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Sun Y, Wu T, Gu J. An emerging role of N-glycosylation in cancer chemoresistance. Carbohydr Res 2024; 539:109107. [PMID: 38613897 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2024.109107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024]
Abstract
Chemoresistance poses a significant obstacle in the effective treatment of cancer, limiting the success of chemotherapy regimens. N-glycosylation, the most important post-translational modification (PTM), plays multifaceted roles in the intricate landscape of cancer progression, particularly drug resistance in cancer cells. This review explores the complex relationship between N-glycosylation and chemoresistance in cancer. Altered glycosylation patterns have been proven to impact drug efflux mechanisms in cancer cells, which can further influence the intracellular concentration of chemotherapy drugs. Moreover, N-glycosylation also plays a regulatory role in cell signaling pathways and apoptosis regulators, continuously affecting the stemness and survival of cancer cells under the selective pressure of chemotherapy. Additionally, the impact of the tumor microenvironment on glycosylation patterns adds complexity to this interplay. This review discusses current research findings, challenges, and future directions based on the roles of N-glycosylation in cancer chemoresistance, emphasizing the potential for targeted therapeutic interventions to enhance the effectiveness of chemotherapy and improve patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhan Sun
- Division of Regulatory Glycobiology, Institute of Molecular Biomembrane and Glycobiology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, 4-4-1 Komatsushima, Aobaku, Sendai, Miyagi, 981-8558, Japan.
| | - Tiangui Wu
- Division of Regulatory Glycobiology, Institute of Molecular Biomembrane and Glycobiology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, 4-4-1 Komatsushima, Aobaku, Sendai, Miyagi, 981-8558, Japan
| | - Jianguo Gu
- Division of Regulatory Glycobiology, Institute of Molecular Biomembrane and Glycobiology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, 4-4-1 Komatsushima, Aobaku, Sendai, Miyagi, 981-8558, Japan.
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2
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Giron LB, Liu Q, Adeniji OS, Yin X, Kannan T, Ding J, Lu DY, Langan S, Zhang J, Azevedo JLLC, Li SH, Shalygin S, Azadi P, Hanna DB, Ofotokun I, Lazar J, Fischl MA, Haberlen S, Macatangay B, Adimora AA, Jamieson BD, Rinaldo C, Merenstein D, Roan NR, Kutsch O, Gange S, Wolinsky SM, Witt MD, Post WS, Kossenkov A, Landay AL, Frank I, Tien PC, Gross R, Brown TT, Abdel-Mohsen M. Immunoglobulin G N-glycan markers of accelerated biological aging during chronic HIV infection. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3035. [PMID: 38600088 PMCID: PMC11006954 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47279-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
People living with HIV (PLWH) experience increased vulnerability to premature aging and inflammation-associated comorbidities, even when HIV replication is suppressed by antiretroviral therapy (ART). However, the factors associated with this vulnerability remain uncertain. In the general population, alterations in the N-glycans on IgGs trigger inflammation and precede the onset of aging-associated diseases. Here, we investigate the IgG N-glycans in cross-sectional and longitudinal samples from 1214 women and men, living with and without HIV. PLWH exhibit an accelerated accumulation of pro-aging-associated glycan alterations and heightened expression of senescence-associated glycan-degrading enzymes compared to controls. These alterations correlate with elevated markers of inflammation and the severity of comorbidities, potentially preceding the development of such comorbidities. Mechanistically, HIV-specific antibodies glycoengineered with these alterations exhibit a reduced ability to elicit anti-HIV Fc-mediated immune activities. These findings hold potential for the development of biomarkers and tools to identify and prevent premature aging and comorbidities in PLWH.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Qin Liu
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - David Y Lu
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | | | | | | | - Shuk Hang Li
- University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Igho Ofotokun
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jason Lazar
- SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Margaret A Fischl
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Nadia R Roan
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA
- University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Olaf Kutsch
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | | | | | - Mallory D Witt
- Lundquist Institute of Biomedical Research at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Ian Frank
- University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Phyllis C Tien
- University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Robert Gross
- University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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3
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Giron LB, Liu Q, Adeniji OS, Yin X, Kannan T, Ding J, Lu DY, Langan S, Zhang J, Azevedo JLLC, Li SH, Shalygin S, Azadi P, Hanna DB, Ofotokun I, Lazar J, Fischl MA, Haberlen S, Macatangay B, Adimora AA, Jamieson BD, Rinaldo C, Merenstein D, Roan NR, Kutsch O, Gange S, Wolinsky S, Witt M, Post WS, Kossenkov A, Landay A, Frank I, Tien PC, Gross R, Brown TT, Abdel-Mohsen M. Plasma Glycomic Markers of Accelerated Biological Aging During Chronic HIV Infection. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.08.09.551369. [PMID: 37609144 PMCID: PMC10441429 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.09.551369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
