1
|
Yuan Y, Han C, Wang J, Li J. Parasitic plants regulate C and N distribution among common mycorrhizal networks linking host and neighboring plants. Ecology 2024; 105:e4418. [PMID: 39252134 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.4418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 07/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/11/2024]
Abstract
Common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs) can link multiple plants and distribute nutrients among them. However, how parasitic plants regulate the carbon and nutrient exchange between CMNs and the linked plants is unknown. Thus, we conducted a container experiment with two Trifolium pratense grown in two plastic cores and connected only by CMNs using a 25-μm nylon fabric in each container. Host T. pratense was parasitized or not parasitized by Cuscuta gronovii. CMNs were left intact or broken by rotating the cores with the host or neighboring T. pratense. The dual 15N and 13C labeling method was used to evaluate the N distributed by CMNs to the host and neighboring T. pratense and the recently fixed C from the host and neighboring T. pratense to CMNs. The results showed that CMNs distributed more 15N to unparasitized neighboring T. pratense than the parasitized host T. pratense. Moreover, the unparasitized neighboring T. pratense provides more recently fixed C to CMNs than the parasitized host T. pratense. These results revealed that the parasite regulated C and nutrient exchange between CMNs and the linked plants following the reciprocal rewards rule. Moreover, this study highlights the importance of parasitic plants in the regulation of mutualistic interactions in ecological webs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yongge Yuan
- Institute of Global Change and Evolutionary Ecology, School of Advanced Study, Taizhou University, Taizhou, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Taizhou, China
| | - Cheng Han
- School of Life Science, Taizhou University, Taizhou, China
| | - Jiani Wang
- School of Life Science, Taizhou University, Taizhou, China
| | - Junmin Li
- Institute of Global Change and Evolutionary Ecology, School of Advanced Study, Taizhou University, Taizhou, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Taizhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Anckaert A, Declerck S, Poussart LA, Lambert S, Helmus C, Boubsi F, Steels S, Argüelles-Arias A, Calonne-Salmon M, Ongena M. The biology and chemistry of a mutualism between a soil bacterium and a mycorrhizal fungus. Curr Biol 2024:S0960-9822(24)01230-2. [PMID: 39378881 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2024.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2024] [Accepted: 09/09/2024] [Indexed: 10/10/2024]
Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi (e.g., Rhizophagus species) recruit specific bacterial species in their hyphosphere. However, the chemical interplay and the mutual benefit of this intricate partnership have not been investigated yet, especially as it involves bacteria known as strong producers of antifungal compounds such as Bacillus velezensis. Here, we show that the soil-dwelling B. velezensis migrates along the hyphal network of the AM fungus R. irregularis, forming biofilms and inducing cytoplasmic flow in the AM fungus that contributes to host plant root colonization by the bacterium. During hyphosphere colonization, R. irregularis modulates the biosynthesis of specialized metabolites in B. velezensis to ensure stable coexistence and as a mechanism to ward off mycoparasitic fungi and bacteria. These mutual benefits are extended into a tripartite context via the provision of enhanced protection to the host plant through the induction of systemic resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Anckaert
- Microbial Processes and Interactions Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, University of Liège - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Avenue de la Faculté d'Agronomie, Bat. 9B, 5030 Gembloux, Belgique.
