Unwanted sexual contact on campus: a comparison of women's and men's experiences

Non-Physical and Ambient Sexual Harassment of Women Undergraduate University Students in Canada: A Diary Study

Using a 60-day daily e-diary tool, 117 women undergraduate students reported sexual harassment on a Canadian university campus (4,283 diary surveys, collectively). Participants reported 181 incidents of both ambient sexual harassment (witnessing 40 incidents, hearing 106 unwelcomed sexual jokes/remarks) and targeted personal experiences of non-physical sexual harassment (35 incidents). Qualitative data document students' descriptions of these encounters and contextualize how these are part of everyday student life. Findings show that students experience this harassment almost daily-in an ongoing, persistent, and normalized way-and that university can be a hostile environment where the possibility of daily unwanted sexual experiences is a lived, endemic reality.

Disclosing and Reporting of Consent Violations Among Kink Practitioners in the United States

Kink practitioners are marginalized and experience adverse health and social outcomes, which are exacerbated by consent violations. This study aims to understand experiences of reporting consent violations within a kink context. Kink practitioners (N = 2,888) completed a survey focused on consent violations, reporting, and recommendations, with 767 (25.56%) of them reporting consent violations in the kink context. The type of consent violation (sexual assault or kink-related behaviors), disclosure, and reporting significantly differed based on gender, sexual orientation, and injury status, but not age. Additionally, recommended steps included avoidance of police and others in positions of power and increased accountability.

Gender and Sexual Orientation Differences in Sexual Violence Knowledge, Prevention Behaviors, and Care-Seeking Behaviors

Sexual violence (SV) on college campuses disproportionately affects cisgender (nontransgender) women, sexual minorities (e.g., gays/lesbians, bisexuals), and gender minority (e.g., transgender/nonbinary) people. This study investigates gender and sexual behavior differences in common SV intervention targets-SV-related knowledge, prevention behaviors, and care-seeking. We analyzed cross-sectional survey data, collected in 9/2015-3/2017, from 2202 students aged 18-24 years attending college health and counseling centers at 28 Pennsylvania and West Virginia campuses. Multivariable multilevel models tested gender and sexual behavior differences in SV history; recognition of SV; prevention behaviors (self-efficacy to obtain sexual consent, intentions to intervene, positive bystander behaviors); and care-seeking behaviors (knowledge of, self-efficacy to use, and actual use of SV services). Adjusting for lifetime exposure to SV, compared with cisgender men, cisgender women had higher recognition of SV and reproductive coercion, prevention behaviors, and care-seeking self-efficacy (beta range 0.19-1.36) and gender minority people had higher recognition of SV and intentions to intervene (beta range 0.33-0.61). Cisgender men with any same-gender sexual partners had higher SV knowledge (beta = 0.23) and self-efficacy to use SV services (beta = 0.52) than cisgender men with only opposite-gender partners. SV history did not explain these differences. Populations most vulnerable to SV generally have higher SV knowledge, prevention behaviors, and care-seeking behaviors than cisgender men with only opposite-gender sexual partners. Innovative SV intervention approaches are necessary to increase SV-related knowledge among heterosexual cisgender men and may need to target alternative mechanisms to effectively reduce inequities for sexual and gender minority people.

Reluctance to Make a "Blind Faith Jump": LGBTQ+ College Students' Perspectives on Allies' Barriers to Preventing Sexual Assault

Campus sexual assault is a significant problem across the United States, and research has indicated LGBTQ+ students are at a greater risk of victimization than their straight-cisgender peers. Furthermore, LGBTQ+ students face unique barriers to help-seeking following an assault, including fear of stigmatizing the LGBTQ+ community. We propose that straight-cisgender allies may act as vigilant bystanders who notice signs of sexual assault and offer assistance to prevent assault from happening to LGBTQ+ students and/or to offer support after an assault occurs. Yet, research on the role of bystanders in preventing and alleviating sexual assault has largely overlooked experiences and perspectives of LGBTQ+ students. In this study, we explored LGBTQ+ students' perceptions of the roles straight-cisgender allies may play in alleviating the problem of sexual assault of LGBTQ+ students. We conducted group interviews with 30 LGBTQ+ college students from 19 campuses across the United States, paying attention to what they perceived as barriers to allies' help. Findings illustrate ways that boundaries between LGBTQ+ insiders and outsiders can leave both groups reluctant to make a "blind faith jump" to seek or offer help. We propose suggestions for how sexual assault prevention programming may bridge this gap between LGBTQ+ students and straight-cisgender allies.

PTSD Symptoms Among College Students: Linkages with Familial Risk, Borderline Personality, and Sexual Assault

College students have high rates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms as well as high rates of sexual assault. What is less clear, however, is whether different sexual assault types (e.g. coercive, physically forced, and incapacitation) are associated with greater PTSD symptoms. Moreover, understanding early familial and mental health histories of college students is important for explaining PTSD symptoms. As such, we use a social stress framework to examine the relationships between early familial risk (i.e. child abuse, perceived maternal rejection), borderline personality (BP) symptoms, and three sexual assault types with PTSD symptoms among college students. A total of 783 undergraduate students (65.4% female) completed paper and pencil surveys in fall 2019 and spring 2020 at a large public university. Results revealed that females were more likely to experience child sexual abuse and all three forms of sexual assault, while males experienced higher rates of child physical abuse. OLS regression results showed positive associations between child sexual abuse, perceived maternal rejection, BP symptoms and all three types of sexual assault with PTSD symptoms. Females also experienced more PTSD symptoms compared to males. Findings have implications for targeted interventions to improve mental health outcomes.

Student Knowledge of University Confidential Resources and Title IX Training Effectiveness

Though many universities offer resources to student survivors of sexual violence, student survivors who do not know about these resources cannot utilize their services. Students who are unaware of the confidentiality status of these services may seek assistance from an on-campus service without realizing the potential consequences. Under the theory of institutional betrayal, knowledge of confidential resources may prevent experiences of institutional betrayal for students who have experienced sexual violence. This research examines predictors of student knowledge regarding the confidentiality status of university resources for student survivors. Several variables were found to be associated with student knowledge of confidential on-campus resources. Implications for Title IX training and student resource availability are discussed, including the need for additional support for specific student populations.