People with HIV (PWH) experience an increased vulnerability to premature aging and inflammation-associated comorbidities, even when HIV replication is suppressed by antiretroviral therapy (ART). However, the factors that contribute to or are associated with this vulnerability remain uncertain. In the general population, alterations in the glycomes of circulating IgGs trigger inflammation and precede the onset of aging-associated diseases. Here, we investigate the IgG glycomes of cross-sectional and longitudinal samples from 1,216 women and men, both living with virally suppressed HIV and those without HIV. Our glycan-based machine learning models indicate that living with chronic HIV significantly accelerates the accumulation of pro-aging-associated glycomic alterations. Consistently, PWH exhibit heightened expression of senescence-associated glycan-degrading enzymes compared to their controls. These glycomic alterations correlate with elevated markers of inflammatory aging and the severity of comorbidities, potentially preceding the development of such comorbidities. Mechanistically, HIV-specific antibodies glycoengineered with these alterations exhibit reduced anti-HIV IgG-mediated innate immune functions. These findings hold significant potential for the development of glycomic-based biomarkers and tools to identify and prevent premature aging and comorbidities in people living with chronic viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Qin Liu
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - David Y. Lu
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | | | | | | | - Shuk Hang Li
- University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Igho Ofotokun
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jason Lazar
- SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, New York, NY, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Nadia R. Roan
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA
- University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Olaf Kutsch
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | | | | | - Mallory Witt
- Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute, Torrance, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Ian Frank
- University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Phyllis C. Tien
- University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Robert Gross
- University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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4
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Cao W, Zeng Z, Lan J, Yang Y, Lu M, Lei S. Knockdown of FUT11 inhibits the progression of gastric cancer via the PI3K/AKT pathway. Heliyon 2023; 9:e17600. [PMID: 37483811 PMCID: PMC10362185 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Revised: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Gastric cancer (GC) is a common and highly malignant tumor of the digestive tract. Members of the focused fucosyltransferase (FUT) family participate in the advancement of various types of cancer. However, research of FUT family members in the progression of GC known to be limited. The purpose of the research was to determine the function of important affiliates of the FUT family in GC and to explore its impacts on the proliferation and migration of GC cells and molecular mechanisms. For the study, fucosyltransferase11 (FUT11) was confirmed to be the only affiliate of the FUT family that was upmodulated in GC tissues and linked to poor survival according to GEPIA data. Furthermore, compared with adjacent noncancerous tissues, the expression of FUT11 was increased in GC tissues. The elevated FUT11 expression suggested that the overall survival (OS) rate of GC is low. Inhibition of FUT11 significantly reduced the proliferation and migration and suppressed the PI3K/AKT pathway by down-regulated collagen type VI alpha 3 chain (COL6A3) in GC cells. The present study has demonstrated that reinstating the expression of COL6A3 in gastric cancer (GC) cells can counteract the inhibitory impact of FUT11 knockdown on the proliferation and migration of GC cells. In conclusion, FUT11 may serve as a novel biomarker for GC, as it modulates GC cell proliferation and migration through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenpeng Cao
- Department of Anatomy, School of Basic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550009, Guizhou, China
| | - Zhirui Zeng
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550009, Guizhou, China
| | - Jinzhi Lan
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550009, Guizhou, China
| | - Yushi Yang
- Department of Pathology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550009, Guizhou, China
| | - Min Lu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510000, Guangdong, China
| | - Shan Lei
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550009, Guizhou, China
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Song W, Liang C, Sun Y, Morii S, Yomogida S, Isaji T, Fukuda T, Hang Q, Hara A, Nakano M, Gu J. Expression of GnT-III decreases chemoresistance via negatively regulating P-glycoprotein expression: Involvement of the TNFR2-NF-κB signaling pathway. