Improving anticancer efficacy of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate gold nanoparticles in murine B16F10 melanoma cells

Recent advances in improved efficacies of gold nano-formulations in treatment of skin cancer: a systematic review

Skin cancer is the commonest malignancy for the population. Conventional skin cancer treatments include chemotherapy and surgery, but a large number of the chemotherapeutic drugs applied currently have undesirable possessions. The aim of this study is to provide a complete and acute assessment of the antitumor capability of gold nano-formulations in skin cancer as a new and more effectual delivery system for targeted therapy. In this systematic review, we conducted our first search in December 2021. In order to find related studies, 3 databases PubMed, Scopus and ScienceDirect. In order to maintain comprehensiveness in the search, no time limit was considered in the search process and finally the information obtained from the search was transferred to the information management software (EndNote). In order to maximize the number of articles that were related to our topic, a list of references identified in relevant articles was also manually searched and reviewed. Our final search was updated in late December 2021. There was evidence for a correlation between anticancer activities and treatment with gold nano-formulations. Additionally, studies shown that specific functionalization of the gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) which increase targetability to specific populations of cells could increase the application of Au NPs to the effective delivery of drugs to tumor cells. Our study demonstrated that gold nano-formulations are possible candidates for skin cancer treatment and might provide additional support for the clinical use of these anticancer agents in the future.

The use of nanoparticles in the treatment of infectious diseases and cancer, dental applications and tissue regeneration: a review

The emergence of nanotechnology as a field of study can be traced back to the 1980s, at which point the means to artificially produce, control, and observe matter on a nanometer level was made viable. Recent advancements in technology have enabled us to extend our reach to the nanoscale, which has presented an unparalleled opportunity to directly target biomolecular interactions. As a result of these developments, there is a drive to arise intelligent nanostructures capable of overcoming the obstacles that have impeded the progress of conventional pharmacological methodologies. After four decades, the gradual amalgamation of bio- and nanotechnologies is initiating a revolution in the realm of disease detection, treatment, and monitoring, as well as unsolved medical predicaments. Although a significant portion of research in the field is still confined to laboratories, the initial application of nanotechnology as treatments, vaccines, pharmaceuticals, and diagnostic equipment has now obtained endorsement for commercialization and clinical practice. The current issue presents an overview of the latest progress in nanomedical strategies towards alleviating antibiotic resistance, diagnosing and treating cancer, addressing neurodegenerative disorders, and an array of applications, encompassing dentistry and tuberculosis treatment. The current investigation also scrutinizes the deployment of sophisticated smart nanostructured materials in fields of application such as regenerative medicine, as well as the management of targeted and sustained release of pharmaceuticals and therapeutic interventions. The aforementioned concept exhibits the potential for revolutionary advancements within the field of immunotherapy, as it introduces the utilization of implanted vaccine technology to consistently regulate and augment immune functions. Concurrently with the endeavor to attain the advantages of nanomedical intervention, it is essential to enhance the unceasing emphasis on nanotoxicological research and the regulation of nanomedications' safety. This initiative is crucial in achieving the advancement in medicine that currently lies within our reach.

The Potential of Epigallocatechin Gallate in Targeting Cancer Stem Cells: A Comprehensive Review

The dreadful scenario of cancer prevails due to the presence of cancer stem cells (CSCs), which contribute to tumor growth, metastasis, invasion, resistance to chemo- and radiotherapy, and recurrence. CSCs are a small subpopulation of cells within the tumor that are characterized by self-renewal capability and have the potential to manifest heterogeneous lineages of cancer cells that constitute the tumor. The major bioactive green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) has been fruitful in downgrading cancer stemness signaling and CSC biomarkers in cancer progression. EGCG has been evidenced to maneuver extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways in order to decrease the viability of CSCs. Cancer stemness is intricately related to epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), metastasis and therapy resistance, and EGCG has been evidenced to regress all these CSC-related effects. By inhibiting CSC characteristics EGCG has also been evidenced to sensitize the tumor cells to radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, the use of EGCG in in vitro and in vivo cancer models raises concern about its bioavailability, stability and efficacy against spheroids raised from parental cells. Therefore, novel nano formulations of EGCG and adjuvant therapy of EGCG with other phytochemicals or drugs or small molecules may have a better prospect in targeting CSCs. However, extensive clinical research is still awaited to elucidate a full proof impact of EGCG in cancer therapy.

