MiR-101 targets DUSP1 to regulate the TGF-β secretion in sorafenib inhibits macrophage-induced growth of hepatocarcinoma

CCR7/DUSP1 signaling Axis mediates iCAF to regulates head and neck squamous cell carcinoma growth

OBJECTIVE

C-C motif chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) significantly influences tumors onset and progression, yet its impact on the tumor microenvironment (TME) and specific mechanisms remain elusive. Inflammatory Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts (iCAF), a vital subtype of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts (CAF), play a critical role in regulating the TME and tumor growth, though the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. This study aims to determine whether CCR7 participates in tumor regulation by iCAF and to elucidate the specific mechanisms involved.

METHODS

Differential gene analysis of CAF subtypes in CCR7 knockout and wild-type groups was conducted using single-cell data. Animal models facilitated the extraction of primary iCAF cells via flow cytometry sorting. Changes in DUSP1 expression and the efficiency of lentivirus-mediated knockdown and overexpression were examined through qPCR and Western Blot. MOC1 and MOC2 cells were co-cultured with iCAF, with subsequent validation of changes in tumor cell proliferation, migration, and invasion using CCK8, EdU, and wound healing assays. ELISA was employed to detect changes in TGF-β1 concentration in the iCAF supernatant.

RESULTS

CAF was categorized into three subtypes-myCAF, iCAF, and apCAF-based on single-cell data. Analysis revealed a significant increase in DUSP1 expression in iCAF from the CCR7 knockout group, confirmed by in vitro experiments. Co-culturing MOC1 and MOC2 cells with iCAF exhibiting lentivirus-mediated DUSP1 knockdown resulted in inhibited tumor cell proliferation, invasion, and migration. In contrast, co-culture with iCAF overexpressing DUSP1 enhanced these capabilities. Additionally, the TGF-β1 concentration in the supernatant increased in the DUSP1 knockdown iCAF group, whereas it decreased in the DUSP1 overexpression group.

CONCLUSION

The CCR7/DUSP1 signaling axis regulates tumor growth by modulating TGF-β1 secretion in iCAF.

Dynamics of the neutrophil‑to‑lymphocyte ratio during lenvatinib treatment for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma

Lenvatinib is an approved therapy for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Recently, immune checkpoint inhibitors have been approved as frontline chemotherapies for HCC, and the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) has been demonstrated to significantly affect HCC treatment. The neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) is associated with the TIME, and the dynamics of the NLR are associated with prognosis or treatment efficacy in various cancer types. The present study investigated the dynamics of the TIME using the NLR in 101 patients with HCC treated with lenvatinib. Immunostaining for CD8+ tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) was also performed in 9 patients who underwent liver tumor biopsy prior to subsequent chemotherapy for progression or discontinuation due to adverse events on lenvatinib treatment. The NLR values measured at the start of treatment (SOT), after 1 month of treatment and after 3 months of treatment were 2.78±2.20, 2.61±1.86 and 2.66±2.36, respectively (P=0.733). Among the patients with no reduction in the initial dose, there was no significant difference between the NLR after 1 month (2.34±0.25) and that at the SOT (2.86±2.33) (P=0.613). In patients who achieved a complete or partial response, the NLR at the time of the best tumor response was 1.65±0.56, which was significantly lower than that at the SOT (2.05±0.78) (P=0.023). In patients who did not respond to lenvatinib, the NLR at the time of disease progression was 3.68±3.19, which was significantly higher than that at the SOT (2.78±1.79) (P=0.043). Overall, 5 out of the 6 patients who did not respond to lenvatinib had low CD8+ TIL counts at disease progression. Although the present study included a limited number of patients, the NLR was associated with the therapeutic effects of lenvatinib. These findings suggest the potential of lenvatinib as an immunomodulator.

Tumor-associated macrophages in anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma: recent research progress

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the cancers that seriously threaten human health. Immunotherapy serves as the mainstay of treatment for HCC patients by targeting the programmed cell death protein 1/programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) axis. However, the effectiveness of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 treatment is limited when HCC becomes drug-resistant. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are an important factor in the negative regulation of PD-1 antibody targeted therapy in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Therefore, as an emerging direction in cancer immunotherapy research for the treatment of HCC, it is crucial to elucidate the correlations and mechanisms between TAMs and PD-1/PD-L1-mediated immune tolerance. This paper summarizes the effects of TAMs on the pathogenesis and progression of HCC and their impact on HCC anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy, and further explores current potential therapeutic strategies that target TAMs in HCC, including eliminating TAMs in the TME, inhibiting TAMs recruitment to tumors and functionally repolarizing M2-TAMs (tumor-supportive) to M1-TAMs (antitumor type).

Sorafenib plus transcatheter arterial chemoembolization with or without camrelizumab for the treatment of intermediate and advanced hepatocellular carcinoma

OBJECTIVES

To compare the efficacy and safety of transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE) combined with sorafenib and camrelizumab or with sorafenib alone in patients with intermediate or advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

METHODS

We retrospectively analysed 78 patients with intermediate or advanced HCC who were treated at our centres between January 2018 and December 2021. Twenty-six of them received sorafenib and camrelizumab plus TACE (the TACE + Sor + C group), while 52 received TACE and sorafenib (the TACE + Sor group). Overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS), and adverse events (AEs) were evaluated. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to determine the factors affecting survival.

RESULTS

The median OS (22 vs 10 months, P < .001) and median PFS (11 vs 6 months, P = .008) of the TACE + Sor + C group were significantly higher than those of the TACE + Sor group. Multivariate analysis showed that compared with TACE + Sor + C, TACE + Sor increased the risk of all-cause mortality and tumour progression. For grade I and II AEs, the incidence of skin capillary hyperplasia and hypothyroidism in the TACE + Sor + C group was significantly higher than that in the TACE + Sor group. For serious AEs (grade III or IV), there was no significant difference in any adverse reaction between the 2 groups (P > .05).

CONCLUSION

Patients with intermediate or advanced HCC appeared to benefit more in terms of survival from TACE + Sor + C than from TACE + Sor, and the AEs were tolerable.

ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE

(1) Subgroup analysis demonstrated that TACE + sorafenib + camrelizumab could benefit HCC patients regardless of whether they had portal vein tumour thrombosis, Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer B or C, or CHILD A or B; (2) We reported the immunotherapy-related AEs occurred with a significantly higher incidence in triple treatment, but all the AEs are tolerable.