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:103051. [PMID: 36813234 PMCID: PMC10033316 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.103051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The phenomenon of multidrug resistance (MDR) is called chemoresistance with respect to the treatment of cancer, and it continues to be a major challenge. The role of N-glycosylation in chemoresistance, however, remains poorly understood. Here, we established a traditional model for adriamycin resistance in K562 cells, which are also known as K562/adriamycin-resistant (ADR) cells. Lectin blot, mass spectrometry, and RT-PCR analysis showed that the expression levels of N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase III (GnT-III) mRNA and its products, bisected N-glycans, are significantly decreased in K562/ADR cells, compared with the levels in parent K562 cells. By contrast, the expression levels of both P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and its intracellular key regulator, NF-κB signaling, are significantly increased in K562/ADR cells. These upregulations were sufficiently suppressed by the overexpression of GnT-III in K562/ADR cells. We found that the expression of GnT-III consistently decreased chemoresistance for doxorubicin and dasatinib, as well as activation of the NF-κB pathway by tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α, which binds to two structurally distinct glycoproteins, TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) and TNF receptor 2 (TNFR2), on the cell surface. Interestingly, our immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that only TNFR2, but not TNFR1, contains bisected N-glycans. The lack of GnT-III strongly induced TNFR2's autotrimerization without ligand stimulation, which was rescued by the overexpression of GnT-III in K562/ADR cells. Furthermore, the deficiency of TNFR2 suppressed P-gp expression while it increased GnT-III expression. Taken together, these results clearly show that GnT-III negatively regulates chemoresistance via the suppression of P-gp expression, which is regulated by the TNFR2-NF/κB signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanli Song
- Division of Regulatory Glycobiology, Institute of Molecular Biomembrane and Glycobiology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Caixia Liang
- Division of Regulatory Glycobiology, Institute of Molecular Biomembrane and Glycobiology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Yuhan Sun
- Division of Regulatory Glycobiology, Institute of Molecular Biomembrane and Glycobiology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Sayaka Morii
- Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Shin Yomogida
- Division of Clinical Pharmacotherapeutics, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Miyagi Japan
| | - Tomoya Isaji
- Division of Regulatory Glycobiology, Institute of Molecular Biomembrane and Glycobiology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Tomohiko Fukuda
- Division of Regulatory Glycobiology, Institute of Molecular Biomembrane and Glycobiology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Qinglei Hang
- Division of Regulatory Glycobiology, Institute of Molecular Biomembrane and Glycobiology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Akiyoshi Hara
- Division of Clinical Pharmacotherapeutics, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Miyagi Japan
| | - Miyako Nakano
- Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Jianguo Gu
- Division of Regulatory Glycobiology, Institute of Molecular Biomembrane and Glycobiology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan.
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6
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Harvey DJ. Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: An update for 2019-2020. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2022:e21806. [PMID: 36468275 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
This review is the tenth update of the original article published in 1999 on the application of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2020. Also included are papers that describe methods appropriate to analysis by MALDI, such as sample preparation techniques, even though the ionization method is not MALDI. The review is basically divided into three sections: (1) general aspects such as theory of the MALDI process, matrices, derivatization, MALDI imaging, fragmentation, quantification and the use of arrays. (2) Applications to various structural types such as oligo- and polysaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosides and biopharmaceuticals, and (3) other areas such as medicine, industrial processes and glycan synthesis where MALDI is extensively used. Much of the material relating to applications is presented in tabular form. The reported work shows increasing use of incorporation of new techniques such as ion mobility and the enormous impact that MALDI imaging is having. MALDI, although invented nearly 40 years ago is still an ideal technique for carbohydrate analysis and advancements in the technique and range of applications show little sign of diminishing.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Harvey
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Target Discovery Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
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7
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Zhang P, Tang W, Jiang Y, Lyu F, Liu Z, Xiao Y, Wang D. Dry and wet experiments reveal the significant role of FUT11 in clear cell renal cell carcinoma. Int Immunopharmacol 2022; 113:109447. [PMID: 36403525 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Renal cancer is one of the most common urogenital tumors worldwide. Although numerous traditional and relatively new therapeutic strategies have been adopted for clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) patients, their effects are not satisfactory enough for the improvement of patients. The pathogenesis and progression of ccRCC requires further investigations. METHODS Using a series of bioinformatic analyses, the expression levels, clinical relevance, and prognostic potential of FUT11 as well as its correlations with immune cells in ccRCC were investigated. The mRNA and protein expression levels of FUT11 in renal cancer cell lines and human tissues were determined using quantitative real-time-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot analyses. MTT, colony formation, Edu, and wound healing