| | - Stéphane Declerck
- Laboratory of Mycology, Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain-UCLouvain, Croix du Sud 2, L7.05.06, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgique
| | - Laure-Anne Poussart
- Microbial Processes and Interactions Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, University of Liège - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Avenue de la Faculté d'Agronomie, Bat. 9B, 5030 Gembloux, Belgique
| | - Stéphanie Lambert
- Microbial Processes and Interactions Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, University of Liège - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Avenue de la Faculté d'Agronomie, Bat. 9B, 5030 Gembloux, Belgique
| | - Catherine Helmus
- Microbial Processes and Interactions Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, University of Liège - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Avenue de la Faculté d'Agronomie, Bat. 9B, 5030 Gembloux, Belgique
| | - Farah Boubsi
- Microbial Processes and Interactions Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, University of Liège - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Avenue de la Faculté d'Agronomie, Bat. 9B, 5030 Gembloux, Belgique
| | - Sébastien Steels
- Microbial Processes and Interactions Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, University of Liège - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Avenue de la Faculté d'Agronomie, Bat. 9B, 5030 Gembloux, Belgique
| | - Anthony Argüelles-Arias
- Microbial Processes and Interactions Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, University of Liège - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Avenue de la Faculté d'Agronomie, Bat. 9B, 5030 Gembloux, Belgique
| | - Maryline Calonne-Salmon
- Laboratory of Mycology, Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain-UCLouvain, Croix du Sud 2, L7.05.06, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgique
| | - Marc Ongena
- Microbial Processes and Interactions Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, University of Liège - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Avenue de la Faculté d'Agronomie, Bat. 9B, 5030 Gembloux, Belgique.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Basiru S, Ait Si Mhand K, Hijri M. Disentangling arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and bacteria at the soil-root interface. MYCORRHIZA 2023; 33:119-137. [PMID: 36961605 DOI: 10.1007/s00572-023-01107-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are essential components of the plant root mycobiome and are found in approximately 80% of land plants. As obligate plant symbionts, AMF harbor their own microbiota, both inside and outside the plant root system. AMF-associated bacteria (AAB) possess various functional traits, including nitrogen fixation, organic and inorganic phosphate mobilization, growth hormone production, biofilm production, enzymatic capabilities, and biocontrol against pathogen attacks, which not only contribute to the health of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis but also promote plant growth. Because of this, there is increasing interest in the diversity, functioning, and mechanisms that underlie the complex interactions between AMF, AAB, and plant hosts. This review critically examines AMF-associated bacteria, focusing on AAB diversity, the factors driving richness and community composition of these bacteria across various ecosystems, along with the physical, chemical, and biological connections that enable AMF to select and recruit beneficial bacterial symbionts on and within their structures and hyphospheres. Additionally, potential applications of these bacteria in agriculture are discussed, emphasizing the potential importance of AMF fungal highways in engineering plant rhizosphere and endophyte bacteria communities, and the importance of a functional core of AAB taxa as a promising tool to improve plant and soil productivity. Thus, AMF and their highly diverse bacterial taxa represent important tools that could be efficiently explored in sustainable agriculture, carbon sequestration, and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions related to nitrogen fertilizer applications. Nevertheless, future studies adopting integrated multidisciplinary approaches are crucial to better understand AAB functional diversity and the mechanisms that govern these tripartite relationships.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sulaimon Basiru
- African Genome Center, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, Ben Guerir, 43150, Morocco
| | - Khadija Ait Si Mhand
- African Genome Center, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, Ben Guerir, 43150, Morocco
| | - Mohamed Hijri
- African Genome Center, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, Ben Guerir, 43150, Morocco.
- Institut de recherche en biologie végétale (IRBV), Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, QC, Montréal, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhang L, Zhou J, George TS, Limpens E, Feng G. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi conducting the hyphosphere bacterial orchestra. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 27:402-411. [PMID: 34782247 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2021.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
More than two-thirds of terrestrial plants acquire nutrients by forming a symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. AM fungal hyphae recruit distinct microbes into their hyphosphere, the narrow region of soil influenced by hyphal exudates. They thereby shape this so-called second genome of AM fungi, which significantly contributes to nutrient mobilization and turnover. We summarize current insights into characteristics of the hyphosphere microbiome and the role of hyphal exudates on orchestrating its composition. The hyphal exudates not only contain carbon-rich compounds but also promote bacterial growth and activity and influence the microbial community structure. These effects lead to shifts in function and cause changes in organic nutrient cycling, making the hyphosphere a unique and largely overlooked functional zone in ecosystems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhang
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, National Academy of Agriculture Green Development, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jiachao Zhou
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, National Academy of Agriculture Green Development, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | | | - Erik Limpens
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen 6708, PB, The Netherlands
| | - Gu Feng
