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Zhang W, Jiang T, Xie K. Epigenetic reprogramming in pancreatic premalignancy and clinical implications. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1024151. [PMID: 36874143 PMCID: PMC9978013 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1024151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer (PC) is the most lethal human cancer, with less than 10% 5-year survival. Pancreatic premalignancy is a genetic and epigenomic disease and is linked to PC initiation. Pancreatic premalignant lesions include pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN), intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN), and mucinous cystic neoplasm (MCN), with pancreatic acinar-to-ductal metaplasia (ADM) as the major source of pancreatic premalignant lesions. Emerging evidence reveals that an epigenetic dysregulation is an early event in pancreatic tumorigenesis. The molecular mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance include chromatin remodeling; modifications in histone, DNA, and RNA; non-coding RNA expression; and alternative splicing of RNA. Changes in those epigenetic modifications contribute to the most notable alterations in chromatin structure and promoter accessibility, thus leading to the silence of tumor suppressor genes and/or activation of oncogenes. The expression profiles of various epigenetic molecules provide a promising opportunity for biomarker development for early diagnosis of PC and novel targeted treatment strategies. However, how the alterations in epigenetic regulatory machinery regulate epigenetic reprogramming in pancreatic premalignant lesions and the different stages of their initiation needs further investigation. This review will summarize the current knowledge of epigenetic reprogramming in pancreatic premalignant initiation and progression, and its clinical applications as detection and diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets in PC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Center for Pancreatic Cancer Research, School of Medicine, The South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, The South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Tingting Jiang
- Center for Pancreatic Cancer Research, School of Medicine, The South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, The South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Keping Xie
- Center for Pancreatic Cancer Research, School of Medicine, The South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, The South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
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2
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Functional Characteristics and Regulated Expression of Alternatively Spliced Tissue Factor: An Update. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13184652. [PMID: 34572880 PMCID: PMC8471299 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13184652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In human and mouse, alternative splicing of tissue factor's primary transcript yields two mRNA species: one features all six TF exons and encodes full-length tissue factor (flTF), and the other lacks exon 5 and encodes alternatively spliced tissue factor (asTF). flTF, which is oftentimes referred to as "TF", is an integral membrane glycoprotein due to the presence of an alpha-helical domain in its C-terminus, while asTF is soluble due to the frameshift resulting from the joining of exon 4 directly to exon 6. In this review, we focus on asTF-the more recently discovered isoform of TF that appears to significantly contribute to the pathobiology of several solid malignancies. There is currently a consensus in the field that asTF, while dispensable to normal hemostasis, can activate a subset of integrins on benign and malignant cells and promote outside-in signaling eliciting angiogenesis; cancer cell proliferation, migration, and invasion; and monocyte recruitment. We provide a general overview of the pioneering, as well as more recent, asTF research; discuss the current concepts of how asTF contributes to cancer progression; and open a conversation about the emerging utility of asTF as a biomarker and a therapeutic target.
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Unruh D, Ünlü B, Lewis CS, Qi X, Chu Z, Sturm R, Keil R, Ahmad SA, Sovershaev T, Adam M, Van Dreden P, Woodhams BJ, Ramchandani D, Weber GF, Rak JW, Wolberg AS, Mackman N, Versteeg HH, Bogdanov VY. Antibody-based targeting of alternatively spliced tissue factor: a new approach to impede the primary growth and spread of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Oncotarget 2018; 7:25264-75. [PMID: 26967388 PMCID: PMC5041902 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.7955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 02/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternatively spliced Tissue Factor (asTF) is a secreted form of Tissue Factor (TF), the trigger of blood coagulation whose expression levels are heightened in several forms of solid cancer, including pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). asTF binds to β1 integrins on PDAC cells, whereby it promotes tumor growth, metastatic spread, and monocyte recruitment to the stroma. In this study, we determined if targeting asTF in PDAC would significantly impact tumor progression. We here report that a novel inhibitory anti-asTF monoclonal antibody curtails experimental PDAC progression. Moreover, we show that tumor-derived asTF is able to promote PDAC primary growth and spread during early as well as later stages of the disease. This raises the likelihood that asTF may comprise a viable target in early- and late-stage PDAC. In addition, we show that TF expressed by host cells plays a significant role in PDAC spread. Together, our data demonstrate that targeting asTF in PDAC is a novel strategy to stem PDAC progression and spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dusten Unruh
- College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Betül Ünlü
- Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Clayton S Lewis
- College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Xiaoyang Qi
- College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Zhengtao Chu
- College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Robert Sturm