Dual-Specificity Phosphatases in Regulation of Tumor-Associated Macrophage Activity

The regulation of protein kinases by dephosphorylation is a key mechanism that defines the activity of immune cells. A balanced process of the phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of key protein kinases by dual-specificity phosphatases is required for the realization of the antitumor immune response. The family of dual-specificity phosphatases is represented by several isoforms found in both resting and activated macrophages. The main substrate of dual-specificity phosphatases are three components of mitogen-activated kinase signaling cascades: the extracellular signal-regulated kinase ERK1/2, p38, and Janus kinase family. The results of the study of model tumor-associated macrophages supported the assumption of the crucial role of dual-specificity phosphatases in the formation and determination of the outcome of the immune response against tumor cells through the selective suppression of mitogen-activated kinase signaling cascades. Since mitogen-activated kinases mostly activate the production of pro-inflammatory mediators and the antitumor function of macrophages, the excess activity of dual-specificity phosphatases suppresses the ability of tumor-associated macrophages to activate the antitumor immune response. Nowadays, the fundamental research in tumor immunology is focused on the search for novel molecular targets to activate the antitumor immune response. However, to date, dual-specificity phosphatases received limited discussion as key targets of the immune system to activate the antitumor immune response. This review discusses the importance of dual-specificity phosphatases as key regulators of the tumor-associated macrophage function.

The role of tumor-associated macrophages in hepatocellular carcinoma progression: A narrative review

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignant tumors in the world, with complex etiology and mechanism, and a high mortality rate. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are an important part of the HCC tumor microenvironment. Studies in recent years have shown that TAMs are involved in multiple stages of HCC and are related to treatment and prognosis in HCC. The specific mechanisms between TAMs and HCC are gradually being revealed. This paper reviews recent advances in the mechanisms associated with TAMs in HCC, concentrating on an overview of effects of TAMs on drug resistance in HCC and the signaling pathways linked with HCC, providing clues for the treatment and prognosis determination of HCC.

Astragaloside IV suppresses the migration and EMT progression of cervical cancer cells by inhibiting macrophage M2 polarization through TGFβ/Smad2/3 signaling

Cervical cancer (CC) is a gynecological malignant tumor worldwide. Astragaloside IV (AS-IV) has been found to exert antitumor effects on CC. In addition, M2-polarized macrophages, known as tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), play an important role in promoting cancer cell growth and angiogenesis. Thus, we explored the association between the antitumor effect of AS-IV and macrophage polarization in CC. Flow cytometry, ELISA, and RT‒qPCR assays were applied to detect the levels of CD163, IL-10, TGFβ, and CD206 in M2 macrophages with or without AS-IV treatment. In addition, conditioned medium (CM) was collected from these M2 macrophages, and CC cells were then cultured in various CMs. Wound healing and transwell assays were used to assess the migratory ability of CC cells. In this study, we found that AS-IV significantly inhibited M2 polarization of macrophages, as shown by decreased CD163, IL-10, TGFβ, and CD206 expression. In addition, compared with CM from M2 macrophages, CM from AS-IV-treated M2 macrophages notably inhibited angiogenesis, migration, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in CC cells. Furthermore, compared with CM from M2 macrophages, CM from AS-IV-treated M2 macrophages markedly reduced p-Smad2 and p-Smad3 protein expression in CC cells, and these changes were reversed by TGF-β treatment. Collectively, suppression of M2-like polarization of macrophages by AS-IV could prevent the migration and EMT of CC cells by inactivating TGF-β/Smad2/3 signaling. These findings might provide some theoretical support for exploring novel treatments for CC.

Roles of tumor-associated macrophages in anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy for solid cancers

In recent years, tumor immunotherapy has made significant progress. However, tumor immunotherapy, particularly immune checkpoint inhibitors (e.g., PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors), benefits only a tiny proportion of patients in solid cancers. The tumor microenvironment (TME) acts a significant role in tumor immunotherapy. Studies reported that tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), as one of the main components of TME, seriously affected the therapeutic effect of PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors. In this review, we analyzed TAMs from epigenetic and single-cell perspectives and introduced the role and mechanisms of TAMs in anti-programmed death protein 1(anti-PD-1) therapy. In addition, we summarized combination regimens that enhance the efficacy of tumor PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors and elaborated on the role of the TAMs in different solid cancers. Eventually, the clinical value of TAMs by influencing the therapeutic effect of tumor PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors was discussed. These above are beneficial to elucidate poor therapeutic effect of PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors in solid tumors from the point of view of TAMs and explore the strategies to improve its objective remission rate of solid cancers.

Roles of protein tyrosine phosphatases in hepatocellular carcinoma progression (Review)

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) represents almost 80% of all liver cancers, is the sixth most common cancer and is the second‑highest cause of cancer‑related deaths worldwide. Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), which are encoded by the largest family of phosphatase genes, play critical roles in cellular responses and are implicated in various signaling pathways. Moreover, PTPs are dysregulated and involved in various cellular processes in numerous cancers, including HCC. Kinases and phosphatases are coordinators that modulate cell activities and regulate signaling responses. There are multiple interacting signaling networks, and coordination of these signaling networks in response to a stimulus determines the physiological outcome. Numerous issues, such as drug resistance and inflammatory reactions in the tumor microenvironment, are implicated in cancer progression, and the role of PTPs in these processes has not been well elucidated. Therefore, the present review focused on discussing the relationship of PTPs with inflammatory cytokines and chemotherapy/targeted drug resistance, providing detailed information on how PTPs can modulate inflammatory reactions and drug resistance to influence progression in HCC.

MiR-101: An Important Regulator of Gene Expression and Tumor Ecosystem

MiRNAs are small single-stranded non-coding RNAs. MiRNA contributes to the transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of mRNA in different cell types, including mRNA transcription inhibition and mRNA decay and phenotypes via the effect of several essential oncogenic processes and tumor microenvironment. MiR-101 is a highly conserved miRNA that was found to alter the expression in various human cancers. MiR-101 has been reported to have tumor oncogenic and suppressive effects to regulate tumorigenesis and tumor progression. In this review, we summarize the new findings about the roles of miR-101 in cancers and the underlying mechanisms of targeting genes degradation and microenvironment regulation, which will improve biological understanding and design of novel therapeutics.