Cross-sectional examination of correlates of sexual victimization disclosure via #MeToo

Background: Sexual victimization is a serious public health problem, with a range of negative impacts on mental and physical health. Responses that individuals get to disclosure of sexual victimization play an important role in recovery. With the increased use of social media, more survivors are talking about their experiences of sexual victimization online. Research is needed to document the correlates of online disclosure of sexual victimization.Objective: The current study examined the role of demographic characteristics, assault severity, coping strategies, and social isolation as putative correlates of disclosing sexual victimization online via the hashtag #MeToo.Methods: A sample of 637 adults recruited via social media who reported a history of sexual victimization since the age of 14 completed self-report surveys using online survey software to assess disclosure of sexual victimization, assault severity, coping strategies, and social isolation.Results: Multivariate analyses suggest that levels of emotion-focused coping were positively associated with the disclosure of sexual victimization online via #MeToo. Further, individuals who had experienced completed rape by verbal coercion were less likely to disclose via #MeToo, compared to individuals who experienced other forms of assault.Conclusion: Coping strategies and assault severity play an important role in determining whether survivors disclose sexual victimization online via #MeToo. Findings suggest that individuals may disclose via #MeToo to seek support or express their emotions. Further, individuals whose sexual victimization experiences do not conform to 'typical' sexual victimization experiences are less likely to disclose via #MeToo.

Measuring Sexual and Gender-Based Violence at the University of Cape Coast: Developing and Deploying a Campus Climate Survey

AIMS

Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) is a global public health crisis, impacting university youth around the world. The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) determine the best methodology for conducting a campus climate survey at the University of Cape Coast (UCC) in Ghana and (b) gather data on SGBV knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors from a representative sample of students.

METHODS

This descriptive study included three phases: (a) develop a campus climate survey unique to UCC, (b) develop a sampling methodology, and (c) deploy the first ever campus climate survey at UCC.

RESULTS

A 71-item survey was developed and then administered via a student portal to 2,000 students. Of those students, 1,381 (69.1%) responded. Although most students (63.2%) know the university has a sexual harassment policy, fewer have seen it (25.9%) or read it (22.3%). Students held generally positive views of how the university would respond to reports of sexual harassment, although 50.2% of participants believed the reporter would be labeled a troublemaker. More participants reported seeking and giving verbal than nonverbal consent, and more men than women reported both seeking and giving verbal consent. More men than women reported they "always" sought verbal consent (61.2% vs. 47.7%, p = 0.001). Most students ( n = 316, 56.5%) sought verbal consent all of the time, and an additional 99 (17.7%) sought it most of the time.

CONCLUSIONS

Accurate data about students' knowledge, attitudes, and experiences with SGBV policy, prevention, and response are needed globally to better inform locally appropriate practices.

POTENTIAL IMPACT OF CAMPUS INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT ON FORENSIC NURSING

Forensic nursing is currently localized in high-income countries. University students' knowledge, attitudes, and experiences with SGBV can support the expansion of forensic nursing research and practice to low- and middle-income countries.

Just One Shot? The Contextual Effects of Matched and Unmatched Intoxication on Perceptions of Consent in Ambiguous Alcohol-fueled Sexual Encounters

The current research examined how contextual factors-the quantity of alcohol consumed by each partner, and whether this quantity matched-influenced how alcohol-fueled sexual encounters were perceived with regard to consent, coercion, sexual assault, and perceived responsibility of the focal partner for the outcome of the encounter. Across four studies (Ntotal = 535), participants read vignettes in which one person described a sexual encounter they had following a night out drinking. These scenarios differed within studies as a function of quantified alcohol consumed (1 shot; 15 shots) and whether both people in the vignettes consumed the same amount of alcohol (matched; unmatched). They also differed between studies as a function of whether the couples described were mixed gender or same gender. Across all four studies, scenarios in which both people in the scenario consumed different quantities of alcohol (i.e., 15 vs. 1 shot) were seen as less consensual, more coercive, and more likely to be an assault compared to scenarios where consumption was matched, especially at lower levels of intoxication (i.e., 1 shot each vs. 15 shots each). However, focal partners were also seen as less responsible for the outcome of the interaction when levels of intoxication were unmatched compared to matched. This pattern replicated across scenarios depicting same-gender and mixed-gender couples. These findings suggest that people prioritize information regarding whether sexual partners are "matched" or "unmatched" in terms of their intoxication when evaluating whether ambiguous sexual encounters are consensual and perceived individual responsibility.

Factors Associated with Growth in Sexual Violence Survivors: A Systematic Scoping Review

Sexual violence has been defined as any sexual act perpetrated against someone's will. Sexual violence has many negative consequences for the victims. The most prevalent mental health issue in victims is posttraumatic stress disorder. However, a new trend in positive psychology suggests that many survivors of traumatic events, in addition to negative repercussions, adapt and develop positive personal changes, i.e., Posttraumatic growth (PTG), to mitigate their impact. This review explores the literature on posttraumatic growth among survivors of sexual violence. The review follows 5 stages of Arksey and O'Malley's framework of scoping review. 6 databases were searched using indexed terms. Approximately 65 articles were initially identified and evaluated in the preliminary search using the specified keywords. Of those retrieved, 16 met the criteria and were included in this study. Posttraumatic stress, Control over Recovery, Social Support, and Spirituality/Religiosity were the significant factors for PTG. The results suggest that fostering social support, spirituality, and a sense of control over recovery can facilitate PTG, highlighting the importance of holistic approaches in promoting resilience after trauma. Implications for practice, policy, and future directions are discussed.

Sexual violence prevalence and disclosure patterns among college undergraduates: exploring types of sexual violence and incident-specific characteristics

Objective: Study explores the role of well-documented individual-level correlates of a range of types of sexual violence among undergraduates and examines both individual-level and incident-level correlates of disclosure patterns to formal and informal sources. Participants: The current study involves the analysis of campus climate data collected in 2018 from 2,271 undergraduate participants. Methods: Descriptive and bivariate analyses are conducted to examine correlates of sexual violence, and a logistic regression model is estimated to examine disclosure by both individual and incident-level correlates. Results: 19% of students experience at least one incident of sexual violence since coming to campus, with many reporting multiple victimizations which differs by race, gender, and sexual orientation. Significant differences found in disclosure based on gender and relationship to who committed the sexual violence. Conclusions: Overall, findings from this study highlight the importance of using a nuanced approach to examining college students' experiences of sexual violence.

International and Domestic College Students: A Comparison of Campus Sexual Assault Victimization

Campus sexual assault (CSA) research predominately focuses on the victimization experiences of domestic college students. Therefore, there is little knowledge on, and understanding of, international student's CSA victimization experiences. The present study analyzed results from a campus climate survey conducted in 2018 at a midsized Midwestern university. Twenty-three percent of international women and 18% of international men reported being a CSA victim. A series of analyses then compared CSA victimizations in relation to international victims vs. international nonvictims and international victims vs. domestic victims. Results showed international victims vs. international nonvictims were more likely to be a sexual minority and be a member of a sorority or fraternity. Compared with domestic women, international women were more likely to report being non-victims. Compared with domestic men, international men were more likely to report being CSA victims. Results are discussed in relation to research on CSA and propose future directions of study.