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, National Academy of Agriculture Green Development, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Fu L, Zhang L, Dong P, Wang J, Shi L, Lian C, Shen Z, Chen Y. Remediation of copper-contaminated soils using Tagetes patula L., earthworms and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOREMEDIATION 2021; 24:1107-1119. [PMID: 34775850 DOI: 10.1080/15226514.2021.2002809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and earthworms have potential uses in the bioremediation of contaminated soils. In recent years, heavy metal-contaminated sites have been remediated by adding plants and AMF or earthworms to the soil. However, there are few studies on remediation using combinations of plants, animals, and microbes, especially for the remediation of Cu-contaminated soil. The present study investigated the separate and combined effects of AMF and earthworms on Cu-contaminated soil in which Tagetes patula L. was grown. The results show that the combined application of AMF and earthworms markedly increased the biomass of plant shoots and roots by more than 100%. It also increased Cu extraction by T. patula by 270%. The combined treatment was effective in increasing the CEC, contents of OM, and available Cu, P and K, but reduced the soil pH. Furthermore, the combined treatment significantly increased the abundance and diversity of the soil microbial community. In particular, the abundances of the bacteria Bacteroides, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria were increased, with the genera Flavobacterium, Pedobacter, Algoriphagus, Gaetbulibacter, Pseudomonas, Luteimonas, and Arthrobacter dominating. Meanwhile, the abundance of the fungus Zygomycota was increased, with Mortierella dominating. Moreover, inoculation with earthworms greatly improved the structure of the soil microbial community.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Fu
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- Nanjing Institute for Comprehensive Utilization of Wild Plants, Nanjing, China
| | - Long Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Pengcheng Dong
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jie Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Liang Shi
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center for Solid Organic Waste Resource, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Chunlan Lian
- Asian Natural Environmental Science Center, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Zhenguo Shen
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yahua Chen
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- Asian Natural Environmental Science Center, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sun N, Jiang F, Zhang L, Feng G. Hyphal exudates of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus<italic>Rhizophagus irregularis</italic> induce phosphate-solubilizingbacterium <italic>Rahnella aquatilis</italic> to swim towards its hyphae. CHINESE SCIENCE BULLETIN-CHINESE 2021. [DOI: 10.1360/tb-2021-0579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
7
|
Simberloff D, Kaur H, Kalisz S, Bezemer TM. Novel chemicals engender myriad invasion mechanisms. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 232:1184-1200. [PMID: 34416017 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Non-native invasive species (NIS) release chemicals into the environment that are unique to the invaded communities, defined as novel chemicals. Novel chemicals impact competitors, soil microbial communities, mutualists, plant enemies, and soil nutrients differently than in the species' native range. Ecological functions of novel chemicals and differences in functions between the native and non-native ranges of NIS are of immense interest to ecologists. Novel chemicals can mediate different ecological, physiological, and evolutionary mechanisms underlying invasion hypotheses. Interactions amongst the NIS and resident species including competitors, soil microbes, and plant enemies, as well as abiotic factors in the invaded community are linked to novel chemicals. However, we poorly understand how these interactions might enhance NIS performance. New empirical data and analyses of how novel chemicals act in the invaded community will fill major gaps in our understanding of the chemistry of biological invasions. A novel chemical-invasion mechanism framework shows how novel chemicals engender invasion mechanisms beyond plant-plant or plant-microorganism interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Simberloff
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Department, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
| | - Harleen Kaur
- Plant BioSystems, Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2P5, Canada
| | - Susan Kalisz
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Department, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
| | - T Martijn Bezemer
- Plant Science and Natural Products, Institute of Biology Leiden (IBL), Leiden University, PO Box 9505, Leiden, 2300 RA, the Netherlands
- Department of Terrestrial Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), PO Box 6700 AB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Penczykowski RM, Sieg RD. Plantago spp. as Models for Studying the Ecology and Evolution of Species Interactions across Environmental Gradients. Am Nat 2021; 198:158-176. [PMID: 34143715 DOI: 10.1086/714589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
AbstractA central challenge in ecology and evolutionary biology is to understand how variation in abiotic and biotic factors combine to shape the distribution, abundance, and diversity of focal species. Environmental gradients, whether natural (e.g., latitude, elevation, ocean proximity) or anthropogenic (e.g., land-use intensity, urbanization), provide compelling settings for addressing this challenge. However, not all organisms are amenable to the observational and experimental approaches required for untangling the factors that structure species along gradients. Here we highlight herbaceous plants in the genus Plantago as models for studying the ecology and evolution of species interactions along abiotic gradients. Plantago lanceolata and P. major are native to Europe and Asia but distributed globally, and they are established models for studying population ecology and interactions with herbivores, pathogens, and soil microbes. Studying restricted range congeners in comparison with those cosmopolitan species can provide insight into abiotic and biotic determinants of range size and population structure. We highlight one such species, P. rugelii, which is endemic to eastern North America. We give an overview of the literature on these focal Plantago species and explain why they are logical candidates for studies of species interactions across environmental gradients. Finally, we emphasize collaborative and community science approaches that can facilitate such research and note the amenability of Plantago for authentic research projects in science education.