assays were performed to explore the function of FUT11 in renal cancer cell lines. The immunohistochemical staining of human and mouse tissues was performed to reveal the correlations between the expression levels of FUT11 and the infiltration level of immune cell subtypes. Using mouse xenograft models, the role of FUT11 was further investigated in-vivo. RESULTS The data mining and corresponding analyses indicated that the expression levels of FUT11 were elevated in renal cancer and independently correlated with the prognosis of ccRCC patients. The cibersort and ssGSEA algorithms revealed differential infiltration levels of immune cells between the patients with distinct expression levels of FUT11; these results were verified by the consequent human renal cancer tissues and animal models. The MTT, colony formation, EdU, and wound healing assays showed that the decreased expression level of FUT11 could promote the proliferation and migration of renal cancer cell lines. The animal models-based analysis showed similar results. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, this study identified a novel important molecule correlated with the prognosis of ccRCC patients and revealed its immune-related role and its function in the proliferation and migration of renal cancer cells. This study might provide a novel basis for the treatment of renal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pu Zhang
- Department of Urology Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1277 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Wensen Tang
- Department of Urology Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1277 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Yidi Jiang
- Sichuan Regenerative Medicine Engineering and Technology Center, Chengdu Qingke Biotechnology Co., Ltd., China
| | - Fang Lyu
- Department of Urology Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1277 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Zijian Liu
- Department of Head and Neck Oncology and Department of Radiation oncology, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Yajun Xiao
- Department of Urology Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1277 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430022, China.
| | - Decai Wang
- Department of Urology Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1277 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan 430022, China.
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8
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Li J, Li X, Guo Q. Drug Resistance in Cancers: A Free Pass for Bullying. Cells 2022; 11:3383. [PMID: 36359776 PMCID: PMC9654341 DOI: 10.3390/cells11213383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The cancer burden continues to grow globally, and drug resistance remains a substantial challenge in cancer therapy. It is well established that cancerous cells with clonal dysplasia generate the same carcinogenic lesions. Tumor cells pass on genetic templates to subsequent generations in evolutionary terms and exhibit drug resistance simply by accumulating genetic alterations. However, recent evidence has implied that tumor cells accumulate genetic alterations by progressively adapting. As a result, intratumor heterogeneity (ITH) is generated due to genetically distinct subclonal populations of cells coexisting. The genetic adaptive mechanisms of action of ITH include activating "cellular plasticity", through which tumor cells create a tumor-supportive microenvironment in which they can proliferate and cause increased damage. These highly plastic cells are located in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and undergo extreme changes to resist therapeutic drugs. Accordingly, the underlying mechanisms involved in drug resistance have been re-evaluated. Herein, we will reveal new themes emerging from initial studies of drug resistance and outline the findings regarding drug resistance from the perspective of the TME; the themes include exosomes, metabolic reprogramming, protein glycosylation and autophagy, and the relates studies aim to provide new targets and strategies for reversing drug resistance in cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Qie Guo
- The Department of Clinical Pharmacy, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266003, China
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9
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Cheng L, Yang F, Tang L, Qian L, Chen X, Guan F, Zhang J, Li G. Electrochemical Evaluation of Tumor Development via Cellular Interface Supported CRISPR/Cas Trans-Cleavage. RESEARCH 2022; 2022:9826484. [PMID: 35474904 PMCID: PMC9011167 DOI: 10.34133/2022/9826484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Evaluating tumor development is of great importance for clinic treatment and therapy. It has been known that the amounts of sialic acids on tumor cell membrane surface are closely associated with the degree of cancerization of the cell. So, in this work, cellular interface supported CRISPR/Cas trans-cleavage has been explored for electrochemical simultaneous detection of two types of sialic acids, i.e., N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc) and N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac). Specifically, PbS quantum dot-labeled DNA modified by Neu5Gc antibody is prepared to specifically recognize Neu5Gc on the cell surface, followed by the binding of Neu5Ac through our fabricated CdS quantum dot-labeled DNA modified by Sambucus nigra agglutinin. Subsequently, the activated Cas12a indiscriminately cleaves DNA, resulting in the release of PbS and CdS quantum dots, both of which can be simultaneously detected by anodic stripping voltammetry. Consequently, Neu5Gc and Neu5Ac on cell surface can be quantitatively analyzed with the lowest detection limits of 1.12 cells/mL and 1.25 cells/mL, respectively. Therefore, a ratiometric electrochemical method can be constructed for kinetic study of the expression and hydrolysis of Neu5Gc and Neu5Ac on cell surface, which can be further used as a tool to identify bladder cancer cells at different development stages. Our method to evaluate tumor development is simple and easy to be operated, so it can be potentially applied for the detection of tumor occurrence and development in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangfen Cheng