Disclosure Recipients' Perceptions Related to Helping Victims of Dating and Sexual Violence

To date, research on social reactions to dating and sexual violence (DSV) disclosure has largely neglected the perspective of disclosure recipients. Moreover, few studies have explored disclosure recipients' perceptions of the victim and perceptions of their own effectiveness in helping as well as the correlates of these perceptions. The purpose of this study was to address these gaps in the literature. Participants were 783 college students (73.0% female) who reported receiving a DSV disclosure in the past 6 months. Participants who provided more negative social reactions to victim disclosures were less likely to empathize with the victim and more likely to feel victim blame/burdensomeness and confusion/ineffectiveness in their responses. Conversely, those providing more positive social reactions were more likely to empathize with the victim and were less likely to report victim blame/burdensomeness and confusion/ineffectiveness. Further, recipients with a DSV victimization history were more likely to report empathy for the victim. Being a man and having higher post-traumatic stress symptoms were associated with greater victim blame/burdensomeness, while the victim approaching the recipient to disclose and DSV experiences that occurred long ago were associated with lower victim blame/burdensomeness. Finally, depressive symptoms, receiving disclosures from a stranger/casual friend, and less frequent discussion about the incident were significantly associated with increased confusion/ineffectiveness. These findings suggest that perceptions of the victim and helping effectiveness, and factors associated with them, may be promising targets of programs seeking to reduce negative and increase positive social reactions to DSV disclosures.

Relational and Trait Factors Mediate the Associations between Women's Intoxication-Related Unwanted Sexual Experiences, Pleasure, and Desire

Despite documented negative sexual health sequelae of unwanted sexual contact (USC), it is unclear why individuals who have experienced USC within the context of intoxication (intoxication-related USC) are at particular risk for poor sexual functioning. Intoxication-related USC may impact relational factors like relationship satisfaction, as trauma symptoms interfere with emotional closeness during sex. Additionally, although individual traits - such as sexual excitation and sensation seeking - affect the relationship between trauma and sexual functioning, it is unknown whether these factors differentially impact those who have experienced intoxication-related USC. Finally, because presence of a partner may evoke trauma-related symptoms during partnered (dyadic) sexual activity, mediators may differ across solitary versus dyadic sexual pleasure and desire. We tested relational and individual trait mediators of the association between intoxication-related USC and solitary and dyadic sexual pleasure and desire in a sample of heterosexual and sexual minority women. Trait factors consistently mediated the association between intoxication-related USC and both dyadic and solitary desire and pleasure, while relational factors such as emotional closeness were inconsistently related to sexual wellbeing. If replicated, these findings would suggest that trait factors may be useful targets for clinical sexual wellness interventions among sexuality-diverse women who have experienced intoxication-related USC.

Egocentric network composition and structure relative to violence victimization among a sample of college students

ObjectiveTo use egocentric network analysis to understand how composition and structure of egonetworks relate to violence victimization among college students. Participants: 697 students from a large southeastern university completed online surveys. Methods: Hierarchical logistic regression analyses assessed the relationship between egocentric network variables and a history of violence victimization. Results: Being connected to others with a history of violence victimization increased a student's odds of indicating their own history of physical, emotional, and sexual violence victimization. Having less dense egonetworks was related to sexual violence victimization, while being connected to less people of the same gender was related to emotional violence victimization. Conclusion: The way college students' networks are composed and structured could help in understanding violence victimization in this population, and should be considered in prevention and reactionary efforts on campuses. These findings add to the current literature largely focused on individual-level risk factors related to violence.

Dark Tetrad, Acceptance of Sexual Violence, and Sexism

Abstract. The Dark Tetrad is a cluster of four “dark” personality traits which are socially aversive, with distinct conceptual roots, but which are intercorrelated: narcissism, psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and sadism. Narcissism is associated with inflated self-esteem and feelings of grandiosity; psychopathy involves reduced empathy and a lack of remorse or guilt; Machiavellianism is characterized by a tendency for manipulation for own personal benefit; sadism involves feelings of pleasure with the pain or suffering of others. Sexism is the group of beliefs linked with the perceived superiority of men over women. Previous studies have found relationships between the Dark Tetrad and the tolerance of the use of sexual violence and between the former and sexism. Furthermore, sexism has been linked with the acceptance of sexual violence. This study aims to revise the literature exploring the link between each of the components of the Dark Tetrad and the legitimation of the use of sexual violence; it also aims to present the associations that have been found between the aforementioned variables and sexism and related concepts, in multiple studies. Based on the previous literature, suggestions for aims of future research in this field (i.e., Dark Tetrad, sexual violence, sexism) are made, more specifically exploring the relative effect of each of the components of the Dark Tetrad in the explanation of the legitimation of sexual violence, as well as exploring a possible, at least partial, mediation of sexism in the link between each of the “dark” traits and the acceptance of sexual violence.

Examining Associations Between Participant Gender, Desired Partner Gender, and Views Toward Sexually Coercive Behaviors

Sexual coercion—pursuit of sexual activity with a partner who has not provided full consent (Huppin & Malamuth, Sexual Coercion, Hoboken, New Jersey, 2015) is a pervasive problem that carries psychological and financial costs. Although much past research has focused on sexually coercive acts performed by men and directed at women, the current work evaluates the independent and interactive roles of participant gender, desired partner gender, and sexual orientation in predicting individuals’ views toward sexual coercion, a psychological outcome linked with coercive sexual behavior (e.g., Zinzow & Thompson in Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44:213–222, 2015). To this end, 1021 cisgender men and women (M_age = 26.46 years) who self-identified as heterosexual, gay/lesbian, or bisexual rated the acceptability of sexually coercive behaviors performed by individuals of their gender. Consistent with past behavioral research, men rated these acts to be more acceptable when performed by same-gender others than did women. Extending past research, this gender difference was observed across variation in desired partner genders and sexual orientations. Further, an attraction to women predicted higher acceptability ratings among men but not among women. Finally, identification as heterosexual (as compared to gay/lesbian or bisexual) predicted more favorable views toward these behaviors across participant gender. Taken together, these findings suggest that men who are attracted to women (specifically) may be most likely to view coercive behaviors as acceptable, and thus may be most likely to utilize them, when pursuing sexual activity.

Sexual Violence at University: Are Indigenous Students More at Risk?