Collapse
|
9
|
Bukovská P, Rozmoš M, Kotianová M, Gančarčíková K, Dudáš M, Hršelová H, Jansa J. Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Mediates Efficient Recycling From Soil to Plants of Nitrogen Bound in Chitin. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:574060. [PMID: 33679625 PMCID: PMC7933022 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.574060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Symbiosis between plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, involving great majority of extant plant species including most crops, is heavily implicated in plant mineral nutrition, abiotic and biotic stress tolerance, soil aggregate stabilization, as well as shaping soil microbiomes. The latter is particularly important for efficient recycling from soil to plants of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen (N) bound in organic forms. Chitin is one of the most widespread polysaccharides on Earth, and contains substantial amounts of N (>6% by weight). Chitin is present in insect exoskeletons and cell walls of many fungi, and can be degraded by many prokaryotic as well as eukaryotic microbes normally present in soil. However, the AM fungi seem not to have the ability to directly access N bound in chitin molecules, thus relying on microbes in their hyphosphere to gain access to this nutrient-rich resource in the process referred to as organic N mineralization. Here we show, using data from two pot experiments, both including root-free compartments amended with 15N-labeled chitin, that AM fungi can channel substantial proportions (more than 20%) of N supplied as chitin into their plants hosts within as short as 5 weeks. Further, we show that overall N losses (leaching and/or volatilization), sometimes exceeding 50% of the N supplied to the soil as chitin within several weeks, were significantly lower in mycorrhizal as compared to non-mycorrhizal pots. Surprisingly, the rate of chitin mineralization and its N utilization by the AM fungi was at least as fast as that of green manure (clover biomass), based on direct 15N labeling and tracing. This efficient N recycling from soil to plant, observed in mycorrhizal pots, was not strongly affected by the composition of AM fungal communities or environmental context (glasshouse or outdoors, additional mineral N supply to the plants or not). These results indicate that AM fungi in general can be regarded as a critical and robust soil resource with respect to complex soil processes such as organic N mineralization and recycling. More specific research is warranted into the exact molecular mechanisms and microbial players behind the observed patterns.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Jan Jansa
- Laboratory of Fungal Biology, Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Praha, Czechia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Salamon J, Wissuwa J, Frank T, Scheu S, Potapov AM. Trophic level and basal resource use of soil animals are hardly affected by local plant associations in abandoned arable land. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:8279-8288. [PMID: 32788978 PMCID: PMC7417231 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants provide resources and shape the habitat of soil organisms thereby affecting the composition and functioning of soil communities. Effects of plants on soil communities are largely taxon-dependent, but how different functional groups of herbaceous plants affect trophic niches of individual animal species in soil needs further investigation. Here, we studied the use of basal resources and trophic levels of dominating soil meso- and macrofauna using stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen in arable fallow systems 3 and 14-16 years after abandonment. Animals were sampled from the rhizosphere of three plant species of different functional groups: a legume (Medicaco sativa), a nonlegume herb (Taraxacum officinale), and a grass (Bromus sterilis). We found virtually no consistent effects of plant identity on stable isotope composition of soil animals and on thirteen isotopic metrics that reflect general food-web structure. However, in old fallows, the carbon isotope composition of some predatory macrofauna taxa had shifted closer to that of co-occurring plants, which was particularly evident for Lasius, an aphid-associated ant genus. Trophic levels and trophic-chain lengths in food webs were similar across plant species and fallow ages. Overall, the results suggest that variations in local plant diversity of grassland communities may little affect the basal resources and the trophic level of prey consumed by individual species of meso- and macrofauna belowground. By contrast, successional changes in grassland communities are associated with shifts in the trophic niches of certain species, reflecting establishment of trophic interactions with time, which shapes the functioning and stability of soil food webs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jörg‐Alfred Salamon
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution & Field Station SchapenUniversity of Veterinary Medicine HannoverHannoverGermany
- Department für Integrative Biologie und BiodiversitätsforschungInstitut für ZoologieUniversität für Bodenkultur WienWienAustria
| | - Janet Wissuwa
- Department für Integrative Biologie und BiodiversitätsforschungInstitut für ZoologieUniversität für Bodenkultur WienWienAustria
| | - Thomas Frank
- Department für Integrative Biologie und BiodiversitätsforschungInstitut für ZoologieUniversität für Bodenkultur WienWienAustria
| | - Stefan Scheu
- J.F. Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and AnthropologyUniversity of GoettingenGoettingenGermany
- Centre of Biodiversity and Sustainable Land UseGöttingenGermany
| | - Anton M. Potapov
- J.F. Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and AnthropologyUniversity of GoettingenGoettingenGermany