Metabolic reprogramming by miRNAs in the tumor microenvironment: Focused on immunometabolism

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are emerging as a significant modulator of immunity, and their abnormal expression/activity has been linked to numerous human disorders, such as cancer. It is now known that miRNAs potentially modulate the production of several metabolic processes in tumor-associated immune cells and indirectly via different metabolic enzymes that affect tumor-associated signaling cascades. For instance, Let-7 has been identified as a crucial modulator for the long-lasting survival of CD8+ T cells (naive phenotypes) in cancer by altering their metabolism. Furthermore, in T cells, it has been found that enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) expression is controlled via glycolytic metabolism through miRNAs in patients with ovarian cancer. On the other hand, immunometabolism has shown us that cellular metabolic reactions and processes not only generate ATP and biosynthetic intermediates but also modulate the immune system and inflammatory processes. Based on recent studies, new and encouraging approaches to cancer involving the modification of miRNAs in immune cell metabolism are currently being investigated, providing insight into promising targets for therapeutic strategies based on the pivotal role of immunometabolism in cancer. Throughout this overview, we explore and describe the significance of miRNAs in cancer and immune cell metabolism.

The imminent role of microRNAs in salivary adenoid cystic carcinoma

Unfortunately, despite the severe problem associated with salivary adenoid cystic carcinoma (SACC), it has not been studied in detail yet. Therefore, the time has come to understand the oncogenic cause of SACC and find the correct molecular markers for diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic target to tame this disease. Recently, we and others have suggested that non-coding RNAs, specifically microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs, can be ideal biomarkers for cancer(s) diagnosis and progression. Herein, we have shown that various miRNAs, like miR-155, miR‑103a‑3p, miR-21, and miR-130a increase the oncogenesis process, whereas some miRNAs such as miR-140-5p, miR-150, miR-375, miR-181a, miR-98, miR-125a-5p, miR-582-5p, miR-144-3p, miR-320a, miR-187 and miR-101-3p, miR-143-3p inhibit the salivary adenoid cystic carcinoma progression. Furthermore, we have found that miRNAs also target many vital genes and pathways like mitogen-activated protein kinases-snail family transcriptional repressor 2 (MAPK-Snai2), p38/JNK/ERK, forkhead box C1 protein (FOXC1), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), integrin subunit beta 3 (ITGB3), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)/NF-κB, programmed cell death protein 4 (PDCD4), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), neuroblastoma RAS (N-RAS), phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt, MEK/ERK, ubiquitin-like modifier activating enzyme 2 (UBA2), tumor protein D52 (TPD52) which play a crucial role in the regulation of salivary adenoid cystic carcinoma. Therefore, we believe that knowledge from this manuscript will help us find the pathogenesis process in salivary adenoid cystic carcinoma and could also give us better biomarkers of diagnosis and prognosis of the disease.

Link of sorafenib resistance with the tumor microenvironment in hepatocellular carcinoma: Mechanistic insights

Sorafenib, a multi-kinase inhibitor with antiangiogenic, antiproliferative, and proapoptotic properties, is the first-line treatment for patients with late-stage hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the therapeutic effect remains limited due to sorafenib resistance. Only about 30% of HCC patients respond well to the treatment, and the resistance almost inevitably happens within 6 months. Thus, it is critical to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and identify effective approaches to improve the therapeutic outcome. According to recent studies, tumor microenvironment (TME) and immune escape play critical roles in tumor occurrence, metastasis and anti-cancer drug resistance. The relevant mechanisms were focusing on hypoxia, tumor-associated immune-suppressive cells, and immunosuppressive molecules. In this review, we focus on sorafenib resistance and its relationship with liver cancer immune microenvironment, highlighting the importance of breaking sorafenib resistance in HCC.

Noncoding RNA-mediated macrophage and cancer cell crosstalk in hepatocellular carcinoma

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a well-recognized system that plays an essential role in tumor initiation, development, and progression. Intense intercellular communication between tumor cells and other cells (especially macrophages) occurs in the TME and is mediated by cell-to-cell contact and/or soluble messengers. Emerging evidence indicates that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are critical regulators of the relationship between cells within the TME. In this review, we provide an update on the regulation of ncRNAs (primarily micro RNAs [miRNAs], long ncRNAs [lncRNAs], and circular RNAs [circRNAs]) in the crosstalk between macrophages and tumor cells in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). These ncRNAs are derived from macrophages or tumor cells and act as oncogenes or tumor suppressors, contributing to tumor progression not only by regulating the physiological and pathological processes of tumor cells but also by controlling macrophage infiltration, activation, polarization, and function. Herein, we also explore the options available for clinical therapeutic strategies targeting crosstalk-related ncRNAs to treat HCC. A better understanding of the relationship between macrophages and tumor cells mediated by ncRNAs will uncover new diagnostic biomarkers and pharmacological targets in cancer.

Effect of miR-101 on the Proliferation and Apoptosis of Goat Hair Follicle Stem Cells

The Yangtze River Delta white goat is a rare goat species capable of producing high-quality brush hair. Dual specificity protein phosphatase 1 (DUSP1) may play a role in the formation of high-quality brush hair, as evidenced by our previous research. We investigated the potential mechanisms that regulate the proliferation and apoptosis of goat hair follicle stem cells. We particularly focused on the relationship between DUSP1 and miR-101, which directly targets DUSP1, predicted and screened through bioinformatics websites. Then, fluorescence assays, flow cytometry, RT-qPCR, and Western blotting were used to investigate the effects of miR-101 on the proliferation and apoptosis of hair follicle stem cells. We found that miR-101 overexpression significantly decreased (p < 0.01) apoptosis and promoted the proliferation of hair follicle stem cells. Furthermore, the overexpression of miR-101 increased (p < 0.05) the mRNA and protein expression levels of the proliferation-related gene (PCNA) and anti-apoptotic gene (Bcl-2), and it decreased (p < 0.05) the mRNA and protein expression levels of the apoptotic gene (Bax). In conclusion, miR-101 can promote the proliferation of and inhibit the apoptosis of hair follicle stem cells by targeting DUSP1, which provides a theoretical basis for further elucidating the molecular mechanism that regulates the production of high-quality brush hair of Yangtze River Delta white goats.

Non-coding RNAs and macrophage interaction in tumor progression

The macrophages are abundantly found in TME and their M2 polarization is in favor of tumor malignancy. On the other hand, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) can modulate macrophage polarization in TME to affect cancer progression. The miRNAs can dually induce/suppress M2 polarization of macrophages and by affecting various molecular pathways, they modulate tumor progression and therapy response. The lncRNAs can affect miRNAs via sponging and other molecular pathways to modulate macrophage polarization. A few experiments have also examined role of circRNAs in targeting signaling networks and affecting macrophages. The therapeutic targeting of these ncRNAs can mediate TME remodeling and affect macrophage polarization. Furthermore, exosomal ncRNAs derived from tumor cells or macrophages can modulate polarization and TME remodeling. Suppressing biogenesis and secretion of exosomes can inhibit ncRNA-mediated M2 polarization of macrophages and prevent tumor progression. The ncRNAs, especially exosomal ncRNAs can be considered as non-invasive biomarkers for tumor diagnosis.