University-based sexual violence prevalence is worryingly high and leads to many serious consequences for health and academic achievement. Although previous work has documented greater risk for sexual violence among Indigenous Peoples, little is known about university-based sexual violence experienced by Indigenous students. Using a large-scale study of university-based sexual violence in Canada, the current study aims to (1) examine the risk of sexual violence against Indigenous students compared to non-Indigenous students, and (2) to document sexual violence experiences of Indigenous students. Undergraduate students from six universities (N = 5,627) completed online questionnaires regarding their experience and consequences of university-based sexual violence (e.g., forms of sexual violence experiences, gender, and status of the perpetrator, context of the violence, PTSD, disclosure). Findings indicated that compared with their non-Indigenous peers, Indigenous students experienced significantly higher levels of sexual harassment. However, no difference was found for unwanted sexual behaviors, nor for sexual violence contexts. Among Indigenous students, those having experienced sexual violence after age 18 (outside university) were more likely to report university-based sexual violence. Overall, findings highlight that Indigenous students, as well as non-Indigenous students, experience university-based sexual violence. Given their history, Indigenous students may have different needs, so sustainable policies that foster cultural safety on all campuses are clearly needed.

The Relationship Between College Student Characteristics and Reporting Sexual Assault Experiences on Two Different Scales

Though high rates of sexual assault are found on college campuses, prevalence rates between studies can vary considerable by gender, sexual orientation, and other student characteristics. Thus, it is unknown whether these are "true" differences for such characteristics or if there are methodological differences to consider. As such the current study examined whether student characteristics including gender, race, sexual orientation, sexual attraction, Greek affiliation, and relationship status are uniquely associated with reporting on two different sexual assault scales. Data were gathered from 783 college students in 2019-2020 at a large Midwestern university. Results revealed that the two different scales consistently provided different prevalence rates of sexual assault. Moreover, for each type of sexual assault (e.g., coercion, incapacitation, and physical force), there were also significant differences with students consistently reporting higher prevalence rates on one scale over the other. Finally, significant differences were found in prevalence rates across gender, sexual attraction, and Greek affiliated status.

Correlates of Support Utilization After Experiencing a Sexual Assault Among College Women and Men

Though previous research has examined survivors' use of formal and informal services, less research has looked at whether sexual orientation, race, and different sexual assault types (e.g., coercive) are associated with seeking support services. The purpose of this study is to examine factors associated with utilizing services or support from informal sources (e.g., telling a friend) and formal sources (e.g., psychological counseling) following a sexual assault. Data were gathered in Fall and Spring of 2019-2020 from undergraduate students at a Midwestern university. Logistic regression results showed that heterosexual students had 56% lower odds of using informal supports, while females were 2.05 times more likely to have used informal supports compared to their counterparts. Students who reported more heavy drinking had 37% lower odds of using informal supports compared to their counterparts. Those who experienced physical and incapacitated sexual assault were 2.09 times and 3.60 times more likely to have used informal supports, respectively. Additionally, older students were 1.35 times more likely to have used formal supports compared to younger students, whereas heterosexual students had 67% lower odds of using formal supports compared to sexual minority students. Those with greater PTSD symptoms were 1.07 times more likely to access formal services. Finally, students with greater depressive symptoms had 8% lower odds of using formal supports. Identifying college students who are less likely to access support services following a sexual assault has important implications for targeted prevention and intervention.

Forcible, Substance-facilitated, and Incapacitated Sexual Assault Among University Women: A Canadian Sample

This study examined the frequency of sexual assault experiences in a sample of university women to understand the conditions under which sexual assault occurs, and compare alcohol and drug consumption patterns on the likelihood of experiencing sexual victimization. While patterns of victimization have been examined in American contexts, research on contemporary Canadian contexts is scant at present. We found that roughly 58% of the 377 university women in our sample attending one of three large Western Canadian universities in British Columbia reported having been sexually assaulted. These women reported a total of 528 incidents of sexual assault, with 56% of these involving substance-related nonpenetrative sex acts; 312 incidents were substance-related and 216 involved forcible sexual assault. The likelihood of sexual assault victimization was the highest among participants who identified as a sexual minority, consumed marijuana, and reported greater severity of recent alcohol consumption. The present research aims to inform sexual assault prevention and education efforts to reduce occurrences of victimization.

Student-Athletes', Coaches', and Administrators' Perspectives of Sexual Violence Prevention on Three Campuses with National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I and II Athletic Programs

Research has found associations between intercollegiate athletics and risk for sexual violence, and that sexual violence is more pervasive at colleges and universities with National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I athletic programs, relative to NCAA Division II, NCAA Division III and no athletic programs. Simultaneously, sports involvement is linked with prosocial values and there are documented developmental benefits of sports participation. College athletic programs hold promise for fostering sexual violence prevention but there is limited knowledge about how student-athletes conceptualize sexual violence and how athletes, coaches, and administrators perceive available prevention and response programs. We conducted seven Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and 21 In-Depth Interviews (IDIs) with student-athletes, athletic directors, and coaches from public university Division I (n = 2) and Division II (n = 1) campuses. We assessed perceptions of sexual violence, knowledge and opinions of available prevention and response programs, and sought input on how to bridge gaps in campus sexual violence policies. Student-athletes associated sexual violence with alcohol in their relationships with peers and asymmetrical power dynamics in relationships with coaches and faculty. Athletes felt strong connections with teammates and sports programs but isolated from the larger campus. This created barriers to students' use of services and the likelihood of reporting sexual violence. Athletes felt the mandatory sexual violence prevention training, including additional NCAA components, were ineffective and offered to protect the university and its athletic programs from legal complications or cultural ridicule. Athletic staff were aware of policies and programs for reporting and referring sexual violence cases but their knowledge on how these served students was limited. Student-athletes were uncomfortable disclosing information regarding relationships and sexual violence to coaches and preferred peer-led prevention approaches.

Women's disclosure of college sexual assault: Greek-life status does not influence disclosure

Objective: Due to high prevalence rates of sexual assault among college-aged women and the benefits of disclosure (e.g., emotional well-being), it remains important to consider barriers to disclosure. The current paper aimed to examine if barriers to disclosure may be more salient to sorority women. Participants: We examined differences in rates of hypothetical willingness to formally disclose (N = 693) and actual formal/informal disclosure (N = 584) as well as mental health as a function of Greek-life status among college women. Method: Two separate online surveys were administered (October, 2016; January, 2017), respectively. Results: Findings suggest no significant differences in rates of hypothetical or actual formal/informal disclosure as a function of Greek-life status; however, Greek-life members reported lower mental health. Conclusion: Findings from the current studies suggest that institutional factors (e.g., campus climate) may serve as a barrier to disclosure. Limitations and future directions in this important area are discussed.