- A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and EvolutionRussian Academy of SciencesMoscowRussia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
|
12
|
Bluhm SL, Potapov AM, Shrubovych J, Ammerschubert S, Polle A, Scheu S. Protura are unique: first evidence of specialized feeding on ectomycorrhizal fungi in soil invertebrates. BMC Ecol 2019; 19:10. [PMID: 30795747 PMCID: PMC6387494 DOI: 10.1186/s12898-019-0227-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECM) play a central role in nutrient cycling in boreal and temperate forests, but their role in the soil food web remains little understood. One of the groups assumed to live as specialised mycorrhizal feeders are Protura, but experimental and field evidence is lacking. We used a combination of three methods to test if Protura are specialized mycorrhizal feeders and compared their trophic niche with other soil invertebrates. Using pulse labelling of young beech and ash seedlings we analysed the incorporation of 13C and 15N into Acerentomon gallicum. In addition, individuals of Protura from temperate forests were collected for the analysis of neutral lipid fatty acids and natural variations in stable isotope ratios. RESULTS Pulse labelling showed rapid incorporation of root-derived 13C, but no incorporation of root-derived 15N into A. gallicum. The transfer of 13C from lateral roots to ectomycorrhizal root tips was high, while it was low for 15N. Neutral lipid fatty acid (NLFA) analysis showed high amounts of bacterial marker (16:1ω7) and plant marker (16:0 and 18:1ω9) fatty acids but not of the fungal membrane lipid 18:2ω6,9 in A. gallicum. Natural variations in stable isotope ratios in Protura from a number of temperate forests were distinct from those of the great majority of other soil invertebrates, but remarkably similar to those of sporocarps of ECM fungi. CONCLUSIONS Using three in situ methods, stable isotope labelling, neutral lipid fatty acid analysis and natural variations of stable isotope ratios, we showed that Protura predominantly feed on mycorrhizal hyphae via sucking up hyphal cytoplasm. Predominant feeding on ectomycorrhizal mycelia by Protura is an exception; the limited consumption of ECM by other soil invertebrates may contribute to carbon sequestration in temperate and boreal forests.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L. Bluhm
- J.F. Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Animal Ecology, University of Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Anton M. Potapov
- J.F. Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Animal Ecology, University of Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
- Russian Academy of Sciences, A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Leninsky Prospect 33, Moscow, 119071 Russia
| | - Julia Shrubovych
- Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Slawkowska 17, 31-016 Krakow, Poland
- State Museum of Natural History, Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Teatral’na St. 18, L’viv, UA 79008 Ukraine
- Institute of Soil Biology, Biology Centre of Czech Academy of Sciences, Na Sádkách 7, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Silke Ammerschubert
- Büsgen Institute, Forest Botany and Tree Physiology, University of Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andrea Polle
- Büsgen Institute, Forest Botany and Tree Physiology, University of Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stefan Scheu
- J.F. Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Animal Ecology, University of Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
- Centre of Biodiversity and Sustainable Land Use, University of Göttingen, Von-Siebold-Str. 8, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Potapov AM, Tiunov AV, Scheu S. Uncovering trophic positions and food resources of soil animals using bulk natural stable isotope composition. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:37-59. [PMID: 29920907 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Revised: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Despite the major importance of soil biota in nutrient and energy fluxes, interactions in soil food webs are poorly understood. Here we provide an overview of recent advances in uncovering the trophic structure of soil food webs using natural variations in stable isotope ratios. We discuss approaches of application, normalization and interpretation of stable isotope ratios along with methodological pitfalls. Analysis of published data from temperate forest ecosystems is used to outline emerging concepts and perspectives in soil food web research. In contrast to aboveground and aquatic food webs, trophic fractionation at the basal level of detrital food webs is large for carbon and small for nitrogen stable isotopes. Virtually all soil animals are enriched in 13 C as compared to plant litter. This 'detrital shift' likely reflects preferential uptake of 13 C-enriched microbial biomass and underlines the importance of microorganisms, in contrast to dead plant material, as a major food resource for the soil animal community. Soil organic matter is enriched in 15 N and 13 C relative to leaf litter. Decomposers inhabiting mineral soil layers therefore might be enriched in 15 N resulting in overlap in isotope ratios between soil-dwelling detritivores and litter-dwelling predators. By contrast, 13 C content varies little between detritivores in upper litter and in mineral soil, suggesting that they rely on similar basal resources, i.e. little decomposed organic matter. Comparing vertical isotope gradients in animals and in basal resources can be a valuable tool to assess trophic interactions and dynamics of organic matter in soil. As indicated by stable isotope composition, direct feeding on living plant material as well as on mycorrhizal fungi is likely rare among soil invertebrates. Plant carbon is taken up predominantly by saprotrophic microorganisms and channelled to higher trophic levels of the soil food web. However, feeding on photoautotrophic microorganisms and non-vascular plants