Hepatitis B Viral Protein HBx and the Molecular Mechanisms Modulating the Hallmarks of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Comprehensive Review

With 296 million cases estimated worldwide, chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is the most common risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). HBV-encoded oncogene X protein (HBx), a key multifunctional regulatory protein, drives viral replication and interferes with several cellular signalling pathways that drive virus-associated hepatocarcinogenesis. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of the role of HBx in modulating the various hallmarks of HCC by supporting tumour initiation, progression, invasion and metastasis. Understanding HBx-mediated dimensions of complexity in driving liver malignancies could provide the key to unlocking novel and repurposed combinatorial therapies to combat HCC.

Modulation of the tumour microenvironment in hepatocellular carcinoma by tyrosine kinase inhibitors: from modulation to combination therapy targeting the microenvironment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) remain the backbone of systematic therapy for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. Sorafenib and lenvatinib are currently approved as first-line therapeutic drugs, and regorafenib and cabozantinib are applied as second-line treatments. With inhibition of angiogenesis as the main target, TKIs exert a profound effect on the tumour microenvironment (TME). The TME is a complex mixture of cellular and noncellular components surrounding the tumour mass, and is associated with tumour progression partially through the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Specifically, the TME of HCC is characterized by profound extracellular matrix remodelling and an immunosuppressive microenvironment. The purpose of this review is to provide a summary of TME remodelling mediated by four Food and Drug Administration approved TKIs in HCC and thus summarize the rationale and potential targets for combination therapy. The modulatory effect of TKIs on the TME of HCC was reported to enhance the antitumour effect of TKIs through pyroptosis of macrophages and subsequent natural killer cell activation, T cell activation, regulatory T cell reduction in HCC. Meanwhile, TKIs also induce drug resistance via M2 polarization and accumulation, recruitment of tumour-associated neutrophils, and induction of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. In conclusion, the effect of TKIs on TME can enhance its antitumour effect, but might also partially contribute to the drug resistance that hinders the progression of TKIs as treatment for HCC. Additionally, the effect of TKIs also provides the rationale for combination therapy, including combining TKIs with immune checkpoint inhibitors, to facilitate increased drug efficacy of TKIs.

Epi-miRNAs: Regulators of the Histone Modification Machinery in Human Cancer

Cancer is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Epigenetic deregulation is one of the most critical mechanisms in carcinogenesis and can be classified into effects on DNA methylation and histone modification. MicroRNAs are small noncoding RNAs involved in fine-tuning their target genes after transcription. Various microRNAs control the expression of histone modifiers and are involved in a variety of cancers. Therefore, overexpression or downregulation of microRNAs can alter cell fate and cause malignancies. In this review, we discuss the role of microRNAs in regulating the histone modification machinery in various cancers, with a focus on the histone-modifying enzymes such as acetylases, deacetylases, methyltransferases, demethylases, kinases, phosphatases, desumoylases, ubiquitinases, and deubiquitinases. Understanding of microRNA-related aberrations underlying histone modifiers in pathogenesis of different cancers can help identify novel therapeutic targets or early detection approaches that allow better management of patients or monitoring of treatment response.

Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Pathogenesis, Prognosis and Therapy

Simple Summary

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) constitutes a major health burden, accounting for >80% of primary liver cancers globally. Inflammation has come into the spotlight as a hallmark of cancer, and it is evident that tumor-associated inflammation drives the involvement of monocytes in tumor growth and metastasis. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) actively participate in tumor-related inflammation, representing the main type of inflammatory cells in the tumor microenvironment, setting the crosstalk between tumor and stromal cells. Infiltrating TAMs exert either anti-tumorigenic (M1) or pro-tumorigenic (M2) functions. In most solid human tumors, increased TAM infiltration has been associated with enhanced tumor growth and metastasis, while other studies showcase that under certain conditions, TAMs exhibit cytotoxic and tumoricidal activity, inhibiting the progression of cancer. In this review, we summarize the current evidence on the role of macrophages in the pathogenesis and progression of HCC and we highlight their potential utilization in HCC prognosis and therapy.

Abstract

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) constitutes a major health burden globally, and it is caused by intrinsic genetic mutations acting in concert with a multitude of epigenetic and extrinsic risk factors. Cancer induces myelopoiesis in the bone marrow, as well as the mobilization of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, which reside in the spleen. Monocytes produced in the bone marrow and the spleen further infiltrate tumors, where they differentiate into tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). The relationship between chronic inflammation and hepatocarcinogenesis has been thoroughly investigated over the past decade; however, several aspects of the role of TAMs in HCC development are yet to be determined. In response to certain stimuli and signaling, monocytes differentiate into macrophages with antitumor properties, which are classified as M1-like. On the other hand, under different stimuli and signaling, the polarization of macrophages shifts towards an M2-like phenotype with a tumor promoting capacity. M2-like macrophages drive tumor growth both directly and indirectly, via the suppression of cytotoxic cell populations, including CD8+ T cells and NK cells. The tumor microenvironment affects the response to immunotherapies. Therefore, an enhanced understanding of its immunobiology is essential for the development of next-generation immunotherapies. The utilization of various monocyte-centered anticancer treatment modalities has been under clinical investigation, selectively targeting and modulating the processes of monocyte recruitment, activation and migration. This review summarizes the current evidence on the role of TAMs in HCC pathogenesis and progression, as well as in their potential involvement in tumor therapy, shedding light on emerging anticancer treatment methods targeting monocytes.

Therapeutic efficacy of lenvatinib for hepatocellular carcinoma with iso‑high intensity in the hepatobiliary phase of Gd‑EOB‑DTPA‑MRI

Previous studies have reported that hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) harboring WNT/β-catenin mutations exhibits iso-high intensity by gadolinium ethoxybenzyl diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (Gd-EOB-DTPA-MRI, i.e. EOB-MRI) during the hepatobiliary phase (HBP), thus indicating that EOB-MRI may help clinicians identify an immune exclusion class, which might not respond to treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors. The present study analyzed the efficacy of lenvatinib for HCC with iso-high intensity during the HBP of EOB-MRI. Overall, 52 patients who underwent EOB-MRI for 140 HCC nodules were classified into iso-high-intensity and low-intensity groups during the HBP of EOB-MRI. The clinical and histological characteristics, and different responses to treatment of both groups were analyzed. The expression levels of β-catenin and glutamine synthetase, indicative of WNT/β-catenin mutations, were enhanced in the HCC with iso-high-intensity group. Nine patients had iso-high intensity, whereas 43 patients had low intensity. Tumor size was larger, and the levels of antagonist-II or vitamin K absence were higher in the iso-high-intensity group. Furthermore, 3/9 patients in the iso-high-intensity group had objective responses compared with 13/43 patients in the low-intensity group. Disease control was observed in 5/9 patients in the iso-high-intensity group and 26/43 patients in the low-intensity group. Median overall survival was 29.8 months for the iso-high-intensity group compared with 20.8 months for the low-intensity group. In the iso-high-intensity group, the median progression-free survival rate was 6.7 months compared with 5.6 months in the low-intensity group. No differences in best percentage change from baseline tumor size were observed in either group. Although few patients were included in this study, the present findings suggested that the efficacy of lenvatinib was unaffected by signal intensity during the HBP of EOB-MRI.