- College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Ryan Keil
- College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Syed A Ahmad
- College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Georg F Weber
- College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Janusz W Rak
- McGill University Health Centre, Montreal Children's Hospital, Montreal, Canada
| | - Alisa S Wolberg
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Nigel Mackman
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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Edén D, Siegbahn A, Mokhtari D. Tissue factor/factor VIIa signalling promotes cytokine-induced beta cell death and impairs glucose-stimulated insulin secretion from human pancreatic islets. Diabetologia 2015; 58:2563-72. [PMID: 26271343 PMCID: PMC4589554 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-015-3729-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Patients diagnosed with type 1 or type 2 diabetes have elevated levels of coagulation factor VIIa (FVIIa) and its receptor tissue factor (TF) in their bloodstream. This may affect the fate of the beta cells. We aimed to study the effects of TF/FVIIa signalling on cytokine-induced beta cell death and islet function in vitro. METHODS Human pancreatic islets and MIN-6 beta cells were used to study TF mRNA and protein expression using real-time PCR, immunoblotting and flow cytometry. The effects of TF/FVIIa on cytokine-induced beta cell death were studied in MIN-6 cells and human pancreatic islets using cell-death ELISA and propidium iodide and cleaved caspase-3 staining. Effects of TF/FVIIa on the phosphorylation of p38, extracellular signal-regulated kinase and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) were investigated by immunoblotting. Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) from human islets was measured with an insulin ELISA. RESULTS A combination of the cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α and IFN-γ induced TF expression in human pancreatic islets and in beta cells. TF/FVIIa did not affect basal beta cell death but, independently of downstream coagulation activity, augmented beta cell death in response to cytokines. The effect of TF/FVIIa on cytokine-induced beta cell death was found to be dependent on the stress kinase JNK, since FVIIa addition potentiated cytokine-induced JNK activation and JNK inhibition abolished the effect of TF/FVIIa on cytokine-induced beta cell death. Moreover, TF/FVIIa signalling resulted in inhibition of GSIS from human pancreatic islets. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION These results indicate that TF/FVIIa signalling has a negative effect on beta cell function and promotes beta cell death in response to cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Desirée Edén
- Department of Medical Sciences, Clinical Chemistry, Science for Life Laboratory, University Hospital, Uppsala University, Entr. 61 3rd floor, S-751 85, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Agneta Siegbahn
- Department of Medical Sciences, Clinical Chemistry, Science for Life Laboratory, University Hospital, Uppsala University, Entr. 61 3rd floor, S-751 85, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Dariush Mokhtari
- Department of Medical Sciences, Clinical Chemistry, Science for Life Laboratory, University Hospital, Uppsala University, Entr. 61 3rd floor, S-751 85, Uppsala, Sweden.
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Bogdanov VY, Versteeg HH. "Soluble Tissue Factor" in the 21st Century: Definitions, Biochemistry, and Pathophysiological Role in Thrombus Formation. Semin Thromb Hemost 2015; 41:700-7. [PMID: 26408917 DOI: 10.1055/s-0035-1556049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Tissue factor (TF), the main trigger of blood coagulation, is essential for normal hemostasis. Over the past 20 years, heightened intravascular levels and activity of TF have been increasingly perceived as an entity that significantly contributes to venous as well as arterial thrombosis. Various forms of the TF protein in the circulation have been described and proposed to be thrombogenic. Aside from cell and vessel wall-associated TF, several forms of non-cell-associated TF circulate in plasma and may serve as a causative factor in thrombosis. At the present time, no firm consensus exists regarding the extent, the vascular setting(s), and/or the mechanisms by which such TF forms contribute to thrombus initiation and propagation. Here, we summarize the existing paradigms and recent, sometimes paradigm-shifting findings elucidating the structural, mechanistic, and pathophysiological characteristics of plasma-borne TF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Y Bogdanov
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Henri H Versteeg
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Thrombosis and Hemostasis, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Abstract
The hemostatic system plays pleiotropic roles in cancer progression by shaping the tumor microenvironment and metastatic niches through thrombin-dependent fibrin deposition and platelet activation. Expanding experimental evidence implicates coagulation protease receptors expressed by tumor cells as additional players that directly influence tumor biology. Pro-angiogenic G protein-coupled signaling of TF through protease activated receptor 2 and regulation of tumor cell and vascular integrins through ligation by alternative spliced TF are established pathways driving tumor progression. Our recent work shows that the endothelial protein C receptor (EPCR), a stem cell marker in hematopoietic, neuronal and epithelial cells, is also crucial for breast cancer growth in the orthotopic microenvironment of the mammary gland. In aggressive triple-negative breast cancer cells, EPCR expression is a characteristic of cancer stem cell-like populations that have tumor initiating properties in vivo. Blocking antibodies to EPCR attenuate in vivo tumor growth and proliferation specifically of EPCR(+) cells on defined integrin matrices in vitro. We also showed that tumor-associated macrophages are a source for upstream coagulation proteases that can activate TF- and EPCR-dependent cellular responses, suggesting that tumor cells utilize the tumor microenvironment for tumor promoting coagulation protease signaling.
