Dietary anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial medicinal plants and its compounds in bovine mastitis associated impact on human life

Bovine mastitis (BM) is the most common bacterial mediated inflammatory disease in the dairy cattle that causes huge economic loss to the dairy industry due to decreased milk quality and quantity. Milk is the essential food in the human diet, and rich in crucial nutrients that helps in lowering the risk of diseases like hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. The main causative agents of the disease include various gram negative, and positive bacteria, along with other risk factors such as udder shape, age, genetic, and environmental factors also contributes much for the disease. Currently, antibiotics, immunotherapy, probiotics, dry cow, and lactation therapy are commonly recommended for BM. However, these treatments can only decrease the rise of new cases but can't eliminate the causative agents, and they also exhibit several limitations. Hence, there is an urgent need of a potential source that can generate a typical and ideal treatment to overcome the limitations and eliminate the pathogens. Among the various sources, medicinal plants and its derived products always play a significant role in drug discovery against several diseases. In addition, they are also known for its low toxicity and minimum resistance features. Therefore, plants and its compounds that possess anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial properties can serve better in bovine mastitis. In addition, the plants that are serving as a food source and possessing pharmacological properties can act even better in bovine mastitis. Hence, in this evidence-based study, we particularly review the dietary medicinal plants and derived products that are proven for anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial effects. Moreover, the role of each dietary plant and its compounds along with possible role in the management of bovine mastitis are delineated. In this way, this article serves as a standalone source for the researchers working in this area to help in the management of BM.

Evaluation of anti-inflammatory potential and GC-MS profiling of leaf extracts from Clerodendrum infortunatum L

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Clerodendrum infortunatum L. is commonly distributed in tropical and subtropical countries and is widely used in the indigenous systems of medicine including Ayurveda, Unani, and Homeopathy. The plant has important uses in the treatment of various inflammatory disorders which includes asthma, cough, chest complaints, pain, rheumatism, osteoarthritis, gastric ulcer, cancer, diabetes, skin diseases etc. AIM OF THE STUDY: Regarding the extensive healing properties of C. infortunatum in folk medicine, we aimed to explore the anti-inflammatory activity of the plant and analyze its bioactive components.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sequential extracts were prepared from C. infortunatum leaves using n-hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, methanol, ethanol and water. In vitro anti-inflammatory activity of these extracts were evaluated using membrane stabilization and protein anti-denaturation assays. Toxicity of the extracts was tested using brine shrimp lethality assay. GC-MS analysis has been carried out to analyze and characterize various bioactive constituents present in the plant.

RESULTS

Each of the tested extracts showed significant (p < 0.05) in vitro anti-inflammatory activity. Sequential ethyl acetate extract demonstrated the strongest membrane stabilization and protein anti-denaturation activities with IC50 values of 331.3, 308.3 and 279.2 μg/mL for heat and hypotonicity induced membrane stabilization and protein anti-denaturation assays, respectively. Sequential methanol extract also exhibited strong activity in heat and hypotonicity induced membrane stabilization and protein anti-denaturation assays with IC50 values of 371.5, 331.6 and 284.6 μg/mL, respectively. The extracts demonstrated a range of toxicity in the brine shrimp lethality assay with LC50 values of 51.4, 59.7, 47.3, 37.1, 68.1 and 77.3 μg/mL for n-hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, methanol, ethanol and water extracts respectively. The GC-MS analysis of direct n-hexane, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts detected 32 different compounds. The major compounds (> 5%) were phenol, 3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-, hexadecanoic acid methyl ester, estragole, methyl stearate, lanosterol, 9-methoxybicyclo[6.1.0]nona-2,4,6-triene, benzenepropanoic acid, 3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl) 4 hydroxy methyl ester, 22,23-dibromostigmasterol acetate, 3-methyl-4-(phenylthio)-2-prop-2-enyl-2,5-dihydrothiophene 1,1-dioxide, benzenemethanol, α-methyl-α-propyl- and 9-octadecenoic acid (Z)- methyl ester.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of our study revealed that C. infortunatum is rich with diverse bioactive phytoconstituents and the scientific evidences support the anti-inflammatory potential of the plant.