MicroRNAs: Regulators of immunological reactions in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third prominent cause of cancer mortality, with increasing prevalence and poor survival worldwide. Being diagnosed at an advanced stage, HCC frequently results in poor prognosis, treatment failure, and recurrence. Post-treatment reactivation and recurrence often amplify the immunosuppressed state induced by HCC pathogenesis. Therefore, stimulating the immune system may be a potential therapy measure for the treatment of HCC. Immune responses of the body may be potentiated by modulation of various effector cells such as B-cells, T-cells, Treg cells, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and other antigen-presenting cells. microRNAs (small non-coding RNAs) are the regulators of gene expression via translational inhibition or mRNA degradation. Various activities and developmental stages of the immune system are governed by miRNAs and they have a regulative impact on innate and adaptive immune cells in both, healthy and diseased conditions. Their misexpression has been associated with the initiation, development, and metastasis of various cancer types, including HCC. This review summarizes the functional impact of these immuno-miRNAs in the improvement of tumor conditions.

Combination of molecularly targeted therapies and immune checkpoint inhibitors in the new era of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma treatment

Multikinase inhibitors (MKIs) have been the only first-line treatment for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) for more than a decade, until the approval of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Moreover, the combination regimen of atezolizumab (anti-programmed cell death protein ligand 1 antibody) plus bevacizumab (anti-vascular endothelial growth factor monoclonal antibody) has recently been demonstrated to have superior efficacy when compared with sorafenib monotherapy. The remarkable efficacy has made this combination therapy the new standard treatment for advanced HCC. In addition to MKIs, many other molecularly targeted therapies are under investigation, some of which have shown promising results. Therefore, in the era of immuno-oncology, there is a significant rationale for testing the combinations of molecularly targeted therapies and ICIs. Indeed, numerous preclinical and clinical studies have shown the synergic antitumor efficacy of such combinations. In this review, we aim to summarize the current knowledge on the combination of molecularly targeted therapies and immune checkpoint therapies for HCC from both preclinical and clinical perspectives.

Tumor Immune Microenvironment and Its Related miRNAs in Tumor Progression

MiRNA is a type of small non-coding RNA, by regulating downstream gene expression that affects the progression of multiple diseases, especially cancer. MiRNA can participate in the biological processes of tumor, including proliferation, invasion and escape, and exhibit tumor enhancement or inhibition. The tumor immune microenvironment contains numerous immune cells. These cells include lymphocytes with tumor suppressor effects such as CD8+ T cells and natural killer cells, as well as some tumor-promoting cells with immunosuppressive functions, such as regulatory T cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells. MiRNA can affect the tumor immune microenvironment by regulating the function of immune cells, which in turn modulates the progression of tumor cells. Investigating the role of miRNA in regulating the tumor immune microenvironment will help elucidate the specific mechanisms of interaction between immune cells and tumor cells, and may facilitate the use of miRNA as a predictor of immune disorders in tumor progression. This review summarizes the multifarious roles of miRNA in tumor progression through regulation of the tumor immune microenvironment, and provides guidance for the development of miRNA drugs to treat tumors and for the use of miRNA as an auxiliary means in tumor immunotherapy.

The Epigenetic Modulation of Cancer and Immune Pathways in Hepatitis B Virus-Associated Hepatocellular Carcinoma: The Influence of HBx and miRNA Dysregulation

Hepatitis B virus (HBV)-associated hepatocellular carcinoma (HBV-HCC) pathogenesis is fueled by persistent HBV infection that stealthily maintains a delicate balance between viral replication and evasion of the host immune system. HBV is remarkably adept at using a combination of both its own, as well as host machinery to ensure its own replication and survival. A key tool in its arsenal, is the HBx protein which can manipulate the epigenetic landscape to decrease its own viral load and enhance persistence, as well as manage host genome epigenetic responses to the presence of viral infection. The HBx protein can initiate epigenetic modifications to dysregulate miRNA expression which, in turn, can regulate downstream epigenetic changes in HBV-HCC pathogenesis. We attempt to link the HBx and miRNA induced epigenetic modulations that influence both the HBV and host genome expression in HBV-HCC pathogenesis. In particular, the review investigates the interplay between CHB infection, the silencing role of miRNA, epigenetic change, immune system expression and HBV-HCC pathogenesis. The review demonstrates exactly how HBx-dysregulated miRNA in HBV-HCC pathogenesis influence and are influenced by epigenetic changes to modulate both viral and host genome expression. In particular, the review identifies a specific subset of HBx induced epigenetic miRNA pathways in HBV-HCC pathogenesis demonstrating the complex interplay between HBV infection, epigenetic change, disease and immune response. The wide-ranging influence of epigenetic change and miRNA modulation offers considerable potential as a therapeutic option in HBV-HCC.

The emerging role of miRNA in the perturbation of tumor immune microenvironment in chemoresistance: Therapeutic implications

Chemoresistance is a major hindrance in cancer chemotherapies, a leading cause of tumor recurrence and cancer-related deaths. Cancer cells develop numerous strategies to elude immune attacks and are regulated by immunological factors. Cancer cells can alter the expression of several immune modulators to upregulate the activities of immune checkpoint pathways. Targeting the immune checkpoint inhibitors is a part of the cancer immunotherapy altered during carcinogenesis. These immune modulators have the capability to reprogram the tumor microenvironment, thereby change the efficacy of chemotherapeutics. In general, the sensitivity of drugs is reduced in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, resulting in chemoresistance and tumor relapse. The regulation of microRNAs (miRNAs) is well established in cancer initiation, progression, and therapy. Intriguingly, miRNA affects cancer immune surveillance and immune response by targeting immune checkpoint inhibitors in the tumor microenvironment. miRNAs alter the gene expression at the post-transcriptional level, which modulates both innate and adaptive immune systems. Alteration of tumor immune microenvironment influences drug sensitivity towards cancer cells. Besides, the expression profile of immune-modulatory miRNAs can be used as a potential biomarker to predict the response and clinical outcomes in cancer immunotherapy and chemotherapy. Recent evidences have revealed that cancer-derived immune-modulatory miRNAs might be promising targets to counteract cancer immune escape, thereby increasing drug efficacy. In this review, we have compiled the role of miRNAs in overcoming the chemoresistance by modulating tumor microenvironment and discussed their preclinical and clinical implications.