Nature's Elixir for Cancer Treatment: Targeting Tumor-induced Neovascularization

Angiogenesis, a multistep process, involves sprouting of new vessels from the pre-existing vessels in response to a stimulus in its microenvironment. Normally, angiogenesis is important for tissue maintenance and homeostasis, however it is also known to be associated with various pathologies, including cancer. Importantly, neovascularization is very crucial for tumors to grow and metastasize since it allows delivery of oxygen and nutrients as well as promotes tumor cell dissemination to distant sites. Activation of angiogenic switch is a consequence of imbalance in pro- as well as anti-angiogenic factors, that are immensely impacted by reactive oxygen species and epigenetic regulation. Several reports have suggested that angiogenic inhibitors significantly inhibit tumor growth. Therefore, anti-angiogenic therapy has gained substantial attention and has been considered a rational approach in cancer therapeutics. In this line, several anti- angiogenic drugs have been approved, however, their long term usage caused several side effects. In view of this, researchers switched to plant-based natural compounds for identifying safe and cost-effective anti-angiogenic drugs. Of note, various phytochemicals have been evaluated to reduce tumor growth by inhibiting tumor-induced angiogenesis. Moreover, the implication of nano-carriers to enhance the bioavailability of phytochemicals has proven to be more efficient anti-cancer agents. The present review highlights the existing knowledge on tumor-induced neovascularization and its regulation at the epigenetic level. Further, we emphasize the inhibitory effect of phytochemicals on tumor- induced angiogenesis that will open up new avenues in cancer therapeutics.

Flavonoids as promising molecules in the cancer therapy: An insight

Cancer continues to increase global morbidity and mortality rates. Despite substantial progress in the development of various chemically synthesized anti-cancer drugs, the poor prognosis of the disease still remains a big challenge. The most common drawback of conventional cancer therapies is the emergence of drug resistance eventually leading to the discontinuation of chemotherapy. Moreover, advanced target-specific therapies including immunotherapy and stem cell therapy are expensive enough and are unaffordable for most patients in poorer nations. Therefore, alternative and cheaper therapeutic strategies are needed to complement the current cancer treatment approaches. Phytochemicals are bioactive compounds produced naturally by plants and have great potential in human health and disease. These compounds possess antiproliferative, anti-oxidant, and immunomodulatory properties. Among the phytochemicals, flavonoids are very effective in treating a wide range of diseases from cardiovascular diseases and immunological disorders to cancer. They scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), inhibit cancer metastasis, modulate the immune system and induce apoptotic or autophagic cell death in cancers. This review will discuss the potential of various phytochemicals particularly flavonoids in attempts to target various cancers.

Drug Delivery Systems and Flavonoids: Current Knowledge in Melanoma Treatment and Future Perspectives

Melanoma is an aggressive form of skin cancer with a high prevalence in the population. An early diagnosis is crucial to cure this disease. Still, when this is not possible, combining potent pharmacological agents and effective drug delivery systems is essential to achieve optimal treatment and improve patients' quality of life. Nanotechnology application in biomedical sciences to encapsulate anticancer drugs, including flavonoids, in order to enhance therapeutic efficacy has attracted particular interest. Flavonoids have shown effectiveness against various types of cancers including in melanoma, but they show low aqueous solubility, low stability and very poor oral bioavailability. The utilization of novel drug delivery systems could increase flavonoid bioavailability, thereby potentiating its antitumor effects in melanoma. This review summarizes the potential of different flavonoids in melanoma treatment and the several nanosystems used to improve their biological activity, considering published information that reported improved biological and pharmacological properties of encapsulated flavonoids.

Selected Flavonoids to Target Melanoma: A Perspective in Nanoengineering Delivery Systems

Melanoma is a complex type of cancer that depends on several metabolic factors, while the currently used therapies are not always effective and have unwanted side effects. In this review, the main factors involved in the etiology of cutaneous carcinoma are highlighted, together with the main genes and proteins that regulate cancer invasion and metastization. The role of five selected flavonoids, namely, apigenin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, kaempferol, naringenin, and silybin, in the modulating receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) and Wnt pathways is reported with their relevance in the future design of drugs to mitigate and/or treat melanoma. However, as phenolic compounds have some difficulties in reaching the target site, the encapsulation of these compounds in nanoparticles is a promising strategy to promote improved physicochemical stabilization of the bioactives and achieve greater bioavailability. Scientific evidence is given about the beneficial effects of loading these flavonoids into selected nanoparticles for further exploitation in the treatment of melanoma.