- Center for Molecular Recognition and Biosensing, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Fuhan Yang
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Longfei Tang
- Center for Molecular Recognition and Biosensing, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Lelin Qian
- Center for Molecular Recognition and Biosensing, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Xu Chen
- Center for Molecular Recognition and Biosensing, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Feng Guan
- College of Life Science, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, China
| | - Juan Zhang
- Center for Molecular Recognition and Biosensing, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Genxi Li
- Center for Molecular Recognition and Biosensing, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
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10
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Hires M, Jane E, Kalavska K, Chovanec M, Mego M, Kasak P, Bertok T, Tkac J. Glycan signatures for the identification of cisplatin‐resistant testicular cancer cell lines: Specific glycoprofiling of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). Cancer Med 2022; 11:968-982. [PMID: 35044085 PMCID: PMC8855906 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.4515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Testicular cancer (TC) is the most frequent type of cancer among young men aged between 15 and 34 years. TC is treated using cisplatin, but 3%–5% of TC patients fail to respond to cisplatin, with a very bad to fatal prognosis. Accordingly, it is most important to quickly and readily identify those TC patients who are resistant to cisplatin treatment. Methods This study seeks to investigate changes in the glycosylation associated with cisplatin resistance to TC cell lines. Results A specific glycoprofiling of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) was analysed in three TC cell lines and one cell line of female origin. A typical calibration curve for hCG glycoprofiling showed a dynamic range up to 50 ng/ml, with a limit of detection of 0.3 ng/ml and assay reproducibility represented by relative standard deviation of 3.0%. Changes in the glycan signatures on hCG were analysed in cisplatin‐sensitive cell lines and in their cisplatin‐resistant sub‐lines using an enzyme‐linked lectin assay (ELLA) protocol. An immobilised antibody was applied to a selective capture of hCG from a cytoplasmic fraction of cell lysates with final incubation using a lectin from a panel of 17 lectins. Conclusion The results suggest that one particular lectin Dolichos biflorus agglutinin (DBA) can selectively discriminate sensitive TC cell lines from resistant TC cell lines. Moreover, there are additional lectins which can provide useful information about the strength of cisplatin resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Hires
- Institute of Chemistry Slovak Academy of Sciences Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Eduard Jane
- Institute of Chemistry Slovak Academy of Sciences Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Katarina Kalavska
- Translational Research Unit Faculty of Medicine Comenius University and National Cancer Institute Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Michal Chovanec
- 2nd Department of Oncology Faculty of Medicine Comenius University and National Cancer Institute Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Michal Mego
- Translational Research Unit Faculty of Medicine Comenius University and National Cancer Institute Bratislava Slovakia
- 2nd Department of Oncology Faculty of Medicine Comenius University and National Cancer Institute Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Peter Kasak
- Center for Advanced Materials Qatar University Doha Qatar
| | - Tomas Bertok
- Institute of Chemistry Slovak Academy of Sciences Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Jan Tkac
- Institute of Chemistry Slovak Academy of Sciences Bratislava Slovakia
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11
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Zeng W, Zheng S, Mao Y, Wang S, Zhong Y, Cao W, Su T, Gong M, Cheng J, Zhang Y, Yang H. Elevated N-Glycosylation Contributes to the Cisplatin Resistance of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cells Revealed by Membrane Proteomic and Glycoproteomic Analysis. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:805499. [PMID: 35002739 PMCID: PMC8728018 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.805499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemoresistance is the major restriction on the clinical use of cisplatin. Aberrant changes in protein glycosylation are closely associated with drug resistance. Comprehensive study on the role of protein glycosylation in the development of cisplatin resistance would contribute to precise elucidation of the complicated mechanism of resistance. However, comprehensive characterization of glycosylated proteins remains a big challenge. In this work, we integrated proteomic and N-glycoproteomic workflow to comprehensively characterize the cisplatin resistance-related membrane proteins. Using this method, we found that proteins implicated in cell adhesion, migration, response to drug, and signal transduction were significantly altered in both protein abundance and glycosylation level during the development of cisplatin resistance in the non-small cell lung