may play an important role in fuelling soil food webs. The trophic niche of most high-rank animal taxa spans at least two trophic levels, implying the use of a wide range of resources. Therefore, to identify trophic species and links in food webs, low-rank taxonomic identification is required. Despite overlap in feeding strategies, stable isotope composition of the high-rank taxonomic groups reflects differences in trophic level and in the use of basal resources. Different taxonomic groups of predators and decomposers are likely linked to different pools of organic matter in soil, suggesting different functional roles and indicating that trophic niches in soil animal communities are phylogenetically structured. During last two decades studies using stable isotope analysis have elucidated the trophic structure of soil communities, clarified basal food resources of the soil food web and revealed links between above- and belowground ecosystem compartments. Extending the use of stable isotope analysis to a wider range of soil-dwelling organisms, including microfauna, and a larger array of ecosystems provides the perspective of a comprehensive understanding of the structure and functioning of soil food webs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anton M Potapov
- University of Göttingen, J.F. Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Untere Karspüle 2, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.,Russian Academy of Sciences, A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Leninsky Prospect 33, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexei V Tiunov
- Russian Academy of Sciences, A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Leninsky Prospect 33, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Stefan Scheu
- University of Göttingen, J.F. Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Untere Karspüle 2, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.,University of Göttingen, Centre of Biodiversity and Sustainable Land Use, Von-Siebold-Str. 8, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Faddeeva-Vakhrusheva A, Kraaijeveld K, Derks MFL, Anvar SY, Agamennone V, Suring W, Kampfraath AA, Ellers J, Le Ngoc G, van Gestel CAM, Mariën J, Smit S, van Straalen NM, Roelofs D. Coping with living in the soil: the genome of the parthenogenetic springtail Folsomia candida. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:493. [PMID: 28659179 PMCID: PMC5490193 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-3852-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Folsomia candida is a model in soil biology, belonging to the family of Isotomidae, subclass Collembola. It reproduces parthenogenetically in the presence of Wolbachia, and exhibits remarkable physiological adaptations to stress. To better understand these features and adaptations to life in the soil, we studied its genome in the context of its parthenogenetic lifestyle. Results We applied Pacific Bioscience sequencing and assembly to generate a reference genome for F. candida of 221.7 Mbp, comprising only 162 scaffolds. The complete genome of its endosymbiont Wolbachia, was also assembled and turned out to be the largest strain identified so far. Substantial gene family expansions and lineage-specific gene clusters were linked to stress response. A large number of genes (809) were acquired by horizontal gene transfer. A substantial fraction of these genes are involved in lignocellulose degradation. Also, the presence of genes involved in antibiotic biosynthesis was confirmed. Intra-genomic rearrangements of collinear gene clusters were observed, of which 11 were organized as palindromes. The Hox gene cluster of F. candida showed major rearrangements compared to arthropod consensus cluster, resulting in a disorganized cluster. Conclusions The expansion of stress response gene families suggests that stress defense was important to facilitate colonization of soils. The large number of HGT genes related to lignocellulose degradation could be beneficial to unlock carbohydrate sources in soil, especially those contained in decaying plant and fungal organic matter. Intra- as well as inter-scaffold duplications of gene clusters may be a consequence of its parthenogenetic lifestyle. This high quality genome will be instrumental for evolutionary biologists investigating deep phylogenetic lineages among arthropods and will provide the basis for a more mechanistic understanding in soil ecology and ecotoxicology. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-017-3852-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ken Kraaijeveld
- Department of Ecological Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn F L Derks
- Department of Animal Sciences, Animal Breeding and Genetics, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Seyed Yahya Anvar
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Leiden Genome Technology Center, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Valeria Agamennone
- Department of Ecological Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wouter Suring
- Department of Ecological Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Andries A Kampfraath
- Department of Ecological Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jacintha Ellers
- Department of Ecological Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Giang Le Ngoc
- Department of Ecological Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Institute of Biotechnology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | | | - Janine Mariën
- Department of Ecological Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sandra Smit
- Department of Plant Sciences, Bioinformatics Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Nico M van Straalen
- Department of Ecological Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Dick Roelofs