Prevalence of Sexual Victimization Among Female and Male College Students: A Methodological Note With Data

This study provides insight on how sample recruitment methods may affect reported rates of sexual victimization on college campuses. The study compares sexual victimization rates among students who complete surveys after initial requests with those who complete them only after multiple reminders. Using probability sampling methods, undergraduate students from 12 universities were invited to complete a survey on campus violence; initial invitations were followed with up to five reminders. Women (n = 1,008) and men (n = 344) who completed surveys were categorized as early, middle, or late responders based on the number of reminders required to convert them from non-responders to responders. About 24.2% of women and 15.6% of men reported sexual victimization in the previous two months. In initial analyses, female early and late responders did not differ on sexual victimization, but males did. Male late responders reported higher rates of sexual victimization than early responders. In sensitivity analyses that re-defined early and late responders, women who were early responders reported more sexual victimization than women who were late responders, while men who were early responders reported less sexual victimization than men who were late responders. These findings suggest that researchers may underestimate sexual victimization rates for male college students unless multiple attempts are made to solicit their participation. Researchers are encouraged to utilize multiple reminders to increase research participation.

Sexual Assault Prevention With Student-Athletes: Exploring Perceptions of the Campus Climate and Awareness of Sexual Assault Policies and Resources

Increasing awareness of school sexual assault policies and resources is a central component of sexual assault prevention. Research suggests that the state of the campus climate impacts an individual's level of awareness, particularly for at-risk groups like student-athletes. The purpose of this study was to examine how macro factors such as participation in sexual assault prevention, perceptions of the institutional response to addressing sexual assault, and perceptions of campus staff (i.e., campus police, athletic staff, and administration) are associated with awareness of sexual assault policies and resources. Student-athletes at five National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) schools participated in a web-based survey to assess their perceptions of the campus climate and awareness of sexual assault policies and resources. The results from an ordinary least squares multiple regression model revealed that past participation in sexual assault prevention, more positive perceptions of the institutional response, and more positive perceptions of campus police and administration were associated with a greater awareness of sexual assault policies and resources while controlling for race, ethnicity, and gender. Perceptions of athletic staff was not significantly related to awareness of policies and resources. These findings demonstrate that delivering consistent messaging and engaging campus staff in sexual assault prevention provides a foundation for building a positive campus climate which, in turn, may reduce campus sexual assault.

Bystander Intervention Behavior as Function of Victimization History, Opportunity, and Situational Context

Preliminary research has demonstrated the utility of bystander interventions in reducing sexual assault, and initial research has begun extending this type of intervention to intimate partner violence more broadly. However, the extant research is limited by methodological issues that fail to examine opportunity for intervention relative to intervention behaviors as well as a failure to examine intervention rates across differing risk situations. Further, there are many unexplored factors that may impact bystander intervention behavior, notably previous experiences with intimate partner violence and sexual assault. Thus, the current study examined bystander opportunities and intervention across situations of varying risk to the bystander, as well as the relationship of opportunity/intervention relative to victimization history. Given the rates of sexual assault and IPV on college and university campuses, the research examined the number of times college students (N = 393) encountered a range of situations in which bystander intervention may be indicated, and their intervention behavior across varying risk levels to the bystander. Results demonstrated that individuals with a history of psychological victimization were more likely to intervene across all situation types, but sexual and physical victimization provided mixed support for hypotheses. No differences in witnessing or intervening were found as a function of gender. These results replicate previous findings, and further provide evidence for a more nuanced approach to examine bystander behavior intervention. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Sexual Violence at University: Are Varsity Athletes More at Risk?

Some studies report that the sport context increases the risk of exposure to sexual violence for athletes. In contrast, others indicate a protective effect of sport participation against sexual violence, particularly among varsity athletes. Studies of sexual violence towards varsity athletes are limited by their failure to include control groups and various known risk factors such as age, graduate level, gender and sexual identity, disability status, international and Indigenous student status, and childhood sexual abuse. The purpose of the present study is to fill in these gaps to determine whether varsity athletes are at greater risk than non-athletes of sexual violence towards them or whether, on the contrary, involvement in a varsity sport is coherent with the Sport Protection Hypothesis. Data for this article come from the ESSIMU study (Enquête sur la Sexualité, la Sécurité et les Interactions en Milieu Universitaire), a broad survey of students, professors, and other employees at six francophone universities regarding sexual violence on university campuses. A total of 6,485 students with complete data on sexual violence, athlete status, and gender were included in the study. From this total, 267 participants identified themselves as varsity athletes. Data were analyzed using a series of logistic regressions on each form of violence using athlete status as a predictor and characteristics associated with sexual violence victimization or distinguishing between varsity athletes and non-athletes as confounding variables. When considering all confounding variables in the regression analyses on four yearly incidence rates of sexual violence, the results revealed that being a varsity athlete did not significantly increase the risk of exposure to sexual violence at university. All considered other variables were more significant predictors of the past year's risk of sexual violence victimization than athlete status was.

A Pilot Evaluation of an Intervention to Improve Social Reactions to Sexual and Partner Violence Disclosures

The purpose of this study was to evaluate an intervention (Supporting Survivors and Self [SSS]) created to increase positive social reactions and decrease negative social reactions to sexual assault and partner violence disclosures among informal support disclosure recipients. Participants were 1,268 college students from a medium-sized New England university who completed an online baseline survey and were assigned to either the treatment or control condition. The SSS intervention trained potential informal supports on what to say and not to say to disclosure recipients. Six months after the SSS intervention, participants in both conditions completed the follow-up survey online. Although intentions to provide positive social reactions significantly increased among participants in the treatment group compared with the control group and there were marginally significant effects in the anticipated directions for alcohol-specific intended social reactions, no overall difference was observed across conditions in actual social reactions provided. Moderation analyses suggested that, in general, the SSS intervention was more effective on various outcomes for students who were younger, male, non-White, sexual minorities, and/or non-victims. Moderation analyses also suggested that the intervention varied in efficacy depending on the circumstances of the disclosure. Despite the mixed outcomes of the SSS intervention, these data suggest that the SSS intervention was effective in improving social reactions for some students and under some circumstances. Future research is needed to further refine the SSS intervention to bolster its effectiveness in reducing negative social reactions and increasing positive social reactions for all students.