cancer cell line. Accordingly, the ability of cell migration and invasion was markedly increased in cisplatin-resistant cells, hence intensifying their malignancy. In contrast, the intracellular cisplatin accumulation was significantly reduced in the resistant cells concomitant with the down-regulation of drug uptake channel protein, LRRC8A, and over-expression of drug efflux pump proteins, MRP1 and MRP4. Moreover, the global glycosylation was elevated in the cisplatin-resistant cells. Consequently, inhibition of N-glycosylation reduced cell resistance to cisplatin, whereas promoting the high-mannose or sialylated type of glycosylation enhanced the resistance, suggesting that critical glycosylation type contributes to cisplatin resistance. These results demonstrate the high efficiency of the integrated proteomic and N-glycoproteomic workflow in discovering drug resistance-related targets, and provide new insights into the mechanism of cisplatin resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjuan Zeng
- NHC Key Laboratory of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, Institutes for Systems Genetics, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Shanshan Zheng
- NHC Key Laboratory of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, Institutes for Systems Genetics, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yonghong Mao
- Institute of Thoracic Oncology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Shisheng Wang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, Institutes for Systems Genetics, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yi Zhong
- NHC Key Laboratory of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, Institutes for Systems Genetics, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Wei Cao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, Institutes for Systems Genetics, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Tao Su
- NHC Key Laboratory of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, Institutes for Systems Genetics, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Meng Gong
- NHC Key Laboratory of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, Institutes for Systems Genetics, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jingqiu Cheng
- NHC Key Laboratory of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, Institutes for Systems Genetics, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, Institutes for Systems Genetics, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Sichuan Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Pathology in Clinical Application, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hao Yang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, Institutes for Systems Genetics, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Sichuan Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Pathology in Clinical Application, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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12
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Khan MA, Vikramdeo KS, Sudan SK, Singh S, Wilhite A, Dasgupta S, Rocconi RP, Singh AP. Platinum-resistant ovarian cancer: From drug resistance mechanisms to liquid biopsy-based biomarkers for disease management. Semin Cancer Biol 2021; 77:99-109. [PMID: 34418576 PMCID: PMC8665066 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2021.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Resistance to platinum-based chemotherapy is a major clinical challenge in ovarian cancer, contributing to the high mortality-to-incidence ratio. Management of the platinum-resistant disease has been difficult due to diverse underlying molecular mechanisms. Over the past several years, research has revealed several novel molecular targets that are being explored as biomarkers for treatment planning and monitoring of response. The therapeutic landscape of ovarian cancer is also rapidly evolving, and alternative therapies are becoming available for the recurrent platinum-resistant disease. This review provides a snapshot of platinum resistance mechanisms and discusses liquid-based biomarkers and their potential utility in effective management of platinum-resistant ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Aslam Khan
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36617, United States; Cancer Biology Program, Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36604, United States
| | - Kunwar Somesh Vikramdeo
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36617, United States; Cancer Biology Program, Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36604, United States
| | - Sarabjeet Kour Sudan
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36617, United States; Cancer Biology Program, Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36604, United States
| | - Seema Singh
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36617, United States; Cancer Biology Program, Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36604, United States; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36688, United States
| | - Annelise Wilhite
- Department of Gynecologic Oncology, Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36604, United States
| | - Santanu Dasgupta
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36617, United States; Cancer Biology Program, Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36604, United States; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36688, United States
| | - Rodney Paul Rocconi
- Cancer Biology Program, Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36604, United States
| | - Ajay Pratap Singh
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36617, United States; Cancer Biology Program, Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36604, United States; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36688, United States.