Pharmacological Role of Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles in Disease Applications

Gold has always been regarded as a symbol of nobility, and its shiny golden appearance has always attracted the attention of many people. Gold has good ductility, molecular recognition properties, and good biocompatibility. At present, gold is being used in many fields. When gold particles are as small as several nanometers, their physical and chemical properties vary with their size in nanometers. The surface area of a nano-sized gold surface has a special effect. Therefore, gold nanoparticles can, directly and indirectly, give rise to different biological activities. For example, if the surface of the gold is sulfided. Various substances have a strong chemical reactivity and are easy to combine with sulfhydryl groups; hence, nanogold is often used in biomedical testing, disease diagnosis, and gene detection. Nanogold is easy to bind to proteins, such as antibodies, enzymes, or cytokines. In fact, scientists use nanogold to bind special antibodies, as a tool for targeting cancer cells. Gold nanoparticles are also directly cytotoxic to cancer cells. For diseases caused by inflammation and oxidative damage, gold nanoparticles also have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Based on these unique properties, gold nanoparticles have become the most widely studied metal nanomaterials. Many recent studies have further demonstrated that gold nanoparticles are beneficial for humans, due to their functional pharmacological properties in a variety of diseases. The content of this review will be the application of gold nanoparticles in treating or diagnosing pressing diseases, such as cancers, retinopathy, neurological diseases, skin disorders, bowel diseases, bone cartilage disorders, cardiovascular diseases, infections, and metabolic syndrome. Gold nanoparticles have shown very obvious therapeutic and application potential.

Nanoparticles in Clinical Translation for Cancer Therapy

The advent of cancer therapeutics brought a paradigm shift from conventional therapy to precision medicine. The new therapeutic modalities accomplished through the properties of nanomaterials have extended their scope in cancer therapy beyond conventional drug delivery. Nanoparticles can be channeled in cancer therapy to encapsulate active pharmaceutical ingredients and deliver them to the tumor site in a more efficient manner. This review enumerates various types of nanoparticles that have entered clinical trials for cancer treatment. The obstacles in the journey of nanodrug from clinic to market are reviewed. Furthermore, the latest developments in using nanoparticles in cancer therapy are also highlighted.

Size Dependency of Selective Cellular Uptake of Epigallocatechin Gallate-modified Gold Nanoparticles for Effective Radiosensitization

The high incidence and mortality of cancer make it a global health issue. However, conventional cancer therapies have several disadvantages, especially serious side effects due to low selective toxicity to cancer cells. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are an excellent drug carrier, enhance drug delivery efficiency, and hold promise for photothermal and radiation therapies. (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is the major polyphenolic antioxidant constituent of green tea, has a potent antitumor effect, and binds specifically to the 67 kDa laminin receptor, which is overexpressed on the surface of several cancer cell lines such as HeLa and MDA-MB-231 cells. We synthesized EGCG-modified AuNPs (EGCG-AuNPs) using ratios (n_EGCG/n_gold) from 1:2 to 10:1 and evaluated their size, morphology, stability, antioxidant ability, cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, and uptake mechanisms in vitro in comparison with the conventional AuNPs prepared by using citrate as the reducing agent (citrate-AuNPs). In HeLa cells, EGCG-AuNPs (10:1) (135 nm diameter, sea-urchin-like shape) exhibited the highest cellular uptake. Conversely, EGCG-AuNPs (1:2) (39 nm diameter, spherical shape) were preferentially taken up by MDA-MB-231 cells. Cellular uptake of EGCG-AuNPs toward normal cells (NIH3T3 cells) was found to be in a nonspecific manner, and the amount of uptake was suppressed. X-ray irradiation after cellular uptake of EGCG-AuNPs (1:2) in MDA-MB-231 cells significantly enhanced irradiation-induced cell death. These findings suggest enhanced cellular uptake of EGCG-AuNPs with a 39 nm diameter and their potential use in combinatorial therapeutics of EGCG-AuNPs for breast cancer.

Modern Nanocarriers as a Factor in Increasing the Bioavailability and Pharmacological Activity of Flavonoids

This review is devoted to modern systems of nanocarriers that ensure the targeted delivery of flavonoids to various organs and systems. Flavonoids have wide range of effects on the human body due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antimicrobial, antiplatelet and other types of activity. However, the low bioavailability of flavonoids significantly limits their practical application. To overcome this disadvantage, serious efforts have been made in recent years to develop nanoscale carriers for flavonoids. This is particularly important in view of the known antitumor effect of these compounds, which allows them to target tumor cells without affecting surrounding healthy tissues. Nanocarriers provide increased penetration of biologicals into specific organs in combination with controlled and prolonged release, which markedly improves their effectiveness. This review summarizes data on the use of phytosomes, lipid-based nanoparticles, as well as polymeric and inorganic nanoparticles; their advantages and drawbacks are analyzed; the prospect of their use is discussed that opens new possibilities for the clinical application of flavonoids.

