has been reported to be a tumor suppressor that is downregulated in several types of cancer, and its low expression was confirmed in NSCLC tissues and cell lines in the current study via western blotting. The results of the luciferase reporter assay also demonstrated that miR‑671‑3p targeted directly the 3'‑untranslated region of FOXP2. Furthermore, overexpression of FOXP2 in A549 and H1975 cell lines suppressed the growth, migration and invasion, and promoted apoptosis, whereas these effects were reversed by transfection with miR‑671‑3p mimics, suggesting that miR‑671‑3p promoted tumor progression via regulating FOXP2. Taken together, the results reported in the present study implied that miR‑671‑3p may be a potential therapeutic target in NSCLC.

Love is a physiological motivation (like hunger, thirst, sleep or sex)

The multitude of terms associated with love has given rise to a false perception of love. In this paper, only maternal and romantic love are considered. Love is usually regarded as a feeling, motivation, addiction, passion, and, above all, an emotion. This confusion has consequences in the lives of human beings, leading not only to divorces, suicides, femicides but possibly also to a number of mental illnesses and suffering. Therefore, it is crucial to first clarify what is meant by emotion, motivation and love. This work aims to finally place love within the category of physiological motivations, such as hunger, thirst, sleep, or sex, on the basis that love is also essential for human survival, especially in childhood. Love is presented from an evolutionary perspective. Some other similarities between love and other physiological motivations are pointed out, such as its importance for appropriate human development, both its ontogeny and its permanence, and the long-lasting consequences of abuse and neglect. There are summarized reasons that account for this, such as the fact that physiological motivations are essential for survival and that love is an essential motivation for the survival of human offspring. Other reasons are that minimum changes in the quantity and quality of love alters development, that there can be a variety of neurophysiological and behavioural states within a motivation, and that motivations (also love) appear and change throughout development. Also, motivations and love sometimes may lead to an addictive behaviour. Finally, it is recognized that once physiological motivations (and love) appear, they become permanent. In a third section, some potential social, cultural, clinical and scientific consequences of the proposed consideration of love as a motivation are discussed. Accordingly, love's recognition as a motivation in the clinical field would imply a better understanding of its disorders and its inclusion in classifications manuals such as The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), or in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). Considering love as a motivation rather than an emotion could also impact the results of scientific research (an example is included). A comprehensive understanding of these questions could potentially allow for a new therapeutic approach in the treatment of mental illness, while offering an all-inclusive evolutionary explanation of cultural phenomena such as the origin and diffusion of both language and art. Love should be understood as a physiological motivation, like hunger, sleep or sex, and not as an emotion as it is commonly considered.

Dissecting FOXP2 Oligomerization and DNA Binding

Protein–protein and protein–substrate interactions are critical to function and often depend on factors that are difficult to disentangle. Herein, a combined biochemical and biophysical approach, based on electrically switchable DNA biochips and single‐molecule mass analysis, was used to characterize the DNA binding and protein oligomerization of the transcription factor, forkhead box protein P2 (FOXP2). FOXP2 contains domains commonly involved in nucleic‐acid binding and protein oligomerization, such as a C₂H₂‐zinc finger (ZF), and a leucine zipper (LZ), whose roles in FOXP2 remain largely unknown. We found that the LZ mediates FOXP2 dimerization via coiled‐coil formation but also contributes to DNA binding. The ZF contributes to protein dimerization when the LZ coiled‐coil is intact, but it is not involved in DNA binding. The forkhead domain (FHD) is the key driver of DNA binding. Our data contributes to understanding the mechanisms behind the transcriptional activity of FOXP2.

The Dominant Role of Forkhead Box Proteins in Cancer

Forkhead box (FOX) proteins are multifaceted transcription factors that are significantly implicated in cancer, with various critical roles in biological processes. Herein, we provide an overview of several key members of the FOXA, FOXC, FOXM1, FOXO and FOXP subfamilies. Important pathophysiological processes of FOX transcription factors at multiple levels in a context-dependent manner are discussed. We also specifically summarize some major aspects of FOX transcription factors in association with cancer research such as drug resistance, tumor growth, genomic alterations or drivers of initiation. Finally, we suggest that targeting FOX proteins may be a potential therapeutic strategy to combat cancer.