Predictors of Disclosure Recipients' Social Reactions to Victims' Disclosures of Dating and Sexual Violence: A Longitudinal Study of College Students

Dating violence (DV) and sexual violence (SV) are pernicious issues among college students that lead to deleterious outcomes, which are more likely when victims receive more negative social reactions (e.g., blaming the victim) and fewer positive social reactions to disclosure (e.g., providing emotional support). Most research studies have examined victims' reports of social reactions to their assault disclosures, with only a few cross-sectional studies of predictors of disclosure recipients' provision of positive and negative social reactions to victims. The purpose of the current study was to address these gaps in the literature. Participants were 481 college students (76.4% women, 89.2% White/Non-Hispanic) who reported being a disclosure recipient during the past six months (measured at Time 2 to cross-sectionally and longitudinally predict their social reactions to victims' disclosures). Results suggested that both victim and disclosure recipient characteristics (e.g., gender, race), disclosure recipient perceptions of victims (e.g., empathy for victim, blame of victim, victims' coping) and both disclosure recipient and victim behavior at the time of disclosure (e.g., drinking, distress) were related to disclosure recipient social reactions. These findings underscore the need for programs for potential informal disclosure recipients that target psychological variables (e.g., post-traumatic stress disorder) and behavior at the time of disclosure, as well as their perceptions of victims more generally, in addition to improving their knowledge and ability to respond with positive social reactions and avoid negative social reactions.

Social, Economic and Human Capital: Risk or Protective Factors in Sexual Violence?

In Chile, studies on protective factors and risk factors for sexual violence are limited and very few have incorporated analysis of different types of capital (social, economic, human) as social resources in the protection against sexual violence. The objective of this research is to evaluate to what extent the stock of different capitals act together, as either protective or risk factors in sexual violence in different interpersonal environments. The sample consisted of 1665 women between 15 and 30 years of age (M = 23.47, SD = 4.41). Artificial neural network analysis and social network analysis were used. The nodes representative of human and economic capital have a protective role of low relevance due to their position in the network, while the nodes of social capital acquire a structural relevance due to the central positions of the network. It is concluded that the structural social capital of neighborhood networks constitutes the main protective factor for sexual violence in all areas, and in turn, the structural social capital of networks with non-significant others was the main risk factor in sexual victimization.

Examining Support for University-to-Police Reporting Policies for Sexual Assault: The Role of Survivors' Consent

In several states, bills have been introduced that require universities to report sexual assaults to law enforcement. Opponents argue that such policies can compel survivors to disclose against their will, stripping survivors of autonomy and harming campus communities. We used a mixed method approach to examine people's support for reporting policies that do and do not consider survivor consent: compelled police disclosure (requires a report regardless of victim consent) and consented police disclosure (requires a report if the victim consents). We examined individual characteristics and attitudes associated with support for these approaches (i.e., had experienced sexual assault, trust in police). Participants (1,045 adults in the United States) were randomly assigned to read one of three policy statements, and we collected quantitative and qualitative survey data. Participants were less supportive of compelled police disclosure than consented police disclosure. People who supported compelled disclosure frequently focused on the crime and potential social benefits, were more likely to be non-victims, and held greater trust in the police. People who supported consented disclosure focused on the victim's needs, were more likely to be survivors, and held less trust in the police. Survivor consent should be considered in the discussion of university-to-police reporting policies for sexual assault.

"Men Cannot Be Raped": Correlates of Male Rape Myth Acceptance

Despite the increased attention surrounding rape and sexual assault, research on male victims remains limited, particularly concerning the adherence to rape myths. Rape myths, which are false beliefs that are widely accepted, contribute to the justification and normalization of sexual violence by offenders and focus on the actions and behavior of victims while minimizing the harm. Addressing the gaps in the research, the present study examines how demographics, personal experiences with rape (i.e., being or knowing a survivor), and belief systems relate to rape myth adherence for male victims. The sample consisted of 1,220 adults in the United States who completed an online survey via Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk). The number of myths endorsed ranged from 0 to 21 with a mean of 4.1 (SD = 4.7). In the final model of the hierarchical regression, results indicate rape myth acceptance was positively associated with individuals who were male, older, and more likely to believe males falsely report rapes to law enforcement at a high rate. Of the gender and sexuality attitudinal scales, individuals who adhered to female rape myths, held negative attitudes toward homosexuals, accepted traditional sexual double standards, and believed in traditional social gender roles were more likely to adhere to male rape myths. Findings demonstrate that rape myths operate similarly for male and female victims. Sexual assault programming and interventions need to address that males can be victims of sexual violence and the myths associated with male victimization in addition to generally challenging the adverse belief systems that serve as the foundation for rape myths generally.

Prevalence and Correlates of Sexual Assault Perpetration and Ambiguous Consent in a Representative Sample of College Students

The primary aim of the current study was to examine the prevalence and correlates of self-reported sexual assault (SA) perpetration, defined as nonconsensual sexualized touching or attempted or completed oral, vaginal, or anal penetration since starting college among men, women, and gender nonconforming (GNC) students. A secondary aim was to examine the prevalence and correlates of self-reported sexual encounters when the respondent was unsure that their partner consented (ambiguous consent). In spring 2016, 1,671 randomly sampled students (67% response rate) at two interconnected urban undergraduate institutions participated in an online survey about sexual experiences and personal and social contextual correlates. Prevalence estimates for SA perpetration and ambiguous consent were estimated and logistic regression was used to test bivariate associations between these two outcomes and a range of potential correlates. Approximately 2% of students self-reported any SA perpetration and 9% reported any ambiguous consent experiences since starting college. Pre-college SA perpetration, past-year SA victimization, belief in and use of nonverbal consent strategies, binge drinking, and depression symptoms were associated with higher odds of both SA perpetration and ambiguous consent while at college. Hookups were associated with higher odds of ambiguous consent; family social support was associated with lower odds of ambiguous consent. Findings of similar correlates for SA perpetration and ambiguous consent point to prevention programming focused on verbal consent strategies, alcohol harm reduction approaches, and pre-college interventions.

Bidirectional associations between alcohol use and intimate partner violence and sexual assault victimization among college women

Whereas some prior studies have explored whether alcohol increases the risk for victimization and/or whether distress resulting from victimization increases the risk for alcohol use, few studies have simultaneously tested these bidirectional hypotheses among a high-risk sample (i.e., undergraduate women), while including both sexual assault (SA) and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization, and exploring potential moderating effects of PTSD symptoms on these paths. Among 631 college women, the present study tested these bidirectional associations using cross-lagged panel models across two measurement periods (i.e., Time 1 [T1] and Time 2 [T2], six months later). Results suggested that T1 alcohol use increased risk for T2 SA (but not T2 IPV victimization), and PTSD symptoms moderated this association; at lower levels of PTSD symptoms, there were no significant associations between alcohol use and subsequent SA victimization, whereas at higher levels of PTSD symptoms, alcohol use predicted subsequent SA victimization. By contrast, the opposite directional hypothesis was not supported; neither T1 lifetime SA nor IPV were associated with T2 drinking, regardless of the level of their PTSD symptoms. Prevention and intervention efforts should simultaneously address risk factors for alcohol use and victimization using trauma-informed practices.