- Department of Ecological Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Rasmann S, Turlings TC. Root signals that mediate mutualistic interactions in the rhizosphere. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 32:62-68. [PMID: 27393937 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2016.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A recent boom in research on belowground ecology is rapidly revealing a multitude of fascinating interactions, in particular in the rhizosphere. Many of these interactions are mediated by photo-assimilates that are excreted by plant roots. Root exudates are not mere waste products, but serve numerous functions to control abiotic and biotic processes. These functions range from changing the chemical and physical properties of the soil, inhibiting the growth of competing plants, combatting herbivores, and regulating the microbial community. Particularly intriguing are root-released compounds that have evolved to serve mutualistic interactions with soil-dwelling organisms. These mutually beneficial plant-mediated signals are not only of fundamental ecological interest, but also exceedingly important from an agronomical perspective. Here, we attempt to provide an overview of the plant-produced compounds that have so far been implicated in mutualistic interactions. We propose that these mutualistic signals may have evolved from chemical defenses and we point out that they can be (mis)used by specialized pathogens and herbivores. We speculate that many more signals and interactions remain to be uncovered and that a good understanding of the mechanisms and ecological implications can be the basis for exploitation and manipulation of the signals for crop improvement and protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Rasmann
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Rue Emile-Argand 11, 2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
| | - Ted Cj Turlings
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Rue Emile-Argand 11, 2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Knegt B, Jansa J, Franken O, Engelmoer DJ, Werner GD, Bücking H, Kiers ET. Host plant quality mediates competition between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. FUNGAL ECOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2014.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
17
|
Engelmoer DJP, Kiers ET. Host diversity affects the abundance of the extraradical arbuscular mycorrhizal network. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 205:1485-1491. [PMID: 25297948 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 08/31/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can form complex networks in the soil that connect different host plants. Previous studies have focused on the effects of these networks on individual hosts and host communities. However, very little is known about how different host species affect the success of the fungal network itself. Given the potentially strong selection pressure against hosts that invest in a fungal network which benefits their competitors, we predict that the presence of multiple host species negatively affects the growth of the extraradical network. We designed an experiment using an in vitro culture approach to investigate the effect of different hosts (carrot, chichory and medicago) on the formation of a common mycelial network. In vitro root cultures, each inoculated with their own fungal network, were grown in a double split plate design with two host compartments and a common central compartment where fungal networks could form. We found that the size of fungal networks differs depending on the social environment of the host. When host species were propagated in a mixed species environment, the fungal abundance was significantly reduced compared to monoculture predictions. Our work demonstrates how host-to-host conflict can influence the abundance of the fungal partner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J P Engelmoer
- Department of Ecological Sciences, Faculty of Earth and Life sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - E Toby Kiers
- Department of Ecological Sciences, Faculty of Earth and Life sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Fungal Secondary Metabolism in the Light of Animal–Fungus Interactions: From Mechanism to Ecological Function. Fungal Biol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2531-5_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
|
19
|
Abstract
Trade-offs between individual fitness and the collective performance of crop and below-ground symbiont communities are common in agriculture. Plant competitiveness for light and soil resources is key to individual fitness, but higher investments in stems and roots by a plant community to compete for those resources ultimately reduce crop yields. Similarly, rhizobia and mycorrhizal fungi may increase their individual fitness by diverting resources to their own reproduction, even if they could have benefited collectively by providing their shared crop host with more nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively. Past selection for inclusive fitness (benefits to others, weighted by their relatedness) is unlikely to have favoured community performance over individual fitness. The limited evidence for kin recognition in plants and microbes changes this conclusion only slightly. We therefore argue that there is still ample opportunity for human-imposed selection to improve cooperation among crop plants and their symbionts so that they use limited resources more efficiently. This evolutionarily informed approach will require a better understanding of how interactions among crops, and interactions with their symbionts, affected their inclusive fitness in the past and what that implies for current interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E. Toby Kiers
- Institute of Ecological Sciences, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - R. Ford Denison