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13
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Cao W, Zeng Z, Pan R, Wu H, Zhang X, Chen H, Nie Y, Yu Z, Lei S. Hypoxia-Related Gene FUT11 Promotes Pancreatic Cancer Progression by Maintaining the Stability of PDK1. Front Oncol 2021; 11:675991. [PMID: 34221996 PMCID: PMC8247946 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.675991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Hypoxia is associated with the development of pancreatic cancer (PC). However, genes associated with hypoxia response and their regulatory mechanism in PC cells were unclear. The current study aims to investigate the role of the hypoxia associated gene fucosyltransferase 11 (FUT11) in the progression of PC. Methods In the preliminary study, bioinformatics analysis predicted FUT11 as a key hypoxia associated gene in PC. The expression of FUT11 in PC was evaluated using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), Western blot and immunohistochemistry. The effects of FUT11 on PC cells proliferation and migration under normoxia and hypoxia were evaluated using Cell Counting Kit 8, 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EDU) assay, colony formation assay and transwell assay. The effects of FUT11 in vivo was examined in mouse tumor models of liver metastasis and subcutaneous xenograft. Furthermore, Western blot, luciferase assay and immunoprecipitation were performed to explore the regulatory relationship among FUT11, hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α) and pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 (PDK1) in PC. Results FUT11 was markedly increased of PC cells with hypoxia, upregulated in the PC clinical tissues, and predicted a poor outcome of PC patients. Inhibition of FUT11 reduced PC cell growth and migratory ability of PC cells under normoxia and hypoxia conditions in vitro, and growth and tumor cell metastasis in vivo. FUT11 bound to PDK1 and regulated the expression PDK1 under normoxia and hypoxia. FUT11 interacted with PDK1 and decreased the ubiquitination of PDK1, lead to the activation of AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. FUT11 knockdown significantly increased the degradation of PDK1 under hypoxia, while treatment with MG132 can relieve the degradation of PDK1 induced by FUT11 knockdown. Overexpression of PDK1 in PC cells under hypoxia conditions reversed the suppressive impacts of FUT11 knockdown on PC cell growth and migration. In addition, HIF1α bound to the promoter of FUT11 and increased its expression, as well as co-expressed with FUT11 in PC tissues. Furthermore, overexpression of FUT11 partially rescued the suppressive effects of HIF1α knockdown on PC cell growth and migration in hypoxia condition. Conclusion Our data implicate that hypoxia-induced FUT11 contributes to proliferation and metastasis of PC by maintaining the stability of PDK1, thus mediating activation of AKT/mTOR signaling pathway, and suggest that FUT11 could be a novel and effective target for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenpeng Cao
- Department of Anatomy, School of Basic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Zhirui Zeng
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Runsang Pan
- Department of Orthopedics, Guiyang Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, Guiyang, China
| | - Hao Wu
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Xiangyan Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Pulmonary, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, China
| | - Hui Chen
- NHC Key Laboratory of Pulmonary, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, China
| | - Yingjie Nie
- The Clinical Lab Center, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, China
| | - Zijiang Yu
- Department of Anatomy, School of Basic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Shan Lei
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
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14
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Cao L, Zhou Y, Li X, Lin S, Tan Z, Guan F. Integrating transcriptomics, proteomics, glycomics and glycoproteomics to characterize paclitaxel resistance in breast cancer cells. J Proteomics 2021; 243:104266. [PMID: 34000456 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2021.104266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Chemoresistance is a major factor driving breast cancer (BC) relapse and the high rates of cancer-related deaths. Aberrant levels of glycans are closely correlated with chemoresistance. The essential functions of glycans in chemoresistance is not systematically studied. In this study, an integrated strategy with a combination of transcriptomics, proteomics, glycomics and glycoproteomics was applied to explore the dysregulation of glycogenes, glycan structures and glycoproteins in chemoresistance of breast cancer cells. In paclitaxel (PTX) resistant MCF7 cells, 19 differentially expressed N-glycan-related proteins were identified, of which MGAT4A was the most significantly down-regulated, consistent with decrease in MGAT4A expression at mRNA level in PTX treated BC cells. Glycomic analysis consistently revealed suppressed levels of multi-antennary branching structures using MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS and lectin microarray. Several target glycoproteins bearing suppressed levels of multi-antennary branching structures were identified, and ERK signaling pathway was strongly suppressed in PTX resistant MCF7 cells. Our findings demonstrated the aberrant levels of multi-antennary branching structures and their target glycoproteins on PTX resistance. Systematically integrative multi-omic analysis is expected to facilitate the discovery of the aberrant glycosyltransferases, N-glycosylation and glycoproteins in tumor progression and chemoresistance. SIGNIFICANCE: An integrated strategy with a combination of transcriptomics, proteomics, glycomics and glycoproteomics is crucial to understand the association between glycans and chemoresistance in BC. In this multi-omic analysis, we identified unique glycan-related protein, glycan and glycoprotein signatures defining PTX chemoresistance in BC. This study might provide valuable information to understand molecular mechanisms underlying chemoresistance in BC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Cao
- International Research Laboratory of Glycobiology and Medicinal Chemistry, College of Life Science, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, PR China
| | - Yue Zhou
- International Research Laboratory of Glycobiology and Medicinal Chemistry, College of Life Science, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry & Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Xiang Li
- Institute of Hematology, School of Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, PR China
| | - Shuai Lin
- Department of Oncology, The second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Zengqi Tan
- International Research Laboratory of Glycobiology and Medicinal Chemistry, College of Life Science, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, PR China
| | - Feng Guan
- International Research Laboratory of Glycobiology and Medicinal Chemistry, College of Life Science, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, PR China.
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15
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Ashrafizadeh M, Zarrabi A, Hushmandi K, Kalantari M, Mohammadinejad R, Javaheri T, Sethi G. Association of the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) with Cisplatin Resistance. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E4002. [PMID: 32503307 PMCID: PMC7312011 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21114002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Therapy resistance is a characteristic of cancer cells that significantly reduces the effectiveness of drugs. Despite the popularity of cisplatin (CP) as a chemotherapeutic agent, which is widely used in the treatment of various types of cancer, resistance of cancer cells to CP chemotherapy has been extensively observed. Among various reported mechanism(s), the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process can significantly contribute to chemoresistance by converting the motionless epithelial cells into mobile mesenchymal cells and altering cell-cell adhesion as well as the cellular extracellular matrix, leading to invasion of tumor cells. By analyzing the impact of the different molecular pathways such as microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, nuclear factor-κB (NF-ĸB), phosphoinositide 3-kinase-related protein kinase (PI3K)/Akt, mammalian target rapamycin (mTOR), and Wnt, which play an important role in resistance exhibited to CP therapy, we first give an introduction about the EMT mechanism and its role in drug resistance. We then focus specifically on the molecular pathways involved in drug resistance and the pharmacological strategies that can be used to mitigate this resistance. Overall, we highlight the various targeted signaling pathways that could be considered in future studies to pave the way for the inhibition of EMT-mediated resistance displayed by tumor cells in response to CP exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milad Ashrafizadeh
- Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tabriz, Tabriz 5166616471, Iran;
| | - Ali Zarrabi
- Sabanci University Nanotechnology Research and Application Center (SUNUM), Tuzla, Istanbul 34956, Turkey;
- Center of Excellence for Functional Surfaces and Interfaces (EFSUN), Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabanci University, Tuzla, Istanbul 34956, Turkey
| | - Kiavash Hushmandi
- Department of Food Hygiene and Quality Control, Division of Epidemiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran 1417414418, Iran;
- Kazerun Health Technology Incubator, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 1433671348, Iran
| | - Mahshad Kalantari
- Department of Genetic Science, Tehran Medical Science Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran 19168931813, Iran;
| | - Reza Mohammadinejad
- Pharmaceutics Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman 1355576169, Iran
| | - Tahereh Javaheri
- Health Informatics Lab, Metropolitan College, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Gautam Sethi
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117600, Singapore;
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