Molecular mechanism of the anti-inflammatory effects of plant essential oils: A systematic review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Plant essential oils (PEOs) extracted from aromatic compounds of the plant contain complex mixtures of volatile and lipophilic bioactive compounds. In ancient Egypt, Arabia, Greece, and China, PEOs were traditional used in aromatherapy for various health disorders, including pain and inflammation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this review, we provide an overview of the anti-inflammatory effects of PEOs and the underlying mechanisms associated with anti-inflammatory effects using in vitro and in vivo models. Further, clinical trials associated with PEOs were explored.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The literature search was performed using various web-based tools and databases like Google Scholar, Web of Science, PubMed, CNKI and SCOPUS. The keywords used for conducting the literature review were general terms like "essential oils" followed by (AND) the subject of interest like "in vitro and/or in vivo anti-inflammatory models," "inflammatory response," "inflammatory indicators," "pro-inflammatory cytokines," "signaling pathway," "anti-inflammatory mechanism," "toxicology and side effects" and "clinical trials." The articles selected were published between 2017 and 2022. The articles prior to 2017 were only considered if they were associated with molecular mechanisms or signaling pathways involved in the inflammatory responses.

RESULTS

In vitro and in vivo inflammation models have been used to study the anti-inflammatory effects of 48 PEOs. Studies have reported that PEOs targets and inhibit multiple dysregulated signaling pathways associated with inflammation, including Toll-like receptors, nuclear transcription factor-κ B, mitogen-activated protein kinases, Nod-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3, and auxiliary pathways like the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/antioxidant response element and Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription) signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

PEOs extracted from different plant materials had varied qualitative and quantitative compositions of biologically active compounds. Different anti-inflammatory potentials and different molecular signal transduction have been attributed to PEOs-derived bioactive compounds with different chemical structures. The data on therapeutic efficacy and the long-term side effects of PEOs as an anti-inflammatory drug are still unknown due to the lack of clinical trials on PEOs. There is still insufficient evidence to draw conclusions on anti-inflammatory properties of PEOs without promising outcomes from clinical trials.

Are South African Wild Foods the Answer to Rising Rates of Cardiovascular Disease?

The rising burden of cardiovascular disease in South Africa gives impetus to managerial changes, particularly to the available foods in the market. Since there are many economically disadvantaged groups in urban societies who are at the forefront of the CVD burden, initiatives to make healthier foods available should focus on affordability in conjunction with improved phytochemical diversity to incentivize change. The modern obesogenic diet is deficient in phytochemicals that are protective against the metabolic products of sugar metabolism, i.e., inflammation, reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial fatigue, whereas traditional southern African food species have high phytochemical diversity and are also higher in soluble dietary fibres that modulate the release of sugars from starches, nurture the microbiome and produce digestive artefacts that are prophylactic against cardiovascular disease. The examples of indigenous southern African food species with high horticultural potential that can be harvested sustainably to feed a large market of consumers include: Aloe marlothii, Acanthosicyos horridus, Adansonia digitata, Aloe ferox, Amaranthus hybridus, Annesorhiza nuda, Aponogeton distachyos, Bulbine frutescens, Carpobrotus edulis, Citrullus lanatus, Dioscorea bulbifera, Dovyalis caffra, Eleusine coracana, Lagenaria siceraria, Mentha longifolia, Momordica balsamina, Pelargonium crispum, Pelargonium sidoides, Pennisetum glaucum, Plectranthus esculentus, Schinziophyton rautanenii, Sclerocarya birrea, Solenostemon rotundifolius, Talinum caffrum, Tylosema esculentum, Vigna unguiculata and Vigna subterranea. The current review explains the importance of phytochemical diversity in the human diet, it gives a lucid explanation of phytochemical groups and links the phytochemical profiles of these indigenous southern African foods to their protective effects against cardiovascular disease.