Altamimi M, Ahamad SR, S. Aldughaim M, K. Alanazi F, Kazi M. Development and Optimization of Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate (EGCG) Nano Phytosome Using Design of Experiment (DoE) and Their In Vivo Anti-Inflammatory Studies

Inflammation is responsible for the development of many diseases that make up a significant cause of death. The purpose of the study was to develop a novel nanophytosomal preparation of epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) and egg phospholipid complex that has a lower particle size with higher drug loading capability, physical stability and anti-inflammatory activities. The impact of different factors and material characteristics on the average particle size was studied along with the drug loading of phytosome using design of experiment (DoE). The in vivo anti-inflammatory study was evaluated using a rat model to investigate the performance of EGCG nanophytosome. UHPLC results showed that 500 µg of EGCG were present in 1 mL of green tea extract. SEM data exhibited that phytosome (phospholipid-drug complex) was in the nanosize range, which was further evident from TEM data. Malvern Zetasizer data showed that the average particle size of the EGCG nanophytosome was in the range of 100–250 nm. High drug loading (up to 90%) was achieved with optimum addition rate, stirring temperature and phospholipid concentration. Stability study data suggest that no significant changes were observed in average particle size and drug loading of nanophytome. The in vivo anti-inflammatory study indicated a significant anti-inflammatory activity of green tea extract, pure EGCG and its phytosomal preparations (p ≤ 0.001) against acute paw edema.

Advanced Nanovehicles-Enabled Delivery Systems of Epigallocatechin Gallate for Cancer Therapy

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the most abundant polyphenolic constituent derived from green tea extract, which has demonstrated versatile bioactivities in combating cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, and cancer. In light of its anticancer activity, increasing attention has been paid to developing potent strategies involving EGCG in cancer chemotherapy. However, the poor bioavailability and stability of EGCG limits its effectiveness and practicality in real biomedical applications. To overcome this drawback, nanotechnology-facilitated drug delivery systems have been introduced and intensively explored to enhance the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of EGCG in cancer treatments and interventions. This review briefly discusses the anticancer mechanisms of EGCG, and then summarizes recent advances in engineering nanovehicles for encapsulating and delivering EGCG toward cancer therapy. In addition, we also highlight successful integrations of EGCG delivery with other chemotherapies, gene therapies, and phototherapies in one nanostructured entity for a combination therapy of cancers. To conclude, the current challenges and future prospects of the nanovehicle-based transportation systems of EGCG for cancer therapy are also discussed.

Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate-Loaded Gold Nanoparticles: Preparation and Evaluation of Anticancer Efficacy in Ehrlich Tumor-Bearing Mice

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is a pleiotropic compound with anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. To enhance EGCG anticancer efficacy, it was loaded onto gold nanoparticles (GNPs). EGCG-GNPs were prepared by a simple green synthesis method and were evaluated using different techniques. Hemocompatibility with human blood and in vivo anticancer efficacy in Ehrlich ascites carcinoma-bearing mice were evaluated. EGCG/gold chloride molar ratio had a marked effect on the formation and properties of EGCG-GNPs where well-dispersed spherical nanoparticles were obtained at a molar ratio not more than 0.8:1. The particle size ranged from ~26 to 610 nm. High drug encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity of ~93 and 32%, respectively were obtained. When stored at 4 °C for three months, EGCG-GNPs maintained over 90% of their drug payload and had small changes in their size and zeta potential. They were non-hemolytic and had no deleterious effects on partial thromboplastin time, prothrombin time, and complement protein C3 concentration. EGCG-GNPs had significantly better in vivo anticancer efficacy compared with pristine EGCG as evidenced by smaller tumor volume and weight and higher mice body weight. These results confirm that EGCG-GNPs could serve as an efficient delivery system for EGCG with a good potential to enhance its anticancer efficacy.

Flavonoid Nanoparticles: A Promising Approach for Cancer Therapy

Flavonoids, a ubiquitous group of naturally occurring polyphenolic compounds, have recently gained importance as anticancer agents. Unfortunately, due to low solubility, absorption, and rapid metabolism of dietary flavonoids, their anticancer potential is not sufficient. Nanocarriers can improve the bioavailability of flavonoids. In this review we aimed to evaluate studies on the anticancer activity of flavonoid nanoparticles. A review of English language articles published until 30 June 2020 was conducted, using PubMed (including MEDLINE), CINAHL Plus, Cochrane, and Web of Science data. Most studies determining the anticancer properties of flavonoid nanoparticles are preclinical. The potential anticancer activity focuses mainly on MCF-7 breast cancer cells, A549 lung cancer cells, HepG2 liver cancer cells, and melanoma cells. The flavonoid nanoparticles can also support the anti-tumour effect of drugs used in cancer therapy by enhancing the anti-tumour effect or reducing the systemic toxicity of drugs.