MicroRNAs as Predictive Biomarkers of Resistance to Targeted Therapies in Gastrointestinal Tumors

The advent of precision therapies against specific gene alterations characterizing different neoplasms is revolutionizing the oncology field, opening novel treatment scenarios. However, the onset of resistance mechanisms put in place by the tumor is increasingly emerging, making the use of these drugs ineffective over time. Therefore, the search for indicators that can monitor the development of resistance mechanisms and above all ways to overcome it, is increasingly important. In this scenario, microRNAs are ideal candidate biomarkers, being crucial post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression with a well-known role in mediating mechanisms of drug resistance. Moreover, as microRNAs are stable molecules, easily detectable in tissues and biofluids, they are the ideal candidate biomarker to identify patients with primary resistance to a specific targeted therapy and those who have developed acquired resistance. The aim of this review is to summarize the major studies that have investigated the role of microRNAs as mediators of resistance to targeted therapies currently in use in gastro-intestinal neoplasms, namely anti-EGFR, anti-HER2 and anti-VEGF antibodies, small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors. For every microRNA and microRNA signature analyzed, the putative mechanisms underlying drug resistance were outlined and the potential to be translated in clinical practice was evaluated.

The Epigenetic Regulation of Microenvironment in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a highly lethal and complex malignancy strongly influenced by the surrounding tumor microenvironment. The HCC microenvironment comprises hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), stromal and endothelial cells, and the underlying extracellular matrix (ECM). Emerging evidence demonstrates that epigenetic regulation plays a crucial role in altering numerous components of the HCC tumor microenvironment. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the mechanisms of epigenetic regulation of the microenvironment in HCC. We review recent studies demonstrating how specific epigenetic mechanisms (DNA methylation, histone regulation, and non-coding RNAs mediated regulation) in HSCs, TAMs, and ECM, and how they contribute to HCC development, so as to gain new insights into the treatment of HCC via regulating epigenetic regulation in the tumor microenvironment.

Regorafenib enhances antitumor immunity via inhibition of p38 kinase/Creb1/Klf4 axis in tumor-associated macrophages

BACKGROUND

Regorafenib and other multikinase inhibitors may enhance antitumor efficacy of anti-program cell death-1 (anti-PD1) therapy in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Its immunomodulatory effects, besides anti-angiogenesis, were not clearly defined.

METHODS

In vivo antitumor efficacy was tested in multiple syngeneic liver cancer models. Murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) were tested in vitro for modulation of polarization by regorafenib and activation of cocultured T cells. Markers of M1/M2 polarization were measured by quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR), arginase activity, flow cytometry, and ELISA. Knockdown of p38 kinase and downstream Creb1/Klf4 signaling on macrophage polarization were confirmed by using knockdown of the upstream MAPK14 kinase, chemical p38 kinase inhibitor, and chromatin immunoprecipitation.

RESULTS

Regorafenib (5 mg/kg/day, corresponding to about half of human clinical dosage) inhibited tumor growth and angiogenesis in vivo similarly to DC-101 (anti-VEGFR2 antibody) but produced higher T cell activation and M1 macrophage polarization, increased the ratio of M1/M2 polarized BMDMs and proliferation/activation of cocultured T cells in vitro, indicating angiogenesis-independent immunomodulatory effects. Suppression of p38 kinase phosphorylation and downstream Creb1/Klf4 activity in BMDMs by regorafenib reversed M2 polarization. Regorafenib enhanced antitumor efficacy of adoptively transferred antigen-specific T cells. Synergistic antitumor efficacy between regorafenib and anti-PD1 was associated with multiple immune-related pathways in the tumor microenvironment.

CONCLUSION

Regorafenib may enhance antitumor immunity through modulation of macrophage polarization, independent of its anti-angiogenic effects. Optimization of regorafenib dosage for rational design of combination therapy regimen may improve the therapeutic index in the clinic.

Emerging roles of non-coding RNAs in the metabolic reprogramming of tumor-associated macrophages

Macrophages are the most common immune cells in the tumor microenvironment, and tumor-associated macrophages play an important role in cancer development. Metabolic reprogramming is important for the functional plasticity of macrophages. Studies investigating the relevance of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in human cancer found that ncRNAs can regulate the metabolism of cancer cells and tumor-associated macrophages. NcRNAs include short ncRNAs, long ncRNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs). The most common short ncRNAs are microRNAs, which regulate glucose, lipid, and amino acid metabolism in macrophages by acting on metabolism-related pathways and targeting metabolism-related enzymes and proteins, and are therefore involved in cancer progression. The role of lncRNAs and circRNAs in the metabolism of tumor-associated macrophages remains unclear. LncRNAs affect the glucose metabolism of macrophages, whereas their role in lipid and amino acid metabolism is not clear. CircRNAs regulate amino acid metabolism in macrophages. The roles of ncRNAs in energy metabolism and the underlying mechanisms need to be investigated further. Here, we summarize recent findings on the involvement of ncRNAs in metabolic reprogramming in tumor-associated macrophages, which affect the tumor microenvironment and play important roles in the development of cancer. Improving our understanding of the effects of ncRNAs on metabolic reprogramming of tumor-associated macrophages may facilitate the development of effective clinical therapies.

Hepigenetics: A Review of Epigenetic Modulators and Potential Therapies in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma is the fifth most common cancer worldwide and the second most lethal, following lung cancer. Currently applied therapeutic practices rely on surgical resection, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, or a combination thereof. These treatment options are associated with extreme adversities, and risk/benefit ratios do not always work in patients' favor. Anomalies of the epigenome lie at the epicenter of aberrant molecular mechanisms by which the disease develops and progresses. Modulation of these anomalous events poses a promising prospect for alternative treatment options, with an abundance of felicitous results reported in recent years. Herein, the most recent epigenetic modulators in hepatocellular carcinoma are recapitulated on.