Mechanisms of Actions Involved in The Antinociceptive Effect of Estragole and its β-Cyclodextrin Inclusion Complex in Animal Models

(1) Background: estragole is a monoterpene found in the essential oils of several aromatic plants, which can be used for several pharmacological activities. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antinociceptive effect of estragole (Es) and its β-cyclodextrins inclusion complex (Es/β-CD). (2) Methods: the effects of Es and Es/β-CD on the central nervous system (CNS) were evaluated through open field and rota-rod assays, and the antinociceptive effect in formalin models, abdominal writhing induced by acetic acid, hot plate, tail flick test and plantar mechanical hyperalgesia. (3) Results: Es and Es/β-CD showed no alterations on the CNS evaluated parameters and the results suggested there was an antinociceptive action in the formalin, abdominal writhing, hot plate, tail flick tests and plantar mechanical hyperalgesia, proposing the involvement of the nitric oxide, glutamatergic signaling pathways, cyclic guanosine monophosphate and vanilloid pathways. (4) Conclusion: the results suggest that Es and Es/β-CD have a promising antinociceptive potential as a possible alternative for the pharmacological treatment of pain, also showing that the encapsulation of Es in β-cyclodextrins probably improves its pharmacological properties, since the complexation process involves much lower amounts of the compound, contributing to better bioavailability and a lower probability of adverse effect development.

Tetracera loureiri Extract Regulates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Response Via Nuclear Factor-κB and Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Pathways

Tetracera loureiri (T. loureiri) is a woody climber inhabiting open deciduous or evergreen forests in Southeast Asia. A decoction comprising its stem and other herbs is a traditional Thai remedy for fatigue and jaundice, as well as to promote overall health. Anti-inflammatory effects induced by T. loureiri extract have not been reported. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of an ethanol extract of T. loureiri (ETL) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory response in RAW264.7 macrophages. We found that ETL treatment inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO) in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, without affecting cell viability. The effect of ETL on the expression of various pro-inflammatory mediators was analyzed using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Western blotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We observed that ETL inhibited the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) at the mRNA and protein levels and decreased the production of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) by COX-2 in RAW264.7 macrophages. ETL dose-dependently reduced the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells, in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, ETL suppressed the LPS-induced nuclear translocation of the nuclear factor, NF-κB. Additionally, ETL was found to inhibit the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), such as extracellular signal-regulated kinase, c-Jun-N-terminal kinase, and p38 MAPK. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that ETL inhibits the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines, thereby downregulating NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated macrophages, Consequently, ETL is a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Anti-Inflammatory and Antimicrobial Volatile Oils: Fennel and Cumin Inhibit Neutrophilic Inflammation via Regulating Calcium and MAPKs

Neutrophilic inflammatory diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), or psoriasis, exert a huge burden on the global health system due to the lack of safe and effective treatments. Volatile oils from terrestrial plants showed impressive therapeutic effects against disorders of the skin, digestive system, lungs, liver, metabolism, and nervous system. However, their effect on the immune system and neutrophil function is still elusive. Fennel, cumin, marjoram, lavender, caraway, and anise are the common nutraceuticals that are widely used in the Mediterranean diet. The volatile oils of these herbs were screened for various biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, antimicrobial, and antiviral effects. Several oils showed anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial potential. Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) and cumin (Cuminum cyminum) fruits' volatile oils significantly suppressed the activation of human neutrophils, including respiratory burst and the degranulation induced by formyl peptide receptor agonists fMLF/CB and MMK1 in the human neutrophils (IC₅₀, 3.8–17.2 µg/ml). The cytotoxic effect and free-radical scavenging effects (ABTS, DPPH) of these oils did not account for the observed effects. Both fennel and cumin volatile oils significantly shortened calcium influx recovery time and inhibited phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38, JNK, and ERK) expression. The gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis of these oils revealed the presence of estragole and cuminaldehyde as the major components of fennel and cumin volatile oils, respectively. Our findings suggested that cumin and fennel, common in the Mediterranean diet, hold the potential to be applied for the treatment of neutrophilic inflammatory diseases.