The Development of Hyaluronan/Fucoidan-Based Nanoparticles as Macrophages Targeting an Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate Delivery System

The aim of this study was to develop a macrophage-targeted nanoparticle composed of hyaluronan/fucoidan complexes with polyethylene glycol-gelatin to encapsulate and deliver epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a compound that can regulate macrophage activation and pro-inflammatory mediator production. We show that our nanoparticles can successfully bond to macrophages and deliver more EGCG than an EGCG solution treatment, confirming the anti-inflammatory effects of these nanoparticles in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages. The prepared nanoparticles were established with a small mean particle size (217.00 ± 14.00 nm), an acceptable polydispersity index (0.28 ± 0.07), an acceptable zeta potential value (-33.60 ± 1.30 mV), and a high EGCG loading efficiency (52.08% ± 5.37%). The targeting abilities of CD44 binding were increased as the hyaluronan concentration increased and decreased by adding a competitor CD44 antibody. Moreover, we found that fucoidan treatment significantly reduced macrophage migration after lipopolysaccharide treatment in a dose-responsive manner. In summary, we successfully created macrophage-targeted nanoparticles for effective targeted delivery of EGCG, which should aid in the development of future anti-inflammatory drugs against macrophage-related diseases.

EGCG Mediated Targeting of Deregulated Signaling Pathways and Non-Coding RNAs in Different Cancers: Focus on JAK/STAT, Wnt/β-Catenin, TGF/SMAD, NOTCH, SHH/GLI, and TRAIL Mediated Signaling Pathways

Decades of research have enabled us to develop a better and sharper understanding of multifaceted nature of cancer. Next-generation sequencing technologies have leveraged our existing knowledge related to intra- and inter-tumor heterogeneity to the next level. Functional genomics have opened new horizons to explore deregulated signaling pathways in different cancers. Therapeutic targeting of deregulated oncogenic signaling cascades by products obtained from natural sources has shown promising results. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) has emerged as a distinguished chemopreventive product because of its ability to regulate a myriad of oncogenic signaling pathways. Based on its scientifically approved anticancer activity and encouraging results obtained from preclinical trials, it is also being tested in various phases of clinical trials. A series of clinical trials associated with green tea extracts and EGCG are providing clues about significant potential of EGCG to mechanistically modulate wide ranging signal transduction cascades. In this review, we comprehensively analyzed regulation of JAK/STAT, Wnt/β-catenin, TGF/SMAD, SHH/GLI, NOTCH pathways by EGCG. We also discussed most recent evidence related to the ability of EGCG to modulate non-coding RNAs in different cancers. Methylation of the genome is also a widely studied mechanism and EGCG has been shown to modulate DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) and protein enhancer of zeste-2 (EZH2) in multiple cancers. Moreover, the use of nanoformulations to increase the bioavailability and thus efficacy of EGCG will be also addressed. Better understanding of the pleiotropic abilities of EGCG to modulate intracellular pathways along with the development of effective EGCG delivery vehicles will be helpful in getting a step closer to individualized medicines.

Advanced Nanovehicles-Enabled Delivery Systems of Epigallocatechin Gallate for Cancer Therapy

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the most abundant polyphenolic constituent derived from green tea extract, which has demonstrated versatile bioactivities in combating cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, and cancer. In light of its anticancer activity, increasing attention has been paid to developing potent strategies involving EGCG in cancer chemotherapy. However, the poor bioavailability and stability of EGCG limits its effectiveness and practicality in real biomedical applications. To overcome this drawback, nanotechnology-facilitated drug delivery systems have been introduced and intensively explored to enhance the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of EGCG in cancer treatments and interventions. This review briefly discusses the anticancer mechanisms of EGCG, and then summarizes recent advances in engineering nanovehicles for encapsulating and delivering EGCG toward cancer therapy. In addition, we also highlight successful integrations of EGCG delivery with other chemotherapies, gene therapies, and phototherapies in one nanostructured entity for a combination therapy of cancers. To conclude, the current challenges and future prospects of the nanovehicle-based transportation systems of EGCG for cancer therapy are also discussed.

Pharmaceutical Topical Delivery of Poorly Soluble Polyphenols: Potential Role in Prevention and Treatment of Melanoma

Melanoma is regarded as the fifth and sixth most common cancer in men and women, respectively, and it is estimated that one person dies from melanoma every hour in the USA. Unfortunately, the treatment of melanoma is difficult because of its aggressive metastasis and resistance to treatment. The treatment of melanoma continues to be a challenging issue due to the limitations of available treatments such as a low response rate, severe adverse reactions, and significant toxicity. Natural polyphenols have attracted considerable attention from the scientific community due to their chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic efficacy. It has been suggested that poorly soluble polyphenols such as curcumin, resveratrol, quercetin, coumarin, and epigallocatechin-3-gallate may have significant benefits in the treatment of melanoma due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and chemoprotective efficacies. The major obstacles for the use of polyphenolic compounds are low stability and poor bioavailability. Numerous nanoformulations, including solid lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, micelles, and liposomes, have been formulated to enhance the bioavailability and stability, as well as the therapeutic efficacy of polyphenols. This review will provide an overview of poorly soluble polyphenols that have been reported to have antimetastatic efficacy in melanomas.