Prospective Predictors of Receiving Disclosures of Intimate Partner Violence and Sexual Assault Among College Students

OBJECTIVE

Previous research has indicated that many undergraduates receive disclosures of sexual assault and intimate partner violence (IPV) from their peers; however, much of this research has been cross-sectional. The present study assessed the extent to which demographic characteristics and victimization history predicted whether participants received disclosures over the subsequent 6 months. Directional hypotheses assessed whether psychological symptoms and attitudes predicted, or were consequences of, disclosures at follow-up.

METHOD

College students (n = 867) from a broader treatment intervention study completed pretest (Time 1) and 6-month follow-up surveys (Time 2).

RESULTS

Individuals who reported new disclosures at follow-up (56%) were more likely to be women, have previous experience receiving either sexual assault or IPV disclosures, and have experienced sexual assault or IPV victimization in their lifetime and across the follow-up period. Sexual orientation did not predict receipt of disclosures at follow-up; intervention group did not moderate these relationships. Results of longitudinal structural equation models found that although higher Time 1 posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and depressive symptoms predicted disclosure status at follow-up, Time 1 disclosure status did not predict subsequent increases in posttraumatic stress disorder and depressive symptoms. Attitudinal variables were not significantly associated with disclosures reported at Time 1 or follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest the importance of attending to personal experiences of victimization within interventions aiming to improve responses to disclosure. Although individuals with higher distress are more likely to receive subsequent disclosures, disclosure does not appear to lead to increases in long-term psychological distress.

Not Just an Undergraduate Issue: Campus Climate and Sexual Violence Among Graduate Students

The lack of research on graduate students' experiences with campus sexual violence and the campus climate is a glaring gap in the literature (Bonistall Postel, 2020). Thus, the current exploratory study examines the experience of graduate students at one university to determine their victimization rates and the number of disclosures they receive from peers. In addition, we compare graduate and undergraduate students' awareness of resources on campus and their confidence in knowing where to seek assistance for their peers or themselves. Finally, we compare key influential factors related to the campus climate such as sense of community and perceptions of the university's responsiveness to incidents of sexual violence among graduate and undergraduate students. An online survey was administered to a sample of 9,546 students, with 79.9% undergraduates and 20.1% graduates. A total of 5.2% of graduate students reported experiences of sexual violence since attending the university, with 13% receiving disclosures from peers. MANCOVA revealed that compared with undergraduate students, graduate students had significantly less awareness of campus resources, less confidence in knowing where to seek assistance, and less of a sense of community. There were no differences in perceptions of the university's handling of sexual violence. The findings highlight the importance of including and targeting graduate students in sexual violence awareness and prevention programming on college campuses.

Generation by Gender Differences in Use of Sexual Aggression: A Replication of the Millennial Shift

Adult perpetration rates of sexual aggression (defined as: acts in which an individual uses verbal pressure, arousal techniques, coercion, alcohol or drugs, or force to have sexual contact with someone against his or her will) were compared among an MTurk sample of 341 Baby Boom-GenX men, 356 Baby Boom-GenX women, 465 Millennial men, and 309 Millennial women (Mdn age = 30). Logistic regression analyses revealed a significant generation by gender interaction effect for use of six behaviors: pressured or forced sexual outcomes (PFSOs) without sexual intercourse; PFSOs with sexual intercourse, any tactic of post-refusal sexual persistence (PRSP), and PRSP tactic sets related to arousal, emotional coercion, and intoxication. No interaction effect was found for the PRSP tactic set of physical force. Follow-up analyses revealed that for four measures (any PRSP, PRSP sets for arousal, emotional coercion, and intoxication), Baby Boom-GenX men had significantly higher rates of sexual aggression than same-generation women, but Millennial men and women had statistically similar rates. This outcome replicated a pattern termed the Millennial Shift which we detected in earlier work. We suggest that the Millennial Shift involves higher sexual aggression rates reported by Millennial women compared to older generation women, in conjunction with lower rates reported by Millennial men compared to older generation men. We speculate that the Millennial Shift reflects changes in the traditional sexual script.

Big Boys Don't Cry: A Critical Interpretive Synthesis of Male Sexual Victimization

Sexual victimization is typically presented as a gender-based problem involving a female victim and a male offender. Science, policy, and society focus on female victims at the expense of male victims. Male sexual victimization is thus understudied compared with female sexual victimization. By performing a critical interpretive synthesis of research papers, policy documents, and gray literature (N = 67) published in four electronic databases from January 2000 through September 2017, this article establishes the prevalence of male sexual victims and the causes that underlie the underrepresentation of this group in existing research and current policy. The prevalence rates of male sexual victims vary considerably, with up to 65% of men reporting sexual victimization. The underrepresentation of male victims was found to be rooted in prevailing gender roles and accepted sexual scripts in society, together with rape myths and stereotypical rape scripts. The former prescribes men as the dominant and sexually active gender. The latter denies male sexual victimization and frames women as "ideal victims." Combined, these prevailing societal perceptions of men, male sexuality, and sexual victimization prevent men from self-identifying as victims and inhibit them from seeking help to cope with the adverse consequences of sexual victimization. Addressing the gender differences in sexual victimization requires societal and political changes that challenge prevailing stereotypical perceptions of sexual victims. Such changes could result in improved support services for male sexual victims.

Reasons for and Experiences of Sexual Assault Nondisclosure in a Diverse Community Sample

PURPOSE

After a sexual assault (SA), victims often disclose their SA to an informal support provider (SP) to receive social support; however, many survivors do not disclose or wait months or years to tell anyone. While research exists on disclosure, social reactions of informal SPs to disclosure, and how those reactions affect the victim both positively and negatively, little research exists on reasons for and impact of adult SA survivors' nondisclosure to informal social network members.

METHOD

This qualitative interview study examined 42 ethnically diverse women who had disclosed SA to an informal SP (e.g., friend, family, significant other). For this study, nondisclosure of SA mentioned by survivors was examined.

RESULTS

Various reasons for not telling people in their lives and/or delaying doing so were uncovered including fear of negative social reactions, lack of perceived available support and fear of burdening others, family and social norms expectations, and anticipated problematic gendered responses by both men (e.g., violence) and women (e.g., overwhelmed) SPs.