Essential Oils of Foeniculum vulgare subsp. piperitum and Their in Vitro Anti-Arthritic Potential

Wild Foeniculum vulgare subsp. piperitum (C.Presl) Bég. flowers, fruits and leaves were extracted with steam distillation and obtained essential oils (EOs) were characterized using GC/MS. The study was designed to verify the potential effectiveness of fennel EOs in the treatment of inflammation and arthritis. Since tissue proteins denaturation is a major cause of arthritic diseases, fennel EOs and their main constituents were evaluated for their ability to inhibit the heat-induced proteins degradation using bovine serum albumin as a protein model. Moreover, the in vitro inhibitory effects of the three EOs on the pro-inflammatory mediator nitric oxide (NO) production were verified in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Estragole (28.81-33.40 %), anethole (24.16-27.40 %), fenchone (9.76-18.48 %), α-phellandrene (1.63-8.37 %) and limonene (5.54-6.05 %) were the major constituents. All the EOs showed a concentration-dependent biological activity, being the flower EO the most effective in inhibiting NO production (IC₅₀ =232.2±11.3 μg/mL). The leaf EO showed a very good bovine serum albumin (BSA) anti-denaturation activity (IC₅₀ =95.9±2.4 μg/mL). Moreover, four components were proved to be effective in protecting protein from heat-induced degradation, being α-phellandrene the most active compound (IC₅₀ =73.2±1.9 μg/mL).

Evaluation of Anti-Colitis Effect of KM1608 and Biodistribution of Dehydrocostus Lactone in Mice Using Bioimaging Analysis

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic relapsing disorder modulated by numerous factors. Recent failures of drugs targeting single factors suggest that multitargeting drugs could be useful for the treatment of IBD. Natural medicines may be an alternative option for the treatment of IBD, owing to the complex nature of the disease. However, most natural medicines have poor in vitro and in vivo translational potential because of inadequate pharmacokinetic study. KM1608, a mixture of the medicinal plants Aucklandia lappa, Terminalia chebula, and Zingiber officinale, was examined for its anti-colitis effects and biodistribution using bioimaging. Dehydrocostus lactone, as a marker compound, was analyzed to assess the biodistribution of KM1608. KM1608 significantly attenuated the disease activity of dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in mice and suppressed inflammatory mediators such as myeloperoxidase, proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6), and the Th2-type cytokine IL-4 in the colon. Optical fluorescence imaging revealed that KM1608 was distributed in the intestinal area as a target organ. Collectively, our findings suggest that KM1608 is a potential therapeutic formulation for IBD.

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) Honey Extract

Safflower honey is a unique type of monofloral honey collected from the nectar of Carthamus tinctorius L. in the Apis mellifera colonies of northwestern China. Scant information is available regarding its chemical composition and biological activities. Here, for the first time, we investigated this honey's chemical composition and evaluated its in vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Basic physicochemical parameters of the safflower honey samples in comparison to established quality standards suggested that safflower honeys presented a good level of quality. The in vitro antioxidant tests showed that extract from Carthamus tinctorius L. honey (ECH) effectively scavenged DPPH and ABTS⁺ free radicals. In lipopolysaccharides (LPS) activated murine macrophages inflammatory model, ECH treatment to the cells inhibited the release of nitric oxide and down-regulated the expressions of inflammatory-relating genes (iNOS, IL-1β, TNF-α and MCP-1). The expressions of the antioxidant genes TXNRD, HO-1, and NQO-1, were significantly boosted in a concentration-dependent manner. ECH decreased the phosphorylation of IκBα and inhibited the nuclear entry of the NF-κB-p65 protein, in LPS-stimulated Raw 264.7 cells, accompany with the increased expressions of Nrf-2 and HO-1, suggesting that ECH achieved the anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting NF-κB signal transduction and boosting the antioxidant system via activating Nrf-2/HO-1 signaling. These results, taken together, indicated that safflower honey has great potential into developing as a high-quality agriproduct.