- Ecology Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN 55108, USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Achatz M, Morris EK, Müller F, Hilker M, Rillig MC. Soil hypha-mediated movement of allelochemicals: arbuscular mycorrhizae extend the bioactive zone of juglone. Funct Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Achatz
- Institut für Biologie, Plant Ecology; Freie Universität Berlin; Berlin 14195 Germany
| | - E. Kathryn Morris
- Department of Biology; Xavier University; 3800 Victory Parkway Cincinnati Ohio 45207 USA
| | - Frank Müller
- Institut für Biologie, Applied Zoology/Animal Ecology; Freie Universität Berlin; Berlin 12163, Germany
| | - Monika Hilker
- Institut für Biologie, Applied Zoology/Animal Ecology; Freie Universität Berlin; Berlin 12163, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB); Berlin 14195 Germany
| | - Matthias C. Rillig
- Institut für Biologie, Plant Ecology; Freie Universität Berlin; Berlin 14195 Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB); Berlin 14195 Germany
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Vannette RL, Hunter MD, Rasmann S. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi alter above- and below-ground chemical defense expression differentially among Asclepias species. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 4:361. [PMID: 24065971 PMCID: PMC3776932 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Below-ground (BG) symbionts of plants can have substantial influence on plant growth and nutrition. Recent work demonstrates that mycorrhizal fungi can affect plant resistance to herbivory and the performance of above- (AG) and BG herbivores. Although these examples emerge from diverse systems, it is unclear if plant species that express similar defensive traits respond similarly to fungal colonization, but comparative work may inform this question. To examine the effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on the expression of chemical resistance, we inoculated 8 species of Asclepias (milkweed)-which all produce toxic cardenolides-with a community of AMF. We quantified plant biomass, foliar and root cardenolide concentration and composition, and assessed evidence for a growth-defense tradeoff in the presence and absence of AMF. As expected, total foliar and root cardenolide concentration varied among milkweed species. Importantly, the effect of mycorrhizal fungi on total foliar cardenolide concentration also varied among milkweed species, with foliar cardenolides increasing or decreasing, depending on the plant species. We detected a phylogenetic signal to this variation; AMF fungi reduced foliar cardenolide concentrations to a greater extent in the clade including A. curassavica than in the clade including A. syriaca. Moreover, AMF inoculation shifted the composition of cardenolides in AG and BG plant tissues in a species-specific fashion. Mycorrhizal inoculation changed the relative distribution of cardenolides between root and shoot tissue in a species-specific fashion, but did not affect cardenolide diversity or polarity. Finally, a tradeoff between plant growth and defense in non-mycorrhizal plants was mitigated completely by AMF inoculation. Overall, we conclude that the effects of AMF inoculation on the expression of chemical resistance can vary among congeneric plant species, and ameliorate tradeoffs between growth and defense.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel L. Vannette
- Biology Department, Stanford UniversityStanford, CA, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of MichiganAnn Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Mark D. Hunter
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of MichiganAnn Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Sergio Rasmann
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of LausanneLausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Engelmoer DJP, Behm JE, Toby Kiers E. Intense competition between arbuscular mycorrhizal mutualists in an in vitro root microbiome negatively affects total fungal abundance. Mol Ecol 2013; 23:1584-1593. [PMID: 24050702 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Revised: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The root microbiome is composed of an incredibly diverse microbial community that provides services to the plant. A major question in rhizosphere research is how species in root microbiome communities interact with each other and their host. In the nutrient mutualism between host plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), competition often leads to certain species dominating host colonization, with the outcome being dependent on environmental conditions. In the past, it has been difficult to quantify the abundance of closely related species and track competitive interactions in different regions of the rhizosphere, specifically within and outside the host. Here, we used an artificial root system (in vitro root organ cultures) to investigate intraradical (within the root) and extraradical (outside the root) competitive interactions between two closely related AMF species, Rhizophagus irregularis and Glomus aggregatum, under different phosphorus availabilities. We found that competitive interactions between AMF species reduced overall fungal abundance. R. irregularis was consistently the most abundant symbiont for both intraradical and extraradical colonization. Competition was the most intense for resources within the host, where both species negatively affected each other's abundance. We found the investment ratio (i.e. extraradical abundance/intraradical abundance) shifted for both species depending on whether competitors were present or not. Phosphorus availability did not change the outcome of these interactions. Our results suggest that studies on competitive interactions should focus on intraradical colonization dynamics and consider how changes in investment ratio are mediated by fungal species interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J P Engelmoer
- Department of Ecological Sciences, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | | |
Collapse
|