Gold nanoparticles in chemo-, immuno-, and combined therapy: review [Invited]

Functionalized gold nanoparticles (GNPs) with controlled geometrical and optical properties have been the subject of intense research and biomedical applications. This review summarizes recent data and topical problems in nanomedicine that are related to the use of variously sized, shaped, and structured GNPs. We focus on three topical fields in current nanomedicine: (1) use of GNP-based nanoplatforms for the targeted delivery of anticancer and antimicrobial drugs and of genes; (2) GNP-based cancer immunotherapy; and (3) combined chemo-, immuno-, and phototherapy. We present a summary of the available literature data and a short discussion of future work.

Ethanolic Extract of Senna velutina Roots: Chemical Composition, In Vitro and In Vivo Antitumor Effects, and B16F10-Nex2 Melanoma Cell Death Mechanisms

Cutaneous melanoma is among the most aggressive types of cancer, and its rate of occurrence increases every year. Current pharmacological treatments for melanoma are not completely effective, requiring the identification of new drugs. As an alternative, plant-derived natural compounds are described as promising sources of new anticancer drugs. In this context, the objectives of this study were to identify the chemical composition of the ethanolic extract of Senna velutina roots (ESVR), to assess its in vitro and in vivo antitumor effects on melanoma cells, and to characterize its mechanisms of action. For these purposes, the chemical constituents were identified by liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry. The in vitro activity of the extract was assessed in the B16F10-Nex2 melanoma cell line using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and based on the apoptotic cell count; DNA fragmentation; necrostatin-1 inhibition; intracellular calcium, pan-caspase, and caspase-3 activation; reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels; and cell cycle arrest. The in vivo activity of the extract was assessed in models of tumor volume progression and pulmonary nodule formation in C57Bl/6 mice. The chemical composition results showed that ESVR contains flavonoid derivatives of the catechin, anthraquinone, and piceatannol groups. The extract reduced B16F10-Nex2 cell viability and promoted apoptotic cell death as well as caspase-3 activation, with increased intracellular calcium and ROS levels as well as cell cycle arrest at the sub-G0/G1 phase. In vivo, the tumor volume progression and pulmonary metastasis of ESVR-treated mice decreased over 50%. Combined, these results show that ESVR had in vitro and in vivo antitumor effects, predominantly by apoptosis, thus demonstrating its potential as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of melanoma and other types of cancer.

Nanochemoprevention with therapeutic benefits: An updated review focused on epigallocatechin gallate delivery

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is a natural phenolic compound found in many plants, especially in green tea, which is a popular and restorative beverage with many claimed health benefits such as antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-microbial, anti-diabetic, and anti-obesity activities. Despite its great curative potential, the poor bioavailability of EGCG restricts its clinical applcation. However, nanoformulations of EGCG are emerging as new alternatives to traditional formulations. This review focuses on the nanochemopreventive applications of various EGCG nanoparticles such as lipid-based, polymer-based, carbohydrate-based, protein-based, and metal-based nanoparticles. EGCG hybridized with these nanocarriers is capable of achieving advanced functions such as targeted release, active targeting, and enhanced penetration, ultimately increasing the bioavailability of EGCG. In addition, this review also summarizes the challenges for the use of EGCG in therapeutic applications, and suggests future directions for progress.

Therapeutic Potential of Epigallocatechin Gallate Nanodelivery Systems

Nowadays, the society is facing a large health problem with the rising of new diseases, including cancer, heart diseases, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and obesity. Thus, it is important to invest in substances that enhance the health of the population. In this context, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is a flavonoid found in many plants, especially in tea. Several studies support the notion that EGCG has several benefits in fighting cancer, heart diseases, diabetes, and obesity, among others. Nevertheless, the poor intestinal absorbance and instability of EGCG constitute the main drawback to use this molecule in prevention and therapy. The encapsulation of EGCG in nanocarriers leads to its enhanced stability and higher therapeutic effects. A comprehensive review of studies currently available on the encapsulation of EGCG by means of nanocarriers will be addressed.