Coreolanceolins A-E, New Flavanones from the Flowers of Coreopsis lanceolate, and Their Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Effects

(1) Background: Many flavonoids derived from natural sources have been reported to exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Our preliminary study suggested that Coreopsis lanceolata flowers (CLFs) include high flavonoid content; (2) Methods: CLFs were extracted in 80% (v/v) aqueous methanol and fractionated into ethyl acetate, n-butanol, and water fractions. Repeated column chromatographies for the organic fractions led to the isolation of seven flavanones. Quantitative analysis of the flavanones was carried out using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. All flavanones were evaluated for their antioxidant and pro-inflammatory inhibition effects; (3) Results: Spectroscopic analyses revealed the chemical structure of five new flavanones, coreolanceolins A–E, and two known ones. The content of the seven flavanones in extracts were determined from 0.8 ± 0.1 to 38.8 ± 0.3 mg/g. All flavanones showed radical scavenging activities (respectively 104.3 ± 1.9 to 20.5 ± 0.3 mg vitamin C equivalents (VCE)/100 mg and 1278.6 ± 26.8 to 325.6 ± 0.2 mg VCE/100 mg) in the DPPH and 2,2′-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) assays and recovery activities in Caco-2 (59.7 to 41.1%), RAW264.7 (87.8 to 56.0%), and PC-12 (100.5 to 69.9%) cells against reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, all flavanones suppressed nitric oxide production (99.5% to 37.3%) and reduced iNOS and COX-2 expression in lipopolysaccharide-treated RAW 264.7 cells; (4) Conclusions: Five new and two known flavanones were isolated from CLF, and most of them showed high antioxidant and pro-inflammatory inhibition effects.

Protective effect of fennel, and its major component trans-anethole against social isolation induced behavioral deficits in rats

Social isolation damages the nervous system by weakening the antioxidant system and leading to behavioral disorders. Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) is an herbal plant that has antioxidant and neuroprotective properties. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of fennel methanol extract and its major component trans-anethole on spatial learning and memory, anxiety and depression in male rats exposed to social isolation stress.Rats were divided into six groups of Control (C), Fennel (F), trans-Anethole (A), Isolation, Isolation-F and Isolation-A. The rats were kept in the cage alone for 30 days to induce isolation. Fennel extract (150 mg/kg) and trans-anethole (80 mg/kg) were also gavaged during this period. At the end of the course, spatial learning and memory, anxiety and depression were measured by Morris water maze (MWM), elevated plus maze (EPM) and forced swimming test (FST), respectively.Learning and memory were impaired in isolated rats. Swimming time and distance to reach the hidden platform in these animals increased compared with controls (P < 0.05). In the EPM test, the percentage of open arm entries and open arm time also decreased significantly in the Isolation group (P < 0.01). The immobilization time in FST also increased significantly in these animals compared with the Control group (P < 0.001). Fennel and trans-anethole were both able to eliminate these changes in isolated rats.It is concluded that fennel and its major component, trans-anethole are suitable candidates for the prevention and treatment of stress-induced neurological disorders.

Megastigmane Derivatives from the Cladodes of Opuntia humifusa and Their Nitric Oxide Inhibitory Activities in Macrophages

Opuntia humifusa, known as the eastern prickly pear cactus and locally called "Cheonnyuncho" in Korea, is cultivated widely on Jeju Island, Korea. Phytochemical analysis of the methanolic extract of the cladodes of O. humifusa, for which previous research is relatively limited, was performed under the guidance of LC/MS-based analysis. As a result, one new megastigmane (1) and four new megastigmane glucosides (2-5) were isolated along with 18 known compounds (6-23). The structures of the new compounds were established by 1D and 2D NMR and HRESIMS, and their absolute configurations were established by chemical reactions, quantum chemical electronic circular dichroism calculations, and DP4+ analysis using the gauge-including atomic orbital NMR chemical shift calculations as well as the application of Snatzke's method. The isolated compounds (1-23) were tested for NO production inhibition in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells to investigate their anti-inflammatory effects. Compounds 10 and 11 exhibited significant inhibitory effects on LPS-induced NO production in a dose-dependent manner. The potential mechanistic pathway of 10 and 11 was also investigated using Western blotting, indicating that compounds 10 and 11 inhibit NO through iNOS expression.