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Hematopoietic tissue factor-protease-activated receptor 2 signaling promotes hepatic inflammation and contributes to pathways of gluconeogenesis and steatosis in obese mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2014; 185:524-35. [PMID: 25476527 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Revised: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Failure to inhibit hepatic gluconeogenesis is a major mechanism contributing to fasting hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes and, along with steatosis, is the hallmark of hepatic insulin resistance. Obesity is associated with chronic inflammation in multiple tissues, and hepatic inflammation is mechanistically linked to both steatosis and hepatic insulin resistance. Here, we delineate a role for coagulation signaling via tissue factor (TF) and proteinase-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) in obesity-mediated hepatic inflammation, steatosis, and gluconeogenesis. In diet-induced obese mice, TF tail signaling independent of PAR2 drives CD11b(+)CD11c(+) hepatic macrophage recruitment, and TF-PAR2 signaling contributes to the accumulation of hepatic CD8(+) T cells. Transcripts of key pathways of gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis, and inflammatory cytokines were reduced in high-fat diet-fed mice that lack the cytoplasmic domain of TF (F3) (TF(ΔCT)) or that are deficient in PAR2 (F2rl1), as well as by pharmacological inhibition of TF-PAR2 signaling in diet-induced obese mice. These gluconeogenic, lipogenic, and inflammatory pathway transcripts were similarly reduced in response to genetic ablation or pharmacological inhibition of TF-PAR2 signaling in hematopoietic cells and were mechanistically associated with activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). These findings indicate that hematopoietic TF-PAR2 signaling plays a pivotal role in the hepatic inflammatory responses, steatosis, and hepatic insulin resistance that lead to systemic insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes in obesity.
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Han X, Guo B, Li Y, Zhu B. Tissue factor in tumor microenvironment: a systematic review. J Hematol Oncol 2014; 7:54. [PMID: 25084809 PMCID: PMC4237870 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-014-0054-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 07/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The aberrant hemostasis is a common manifestation of cancer, and venous thromboembolism (VTE) is the second leading cause of cancer patients’ mortality. Tissue factor (TF), comprising of a 47-kDa transmembrane protein that presents in subendothelial tissues and leukocytes and a soluble isoform, have distinct roles in the initiation of extrinsic coagulation cascade and thrombosis. Laboratory and clinical evidence showed the deviant expression of TF in several cancer systems and its tumor-promoting effects. TF contributes to myeloid cell recruitment in tumor stroma, thereby remodeling of tumor microenvironment. Additionally, the number of TF-positive-microparticles (TF+MP) from tumor origins correlates with the VTE rates in cancer patients. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the TF regulation and roles in tumor progression and clinical complications.
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Sluka SHM, Akhmedov A, Vogel J, Unruh D, Bogdanov VY, Camici GG, Lüscher TF, Ruf W, Tanner FC. Alternatively spliced tissue factor is not sufficient for embryonic development. PLoS One 2014; 9:e97793. [PMID: 24879059 PMCID: PMC4039448 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 04/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue factor (TF) triggers blood coagulation and is translated from two mRNA splice isoforms, encoding membrane-anchored full-length TF (flTF) and soluble alternatively-spliced TF (asTF). The complete knockout of TF in mice causes embryonic lethality associated with failure of the yolk sac vasculature. Although asTF plays roles in postnatal angiogenesis, it is unknown whether it activates coagulation sufficiently or makes previously unrecognized contributions to sustaining integrity of embryonic yolk sac vessels. Using gene knock-in into the mouse TF locus, homozygous asTF knock-in (asTFKI) mice, which express murine asTF in the absence of flTF, exhibited embryonic lethality between day 9.5 and 10.5. Day 9.5 homozygous asTFKI embryos expressed asTF protein, but no procoagulant activity was detectable in a plasma clotting assay. Although the α-smooth-muscle-actin positive mesodermal layer as well as blood islands developed similarly in day 8.5 wild-type or homozygous asTFKI embryos, erythrocytes were progressively lost from disintegrating yolk sac vessels of asTFKI embryos by day 10.5. These data show that in the absence of flTF, asTF expressed during embryonic development has no measurable procoagulant activity, does not support embryonic vessel stability by non-coagulant mechanisms, and fails to maintain a functional vasculature and embryonic survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna H. M. Sluka
- Cardiovascular Research, Institute of Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alexander Akhmedov
- Cardiovascular Research, Institute of Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Johannes Vogel
- Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dusten Unruh
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Vladimir Y. Bogdanov
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Giovanni G. Camici
- Cardiovascular Research, Institute of Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas F. Lüscher
- Cardiovascular Research, Institute of Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Cardiology, Cardiovascular Center, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Wolfram Ruf
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Felix C. Tanner