Improving In Vivo Efficacy of Bioactive Molecules: An Overview of Potentially Antitumor Phytochemicals and Currently Available Lipid-Based Delivery Systems

Cancer is among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Many of the chemotherapeutic agents used in cancer treatment exhibit cell toxicity and display teratogenic effect on nontumor cells. Therefore, the search for alternative compounds which are effective against tumor cells but reduce toxicity against nontumor ones is of great importance in the progress or development of cancer treatments. In this sense, scientific knowledge about relevant aspects of nutrition intimately involved in the development and progression of cancer progresses rapidly. Phytochemicals, considered as bioactive ingredients present in plant products, have shown promising effects as potential therapeutic/preventive agents on cancer in several in vitro and in vivo assays. However, despite their bioactive properties, phytochemicals are still not commonly used in clinical practice due to several reasons, mainly attributed to their poor bioavailability. In this sense, new formulation strategies are proposed as carriers to improve their bioefficacy, highlighting the use of lipid-based delivery systems. Here, we review the potential antitumoral activity of the bioactive compounds derived from plants and the current studies carried out in animal and human models. Furthermore, their association with lipids as a formulation strategy to enhance their efficacy in vivo is also reported. The development of high effective bioactive supplements for cancer treatment based on the improvement of their bioavailability goes through this association.

Epigallocatechin Gallate Nanodelivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Cancer is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality all over the world. Conventional treatments, such as chemotherapy, are generally expensive, highly toxic and lack efficiency. Cancer chemoprevention using phytochemicals is emerging as a promising approach for the treatment of early carcinogenic processes. (−)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is the major bioactive constituent in green tea with numerous health benefits including anti-cancer activity, which has been intensively studied. Besides its potential for chemoprevention, EGCG has also been shown to synergize with common anti-cancer agents, which makes it a suitable adjuvant in chemotherapy. However, limitations in terms of stability and bioavailability have hampered its application in clinical settings. Nanotechnology may have an important role in improving the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics of EGCG. Indeed, several studies have already reported the use of nanoparticles as delivery vehicles of EGCG for cancer therapy. The aim of this article is to discuss the EGCG molecule and its associated health benefits, particularly its anti-cancer activity and provide an overview of the studies that have employed nanotechnology strategies to enhance EGCG’s properties and potentiate its anti-tumoral activity.

Preparation of catechin extracts and nanoemulsions from green tea leaf waste and their inhibition effect on prostate cancer cell PC-3

Green tea is one of the most commonly consumed natural health beverages in Taiwan’s market, with the major functional component catechin being shown to possess several biological activities such as antioxidation, anticancer, and prevention of cardiovascular disease. The objectives of this study were to develop a high-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry method to determine the variety and content of catechins in green tea leaf waste, a by-product obtained during processing of tea beverage. In addition, catechin nanoemulsion was prepared to study its inhibition effect on prostate cancer cell PC-3. Results showed that a total of eight catechin standards were separated within 25 minutes by using a Gemini C18 column and a gradient mobile phase of 0.1% formic acid (A) and acetonitrile (B) with flow rate at 1 mL/min, column temperature at 30°C, and detection wavelength at 280 nm. Among various extraction solvents, 50% ethanol generated the highest yield of total catechins from tea leaf waste, of which five catechins were identified and quantified. The catechin nanoemulsion was composed of catechin extract, lecithin, Tween 80, and deionized water in an appropriate proportion, with the mean particle size being 11.45 nm, encapsulation efficiency 88.1%, and zeta potential −66.3 mV. A high stability of catechin nanoemulsion was shown over a storage period of 120 days at 4°C. Both catechin extract and nanoemulsion could inhibit growth of PC-3 tumor cells, with the half maximal inhibitory concentration being 15.4 μg/mL and 8.5 μg/mL, respectively. The PC-3 cell cycle was arrested at S phase through elevation of P27 expression and decline of cyclin A, cyclin B, cyclin-dependent kinase 2, and cyclin-dependent kinase 1 expression. In addition, both catechin extract and nanoemulsion could induce apoptosis of PC-3 cells through decrease in B-cell lymphoma 2 (bcl-2) expression and increase in cytochrome c expression for activation of caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9. Taken together, both caspase-dependent and caspase-independent pathways may be involved in apoptosis of PC-3 cells.

Molecular mechanisms of flavonoids in melanin synthesis and the potential for the prevention and treatment of melanoma

Flavonoids are becoming popular nutraceuticals. Different flavonoids show similar or distinct biological effects on different tissues or cell types, which may limit or define their usefulness in cancer prevention and/or treatment application. This review focuses on a few selected flavonoids and discusses their functions in normal and transformed pigment cells, including cyanidin, apigenin, genistein, fisetin, EGCG, luteolin, baicalein, quercetin and kaempferol. Flavonoids exhibit melanogenic or anti-melanogenic effects mainly via transcriptional factor MiTF and/or the melanogenesis enzymes tyrosinase, DCT or TYRP-1. To identify a direct target has been a challenge as most studies were not able to discriminate whether the effect(s) of the flavonoid were from direct targeting or represented indirect effects. Flavonoids exhibit an anti-melanoma effect via inhibiting cell proliferation and invasion and inducing apoptosis. The mechanisms are also multi-fold, via ROS-scavenging, immune-modulation, cell cycle regulation and epigenetic modification including DNA methylation and histone deacetylation. In summary, although many flavonoid compounds are extremely promising nutraceuticals, their detailed molecular mechanism and their multi-target (simultaneously targeting multiple molecules) nature warrant further investigation before advancement to translational studies or clinical trials.