Effect of Herbal Formulation on Immune Response Enhancement in RAW 264.7 Macrophages

Immune response is a necessary self-defense mechanism that protects the host from infectious organisms. Many medicinal plants are popularly used in Asian folk medicine to increase body resistance. An herbal formulation named KM1608 was prepared from three medicinal plants: Saussurea lappa, Terminalia chebula, and Zingiber officinale. In this study, we evaluated the immune stimulatory effect of KM1608 on RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. Network pharmacological analyses were used to predict potential immune response pathways of major compounds from KM1608. The cytotoxicity and immuno-stimulating effect of KM1608 were determined using cell viability and nitric oxide assays. The underlying mechanism of immunomodulatory activity was evaluated by quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The results of network pharmacological analysis suggested that major compounds from KM1608 possess anticancer potential via immune signaling pathways. After treatment with KM1608 at 25–100 µg/mL for 24 h, the level of nitric oxide was increased in the dose-dependent manner. The results of quantitative real-time PCR showed that KM1608 stimulates the expression of immune cytokines (interferon (IFN)-α, -β, IL-1β, -6, IL-10, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)) in macrophages. KM1608 extract is a potential agent for immune response enhancement.

Synthesis and inhibitory effect of cis-guggulsterone on lipopolysaccharide-induced production of nitric oxide in macrophages

Guggulsterone is a bioactive plant sterol naturally found in migratory plants. It exists in various forms, and its active compounds include the isomers cis-guggulsterone (E-GS) and trans-guggulsterone (Z-GS). In this study, the anti-inflammatory effects of these two isomeric pregnadienedione steroids were investigated against lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory reaction in RAW264.7 mouse macrophages. Our results showed that both guggulsterones inhibited the production of NO in macrophages treated with lipopolysaccharide, with IC50 values ranging from 3.0 to 6.7 μM. E-GS exerted higher efficacy than Z-GS, and its anti-inflammatory effects was mediated through inhibition of iNOS and COX-2 expression.

(3β,16α)-3,16-Dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one from the Twigs of Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Sieb. Exerts Anti-Inflammatory Effects in LPS-Stimulated RAW-264.7 Macrophages

To discover new pharmacologically active natural products, here, we performed the phytochemical analysis of a Korean medicinal plant. Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Sieb. is a traditional medicinal plant that has been used as a remedy for various diseases in Asian countries. In particular, the cork cambium on the twigs of E. alatus has been used to treat dysmenorrhea, tumors, diabetes, and wound. Phytochemical analysis of the methanolic extract of E. alatus twigs led to the isolation of a sterol, which was identified as (3β,16α)-3,16-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one (1) by 1D and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. The stereochemistry of 1 was established with nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy (NOESY) analysis and comparison of electronic circular dichroism (ECD) data. To the best of our knowledge, the isolation of compound 1 from nature is first reported here, as well as the complete and revised NMR data assignment of 1. In lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW-264.7 macrophages, compound 1 significantly inhibited nitric oxide (NO) production at an IC₅₀ value of 12.54 ± 0.05 μM as well as the protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Moreover, the pre-treatment with compound 1 attenuated the LPS-induced phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65 through the inhibition of the phosphorylation of IκB kinase alpha (IKKα), IKKβ, and inhibitor of kappa B alpha (IκBα). Compound 1 also inhibited the LPS-induced phosphorylation of p38, c-Jun NH₂-terminal kinase (JNK), and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Taken together, compound 1 may serve as an anti-inflammatory constituent of E. alatus twigs and its anti-inflammatory property is thought to be associated with the inhibition of NO production via suppression of iNOS and COX-2 expression through inhibition of IKKα/β, I-κBα and NF-κB p65 activation and downregulation of p38, JNK, and ERK mitogen-activated protein kinase signal pathways in RAW 264.7 macrophages. These findings also provide experimental evidence that compound 1 identified from E. alatus twigs could be a candidate for an anti-inflammatory agent.