Tribbles-1 Expression and Its Function to Control Inflammatory Cytokines, Including Interleukin-8 Levels are Regulated by miRNAs in Macrophages and Prostate Cancer Cells

The pseudokinase TRIB1 controls cell function in a range of contexts, by regulating MAP kinase activation and mediating protein degradation via the COP1 ubiquitin ligase. TRIB1 regulates polarization of macrophages and dysregulated Trib1 expression in murine models has been shown to alter atherosclerosis burden and adipose homeostasis. Recently, TRIB1 has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer, where it is often overexpressed, even in the absence of genetic amplification. Well described TRIB1 effectors include MAP kinases and C/EBP transcription factors, both in immune cells and in carcinogenesis. However, the mechanisms that regulate TRIB1 itself remain elusive. Here, we show that the long and conserved 3’untranslated region (3’UTR) of TRIB1 is targeted by miRNAs in macrophage and prostate cancer models. By using a systematic in silico analysis, we identified multiple “high confidence” miRNAs potentially binding to the 3’UTR of TRIB1 and report that miR-101-3p and miR-132-3p are direct regulators of TRIB1 expression and function. Binding of miR-101-3p and miR-132-3p to the 3’UTR of TRIB1 mRNA leads to an increased transcription and secretion of interleukin-8. Our data demonstrate that modulation of TRIB1 by miRNAs alters the inflammatory profile of both human macrophages and prostate cancer cells.

Glycogen Phosphorylase B Is Regulated by miR101-3p and Promotes Hepatocellular Carcinoma Tumorigenesis

Glycogen metabolism plays a key role in tumorigenesis. High expression levels of glycogen phosphorylase B (PYGB) were reported in several cancers and might be served as a prognostic biomarker for cancer from precancerous lesions. Previous studies indicated the high expression of PYGB in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) tissues. However, the detailed roles of PYGB in HCC, as well as the regulatory mechanisms, are still unclear. In this study, we confirmed that PYGB was overexpressed in HCC tissues. PYGB overexpression was significantly associated with an aggressive tumor phenotype and poor prognosis of HCC patients. Functionally, PYGB knockdown suppressed HCC cell proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro, as well as tumorigenesis and metastasis in vivo. Bioinformatics analysis indicated that PYGB overexpression might enhance epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) in HCC. Moreover, miR-101-3p was identified to post-transcriptionally inhibit the expression of PYGB via binding to 3′-UTR of PYGB. Overexpression of PYGB antagonized the regulatory effect of miR-101-3p on cell proliferation, migration and invasion in HCC cells. In summary, our results suggest that miR-101-3p/PYGB axis has an important role in HCC and PYGB could be served as a novel prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target for improving the prognosis of HCC patients.

The Emerging Roles of Exosomes as EMT Regulators in Cancer

Epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) causes epithelial cells to lose their polarity and adhesion property, and endows them with migratory and invasive properties to enable them to become mesenchymal stem cells. EMT occurs throughout embryonic development, during wound healing, and in various pathological processes, including tumor progression. Considerable research in the last few decades has revealed that EMT is invariably related to tumor aggressiveness and metastasis. Apart from the interactions between numerous intracellular signaling pathways known to regulate EMT, extracellular modulators in the tumor microenvironment also influence tumor cells to undergo EMT, with extracellular vesicles (EVs) receiving increasing attention as EMT inducers. EVs comprise exosomes and microvesicles that carry proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and other small molecules to stimulate EMT in cells. Among EVs, exosomes have been investigated in many studies, and their role has been found to be significant with respect to regulating intercellular communications. In this review, we summarize recent studies on exosomes and their cargoes that induce cancer-associated EMT. Furthermore, we describe the possible applications of exosomes as promising therapeutic strategies.

The p38/MKP-1 signaling axis in oral cancer: Impact of tumor-associated macrophages

Oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCC) constitute over 95% of all head and neck malignancies. As a key component of the tumor microenvironment (TME), chronic inflammation contributes towards the development, progression, and regional metastasis of OSCC. Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) associated with OSSC promote tumorigenesis through the production of cytokines and pro-inflammatory factors that are critical role in the various steps of malignant transformation, including tumor growth, survival, invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis. The mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) can regulate inflammation along with a wide range of cellular processes including cell metabolism, proliferation, motility, apoptosis, survival, differentiation and play a crucial role in cell growth and survival in physiological and pathological processes including innate and adaptive immune responses. Dual specificity MAPK phosphatases (MKPs) deactivates MAPKs. MKPs are considered as an important feedback control mechanism that limits MAPK signaling and subsequent target gene expression. This review outlines the role of MKP-1, the founding member of the MKP family, in OSCC and the TME. Herein, we summarize recent progress in understanding the regulation of p38 MAPK/MKP-1 signaling pathways via TAM-related immune responses in OSCC development, progression and treatment outcomes.

Challenges of combination therapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors for hepatocellular carcinoma

Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy targeting anti-programmed cell death-1 (anti-PD-1) or its ligand (anti-PD-L1) is the backbone of numerous combination regimens aimed at improving the objective response and survival of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Clinical trials of immuno-oncology regimens in other cancer types have shed light on issues of study design, including how to choose candidate regimens based on early-phase trial results, statistical considerations in trials with multiple primary endpoints, and the importance of predictive biomarkers. In this review, the updated data from early-phase trials of combination immunotherapy for HCC are summarised. Since the most extensively tested combination regimens for advanced HCC comprise anti-PD-1/anti-PD-L1 agents plus antiangiogenic agents, the relative benefit and antitumor mechanism of antiangiogenic multikinase inhibitors versus specific VEGF/VEGFR inhibitors are discussed. Other critical issues in the development of combination immunotherapy, including optimal management of immune-related adverse events and the value of ICI therapy in combination with locoregional treatment for HCC, are also explored.

Role of microRNAs in remodeling the tumor microenvironment (Review)

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs that are known to regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. miRNA expression is often deregulated in several human cancers, affecting the communication between tumor stroma and tumor cells, among other functions. Understanding the role of miRNAs in the tumor microenvironment is crucial for fully elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying tumor progression and exploring novel diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. The present review focused on the role of miRNAs in remodeling the tumor microenvironment, with an emphasis on their impact on tumor growth, metastasis and resistance to treatment, as well as their potential clinical applications.

Non-coding RNAs: Emerging Regulators of Sorafenib Resistance in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

As the first oral multi-target anti-tumor drug proved for the treatment of patients with advanced liver cancer in 2007, sorafenib has changed the landscape of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) treatment. However, drug resistance largely hinders its clinical application. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including microRNAs (miRNAs), and long non-coding (lncRNAs), have recently been demonstrated playing critical roles in a variety of cancers including HCC, while the mechanisms of ncRNAs in HCC sorafenib resistance have not been extensively characterized yet. Herein, we summarize the mechanisms of recently reported ncRNAs involved in sorafenib resistance and discuss the potential strategies for their application in the battle against HCC.

RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK, PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTORC1 and TP53 pathways and regulatory miRs as therapeutic targets in hepatocellular carcinoma

Introduction: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a significant problem globally because of viral infections and the increasing incidence of obesity and fatty liver disease. However, it is difficult to treat because its inherent genetic heterogeneity results in activation of numerous signaling pathways. Kinases have been targeted for decades with varying results, but the development of therapeutic resistance is a major challenge.Areas covered: The key roles of the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK, PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTORC1, TP53 microRNAs (miRs) as therapeutic targets are discussed and we suggests novel approaches for targeting miRs or their downstream targets to combat HCC. We performed literature searches using the Medline Database from 2000 to the present.Expert opinion: The involvement of RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK, PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTORC and TP53 pathways as drivers of the disease and drug resistance is a challenge. Moreover, miRs regulate the expression of key genes in these pathways. What we and others are proposing is the prospect of targeting miRs and their downstream targets to improve conventional approaches to treat HCC. Combination approaches are often promising because multiple signaling pathways are deregulated due to diverse mutations and events.

Macrophages and hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is among the most prevalent and lethal cancers in the human population. HCC is an inflammation-associated cancer caused by different etiological factors. The chronic inflammation leads to continuous cycles of hepatocytes destructive-regenerative process and contributes to HCC initiation and progression. Macrophages play a crucial role in chronic liver inflammation. The tumor microenvironment plays a key role in the progression of HCC. Tumor-associated macrophages are a well-known component of the tumor microenvironment and abundantly infiltrate HCC microenvironment. The roles of macrophages in the development and progression of HCC have been recognized. The deep understanding of macrophages in HCC will be critical for developing effective HCC therapy. Targeting of macrophages might provide novel therapeutic approaches for HCC patients and is an emerging field of interest. This review summarizes the knowledge on the contribution of macrophages in the development and progression of HCC, as well as potential immunotherapy being explored in targeting macrophages.

Overexpression of miR-101 May Target DUSP1 to Promote the Cartilage Degradation in Rheumatoid Arthritis

This study aimed to explore crucial genes that contribute to the development of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Three GSE77298, GSE55457, and GSE55235 data sets were used to analyze the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between RA synovial membrane tissue samples and normal synovial membrane tissue samples. Then, the functional enrichment analysis and protein-protein interactions (PPIs) construction were performed for DEGs. Subsequently, submodule analysis and regulatory network that contained transcription factors (TFs), microRNAs, and their targets were conducted. Finally, small-molecule drugs related to the DEGs were predicted. A total of 173 upregulated and 54 downregulated DEGs identified in at least 2 of 3 data sets. TYROBP, CTSS, MMP9, CXCR4, and CXCL10 were both highlighted in the PPI and submodule networks. In addition, miR-101, IRF1 TF, DUSP1, and CXCR4 had high degree in the regulatory network, and regulation pairs of miR-101-DUSP1 and IRF1 TF-CXCR4 were obtained. Drugs such as alemtuzumab and marimastat were negatively related to expression of the DEGs and might be useful drugs for RA treatment. In addition, most DEGs were involved in innate immune response (e.g., TYROBP, CCL5, CXCL10, FCGR1A, and FCGR3B) and phagosome pathway (e.g., CTSS). We suggested that miR-101 that regulated DUSP1, IRF1 TF that regulated CXCR4, as well as DEGs as TYROBP and CTSS might contribute to the RA pathogenesis. In addition, anti-inflammatory agent alemtuzumab and matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor marimastat might be useful drugs for RA treatment through functioning on their target genes.

Individualized precision treatment: Targeting TAM in HCC

Tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) plays a prominent role in inflammatory microenvironment which contributes to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) progress by presenting M1 and M2 polarization. HCC, which is highly associated with inflammation, always leads to poor prognosis for recurrence and metastasis. TAMs with M2 polarization induce cellular proliferation, angiogenesis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in HCC. Furthermore, it also interacts with other immune cell clusters which leads to the resistance in targeted therapy and immunotherapy. This article reviews studies on the role of TAM to affect HCC treatment and provides insight into the potential individualized precision monotherapy or combination therapy in HCC.

Inflammation and Liver Cancer: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Targets

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is associated with chronic inflammation and fibrosis arising from different etiologies, including hepatitis B and C and alcoholic and nonalcoholic fatty liver diseases. The inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 and their downstream targets nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 drive inflammation-associated HCC. Further, while adaptive immunity promotes immune surveillance to eradicate early HCC, adaptive immune cells, such as CD8+ T cells, Th17 cells, and B cells, can also stimulate HCC development. Thus, the role of the hepatic immune system in HCC development is a highly complex topic. This review highlights the role of cytokine signals, NF-κB, JNK, innate and adaptive immunity, and hepatic stellate cells in HCC and discusses whether these pathways could be therapeutic targets. The authors will also discuss cholangiocarcinoma and liver metastasis because biliary inflammation and tumor-associated stroma are essential for cholangiocarcinoma development and because primary tumor-derived inflammatory mediators promote the formation of a "premetastasis niche" in the liver.

Activation of chicken macrophages during in vitro stimulation and expression of immune genes

OBJECTIVE To characterize activation and expression of immune genes of chicken macrophages after in vitro stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and mouse erythrocytes. ANIMALS Five 15-day-old chickens and 2 BALB/c mice. PROCEDURES Macrophages were extracted from chicken bone marrow or peripheral blood and then stimulated with cytokines secreted from cell lines L929 and HD11. Stimulated chicken macrophages were further cocultured with LPS or mouse erythrocytes, and gene transcription of some distinctive cytokines was detected by use of a real-time PCR assay. RESULTS Morphological features and phagocytic function of macrophages were characterized. Activated macrophages had an elongated shape with a large cell nucleus, and they had phagocytic function. Distinctive genes encoding the surface marker gene CD11b were identified; high quantities of CD11b were transcribed. Relative transcription of chicken genes BF and BL in mature cells cocultured with both stimuli was lower than for control cells. However, the quantity of genes encoding M1- or M2-distinctive cytokines (interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-10, IL-12, inducible nitric oxide synthase, tumor necrosis factor-α, and transforming growth factor-β) that were transcribed differed significantly between stimulation with LPS and mouse erythrocytes. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Chicken macrophages were differentially stimulated by LPS and mouse erythrocytes, which suggested that in vitro stimulation can distinctly influence the transcription and expression of immune genes of chicken macrophages.