- Cardiovascular Research, Institute of Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Cardiology, Cardiovascular Center, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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Li Y, Wei S. [Advances on mechanisms of coagulation with non-small cell lung cancer]. ZHONGGUO FEI AI ZA ZHI = CHINESE JOURNAL OF LUNG CANCER 2013; 16:676-80. [PMID: 24345495 PMCID: PMC6000641 DOI: 10.3779/j.issn.1009-3419.2013.12.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Recently, researchers have been increasingly finding coagulation disorders are commonly the first sign of malignancy. It has now been established that cancer development leads to an increased risk of thrombosis, and conversely, excessive activation of blood coagulation profoundly influences cancer progression. In patients with lung cancer, a sustained stimulation of blood coagulation takes place. Cancer cells trigger coagulation through expression of tissue factor, and affect coagulation through expression of thrombin, release of microparticles that augment coagulation and so on. Coagulation also facilitates tumour progression through release of platelet granule contents, inhibition of natural killer cells and recruitment of macrophages. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for about 80%-85% of all lung malignancies. In the present review, we summarized the newly updated data about the physiopathological mechanisms of various components of the clotting system in different stages of carcinogenesis in NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhua Li
- Department of Oncology, the Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050000, China
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Kocatürk B, Versteeg HH. Tissue factor-integrin interactions in cancer and thrombosis: every Jack has his Jill. J Thromb Haemost 2013; 11 Suppl 1:285-93. [PMID: 23809132 DOI: 10.1111/jth.12222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Tissue factor (TF) is a 47 kDa membrane protein that initiates coagulation by binding to FVII(a) and FX(a) and is a risk factor for thrombosis in many disease states. In addition to its coagulant activity, TF also influences cancer progression by triggering signaling effects via a group of G-protein coupled receptors named protease-activated receptors (PARs). TF localizes to cytoskeletal structures in migrating cells, influences cytoskeleton reorganization and promotes migration. Recently, integrins, important mediators of cell motility, have emerged as important binding partners for TF and influence both TF coagulant and PAR-2-dependent signaling functions. Direct binding of TF to integrins also impacts processes such as cell migration and signaling independent of PAR-2. A recently discovered alternatively spliced, soluble TF isoform also ligates integrins to augment angiogenesis, thus fuelling cancer progression. To date, the literature describes a complex interplay between different integrin subunits and distinct TF isoforms, but our understanding of TF-integrin bidirectional regulation remains clouded. In this review, we aim to summarize the existing knowledge on integrin-TF interaction and speculate on its relevance to physiology and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Kocatürk
- The Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
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Abstract
The hemostatic system is involved in multiple interactions with transformed cells that progress from a dormant, non-vascularized tumor to highly metastatic phenotypes. Oncogenic transformations up regulate not only the initiator of the coagulation cascade, tissue factor (TF), but also induce other molecules that are required for TF's direct cell signaling activity, including the protease activated receptor (PAR) 2 and factor VIIa. TF-dependent signaling is a major driver for primary tumor progression, whereas TF-initiated coagulation and other components of the hemostatic system support metastasis. Basic research continues to identify pivotal molecular interactions in these processes and provides potential leads for targeting specific tumor promoting pathways associated with hemostasis and thrombosis.
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Butenas S. Tissue factor structure and function. SCIENTIFICA 2012; 2012:964862. [PMID: 24278763 PMCID: PMC3820524 DOI: 10.6064/2012/964862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/19/2012] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Tissue factor (TF) is an integral membrane protein that is essential to life. It is a component of the factor VIIa-TF complex enzyme and plays a primary role in both normal hemostasis and thrombosis. With a vascular injury, TF becomes exposed to blood and binds plasma factor VIIa, and the resulting complex initiates a series of enzymatic reactions leading to clot formation and vascular sealing. Many cells, both healthy, and tumor cells, produce detectable amounts of TF, especially when they are stimulated by various agents. Despite the relative simplicity and small size of TF, there are numerous contradictory reports about the synthesis and presentation of TF on blood cells and circulation in normal blood either on microparticles or as a soluble protein. Another subject of controversy is related to the structure/function of TF. It has been almost commonly accepted that cell-surface-associated TF has low (if any) activity, that is, is "encrypted" and requires specific conditions/reagents to become active, that is, "decrypted." However there is a lack of agreement related to the mechanism and processes leading to alterations in TF function. In this paper TF structure, presentation, and function, and controversies concerning these features are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saulius Butenas
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Vermont, 208 South Park Drive, Room 235A, Colchester, VT 05446, USA
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