Identification and Isolation of Active Compounds from Astragalus membranaceus that Improve Insulin Secretion by Regulating Pancreatic β-Cell Metabolism

In type 2 diabetes (T2D), insufficient secretion of insulin from the pancreatic β-cells contributes to high blood glucose levels, associated with metabolic dysregulation. Interest in natural products to complement or replace existing antidiabetic medications has increased. In this study, we examined the effect of Astragalus membranaceus extract (ASME) and its compounds 1-9 on glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) from pancreatic β-cells. ASME and compounds 1-9 isolated from A. membranaceus stimulated insulin secretion in INS-1 cells without inducing cytotoxicity. A further experiment showed that compounds 2, 3, and 5 enhanced the phosphorylation of total insulin receptor substrate-2 (IRS-2), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), and Akt, and activated pancreatic and duodenal homeobox-1 (PDX-1) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ), which are associated with β-cell function and insulin secretion. The data suggest that two isoflavonoids (2 and 3) and a nucleoside (compound 5), isolated from the roots of A. membranaceus, have the potential to improve insulin secretion in β-cells, representing the first step towards the development of potent antidiabetic drugs.

A Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose-Based Solid Dispersion of Curcumin with Enhanced Bioavailability and its Hepatoprotective Activity

Curcumin is a polyphenol compound derived from the rhizomes of Curcuma longa that exhibits antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial properties. However, its low solubility in aqueous solutions, low absorption following oral administration, and rapid degradation limit its use as a functional food material. In this study, a hydroxypropyl methylcellulose-based solid dispersion of curcumin (DW-CUR 20) was prepared and its bioavailability was evaluated. In addition, its therapeutic efficacy as a hepatoprotective agent was investigated using the model of tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP)-induced hepatocyte damage. The rat plasma pharmacokinetic study showed that the oral curcumin bioavailability of DW-CUR 20 significantly increased compared to that of non-formulated curcumin. DW-CUR 20 showed a concentration-dependent hepatocyte protective effect on t-BHP-induced HepG2 cells. DW-CUR 20 inhibited the release of lactate dehydrogenase and decreased apoptosis-related proteins such as Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase, cleaved caspase-7 and cleaved caspase-8 on t-BHP-treated HepG2 cells. These findings suggest that DW-CUR 20 could be a promising formulation for enhancing the therapeutic efficiency of curcumin and for improving the safety.

Beneficial Effects of Deoxyshikonin on Delayed Wound Healing in Diabetic Mice

Shiunko ointment is composed of five ingredients including Lithospermi Radix (LR), Angelicae Gigantis Radix, sesame seed oil, beeswax, and swine oil. It is externally applied as a treatment for a wide range of skin conditions such as eczema, psoriasis, hair loss, burns, topical wounds, and atopic dermatitis. Deoxyshikonin is the major angiogenic compound extracted from LR. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of LR extract and deoxyshikonin on impaired wound healing in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice. Treatment with LR extract elevated tube formation in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and exerted antioxidant activity. An open skin wound was produced on the backs of diabetic mice and was then topically treated with deoxyshikonin or vehicle. In addition, deoxyshikonin promoted tube formation in high glucose conditions exposed to HUVECs, and which may be regulated by increased VEGFR2 expression and phosphorylation of Akt and p38. Our results demonstrate that deoxyshikonin application promoted wound repair in STZ-induced diabetic mice. Collectively, these data suggest that deoxyshikonin is an active ingredient of LR, thereby contributing to wound healing in patients with diabetes.