CONCLUSIONS

Implications for future SA disclosure research and supporting survivors in their choice to selectively/not disclose are discussed.

An Analysis of Help-Seeking Patterns Among College Student Victims of Sexual Assault, Dating Violence, and Stalking

Despite the negative outcomes associated with sexual assault (SA), dating violence (DV), and stalking victimization, many victims, particularly college students, do not seek help for these crimes. To date, the majority of help-seeking research has focused on one form of victimization, despite substantial evidence that many victims experience more than one form of interpersonal violence. In addition to consideration of such polyvictims, intervention efforts to increase help-seeking to improve victim outcomes may benefit from a clearer understanding of overlapping predictors of help-seeking across victimization types. Using the health belief model (HBM) as a guiding framework, the current study examined predictors of help-seeking for SA, DV, and stalking in a college student sample. Data were collected via a multiyear anonymous email survey of general health and well-being. Demographic predictors of help-seeking and severity indicators informed by the HBM were evaluated across violence types. In addition to replicating previous work, results provided support for the HBM, such that a number of severity indicators, particularly those representing overlap across victimization types, predicted help-seeking at the multivariate level. Results also provide new evidence for overlap of barriers to help-seeking across violence types, with victim's belief that the incident was not serious enough the most commonly reported reason for not seeking help across all three types of victimization. This overlap may provide opportunities for consolidating prevention and intervention efforts across victimization types.

Facilitating Sexual Assault Reporting on the College Campus: The Role of Procedural Justice in Bystander Decisions to Provide Police Referrals

Using a randomly assigned 2 (victim race) × 2 (alcohol consumption) between-subjects factorial design, this study used surveys from a sample of 571 undergraduate students at a mid-sized, public university in the United States to determine the effect of procedural justice on police referral after reading a sexual assault disclosure vignette. Multivariate binary logistic regression models demonstrated that positive perceptions of procedural justice increased police referral following sexual assault disclosure. Victim alcohol consumption and rape myth acceptance decreased police referral. Victim race, victim alcohol consumption, and participant sex did not moderate the effect of procedural justice on police referral. Implications are discussed.

A program to improve social reactions to sexual and dating violence disclosures reduces posttraumatic stress in subsequently victimized participants

Objective: Research consistently documents the high rates and deleterious outcomes of dating and sexual violence (DSV) among college students. Thus, there is an urgency to identify cost-effective interventions that can mitigate the negative outcomes associated with these forms of violence. The purpose of the current study was to conduct secondary analyses to assess whether a two-session, face-to-face social support intervention (i.e., Supporting Survivors and Self) would confer psychological benefits for participants who subsequently experienced DSV victimization. Method: Participants were 187 full-time undergraduate students from a university in the northeastern United States who reported at least one form of DSV in the six months following implementation of the program. Results: No intervention effect was identified for self-blame or depressive symptoms among subsequent victims. However, the intervention led to lower levels of overall posttraumatic stress symptoms, including avoidance and changes in cognition and mood symptoms, for participants who experienced unwanted sexual intercourse and/or physical intimate partner violence in the treatment versus the control condition. Gender did not moderate intervention effects. Conclusion: Overall, results suggest that interventions aimed at providing social support to survivors may lead to some benefits for individuals who are subsequently victimized. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The magnitude and potential impact of missing data in a sexual violence campus climate survey

Objective: Assess the impact of survey non-response and non-completion for a campus climate survey. Participants: Intended for all degree-seeking students at a large, public, midwestern university, November 2014. Methods: The survey covered sexual assault experiences and related attitudes. We identify the magnitude and potential impact of survey non-response by comparing demographic data between respondents and non-respondents, sexual assault prevalence between early and late respondents, and demographic and attitudinal data between survey completers and partial completers. Results: Demographic groups were differentially represented in the survey. Sexual assault prevalence based on survey results may be underestimated for men, overestimated for women. Sensitive questions did not increase drop-off. Students completing more of the survey differed from those completing less. Conclusions: Colleges must plan survey administration and data sensitivity analysis to reduce potential for bias. Resources for sexual assault-related needs based on estimates from campus climate surveys with high non-response will likely be misallocated.

A Systematic Review of Dating Violence Risk Factors Among Undergraduate College Students

College students are a vulnerable population for dating violence (DV) because of the social environment in which they live and interact with other students. Campus climate surveys are considered best practice for gathering information about the severity and cause of college DV; however, there are still unanswered questions as to why DV remains an alarming public health concern among college students. The aim of this systematic literature review was to examine DV risk factors specific to college students with a special focus on methodological factors and gaps in the literature. Databases EBSCO, Scopus, PsycINFO, MEDLINE, ERIC, and PubMed were searched for articles published between 2006 and 2016, resulting in 23 articles that met inclusion criteria for this review. Very few studies were conducted at private universities (n = 4). Most researchers used descriptive cross-sectional surveys (n = 22), while only one utilized a mixed-methods approach. Measurement scales used to collect DV rates were similar across studies, yet the definition of DV was inconsistent. Types and severity of DV varied across studies, but overall, females were more likely to perpetrate and/or experience DV than males. Individual risk factors (e.g., substance use, risky sexual behaviors) were identified more often than family risk factors (e.g., intergenerational violence) and peer and social risk factors (e.g., Greek-life or athletic team membership, relationship type). A better understanding of new college relationships is critical to identify modifiable risk factors for DV. Recommendations for future practice and research are also discussed.

Factors Associated With and Barriers to Disclosure of a Sexual Assault to Formal On-Campus Resources Among College Students

Sexual assault on college campuses occurs at high rates, but disclosure to formal on-campus resources remains low. This study used a mixed methodological survey to explore demographic and social characteristics of students who formally reported their assaults and those who did not and examined barriers to formal disclosure. Responses revealed that students who disclosed to formal on-campus resources suffered frequent polyvictimization, had high rates of physical and emotional consequences, and were mostly White women involved in campus organizations. Barriers to formal resource utilization were identified at the individual, interpersonal, organizational, and community levels.

Undergraduates' Disclosures of Unwanted Sexual Experiences: Who, Why, and When?

This study evaluated patterns of sexual assault disclosures as well as the response and impact of that response on assault survivors. The sample consisted of 217 undergraduates with a history of sexual assault (89.5% female, 76.5% Caucasian). Participants reported the order in which they disclosed and the nature and impact of the response they received. Results indicated that the majority of participants told close peers first and perceived the first response to be supportive. These findings are encouraging but also demonstrate the need for improving the response that an assault survivor receives.