Laminin Receptor-Avid Nanotherapeutic EGCg-AuNPs as a Potential Alternative Therapeutic Approach to Prevent Restenosis

In our efforts to develop new approaches to treat and prevent human vascular diseases, we report herein our results on the proliferation and migration of human smooth muscles cells (SMCs) and endothelial cells (ECs) using epigallocatechin-3-gallate conjugated gold nanoparticles (EGCg-AuNPs) as possible alternatives to drug coated stents. Detailed in vitro stability studies of EGCg-AuNPs in various biological fluids, affinity and selectivity towards SMCs and ECs have been investigated. The EGCg-AuNPs showed selective inhibitory efficacy toward the migration of SMCs. However, the endothelial cells remained unaffected under similar experimental conditions. The cellular internalization studies have indicated that EGCg-AuNPs internalize into the SMCs and ECs within short periods of time through laminin receptor mediated endocytosis mode. Favorable toxicity profiles and selective affinity toward SMCs and ECs suggest that EGCg-AuNPs may provide attractive alternatives to drug coated stents and therefore offer new therapeutic approaches in treating cardiovascular diseases.

Recent trends in the development of nanophytobioactive compounds and delivery systems for their possible role in reducing oxidative stress in Parkinson's disease models

Oxidative stress plays a very critical role in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease (PD), which is the second most common neurodegenerative disease among elderly people worldwide. Increasing evidence has suggested that phytobioactive compounds show enhanced benefits in cell and animal models of PD. Curcumin, resveratrol, ginsenosides, quercetin, and catechin are phyto-derived bioactive compounds with important roles in the prevention and treatment of PD. However, in vivo studies suggest that their concentrations are very low to cross blood-brain barrier thereby it limits bioavailability, stability, and dissolution at target sites in the brain. To overcome these problems, nanophytomedicine with the controlled size of 1-100 nm is used to maximize efficiency in the treatment of PD. Nanosizing of phytobioactive compounds enhances the permeability into the brain with maximized efficiency and stability. Several nanodelivery techniques, including solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanoliposomes, and nanoniosomes can be used for controlled delivery of nanobioactive compounds to brain. Nanocompounds, such as ginsenosides (19.9 nm) synthesized using a nanoemulsion technique, showed enhanced bioavailability in the rat brain. Here, we discuss the most recent trends and applications in PD, including 1) the role of phytobioactive compounds in reducing oxidative stress and their bioavailability; 2) the role of nanotechnology in reducing oxidative stress during PD; 3) nanodelivery systems; and 4) various nanophytobioactive compounds and their role in PD.

Green tea polyphenols and their potential role in health and disease

There is a growing body of evidence that plant polyphenols such as resveratrol, anthocyanins, catechins, and terpenes like taxol are effectively used in the treatment of chronic conditions including cancer, Alzheimer, Parkinsonism, diabetes, aging, etc. The link between oxidative stress and inflammation is well accepted. Thus, the mechanism of action of these natural products is partly believed to be through their significant antioxidant properties. The main constituent of green tea, with clinical significance, is epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). It has been associated with antitumor, anti-Alzheimer, and anti-aging properties, improve redox status at the tissue level possibly preventing system level structural damage. This review focuses on EGCG and its potential therapeutic role in health and disease.

Anti-cancer effects of enteric-coated polymers containing mistletoe lectin in murine melanoma cells in vitro and in vivo

In this study, we evaluated the effects of Korean mistletoe (Viscum album L. var. coloratum) coated with a biodegradable polymer (Eudragit(®)) wall on the growth of mouse melanoma in vivo. Oral administration of 4% (430 mg/kg/day) enteric-coated mistletoe resulted in a significant reduction in tumor volume on day 14 compared to the negative control group in B16F10 melanoma-inoculated BDF1 mice. When we measured the survival rate, enteric-coated mistletoe-received mice had a higher survival rate after day 12. Also, we investigated the mechanism involving the cancer cell growth inhibition when melanoma cells were treated with Korean mistletoe lectin (Viscum album L. var. coloratum agglutinin, VCA) and its extract in vitro. As a result, a significant G0/G1 arrest was observed in both B16BL6 and B16F10 melanoma cells with VCA or mistletoe extract. In addition, VCA or mistletoe extract induced an increase in both early and late apoptosis in cells. When we studied the molecular mechanism, our results showed that VCA and mistletoe extract can increase activated multiple caspases (caspase-1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9), dose-dependently. We also found out that VCA and mistletoe treatment causes a significant decrease in the expression of procaspase-3 and 8.