Spermidine-mediated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles containing fluorofenidone for the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Revolutionizing the Treatment of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis: From Conventional Therapies to Advanced Drug Delivery Systems

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic and progressive interstitial lung disease that has been well-reported in the medical literature. Its incidence has risen, particularly in light of the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Conventionally, IPF is treated with antifibrotic drugs-pirfenidone and nintedanib-along with other drugs for symptomatic treatments, including corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and bronchodilators based on individual requirements. Several drugs and biologicals such as fluorofenidone, thymoquinone, amikacin, paclitaxel nifuroxazide, STAT3, and siRNA have recently been evaluated for IPF treatment that reduces collagen formation and cell proliferation in the lung. There has been a great deal of research into various treatment options for pulmonary fibrosis using advanced delivery systems such as liposomal-based nanocarriers, chitosan nanoparticles, PLGA nanoparticles, solid lipid nanocarriers, and other nanoformulations such as metal nanoparticles, nanocrystals, cubosomes, magnetic nanospheres, and polymeric micelles. Several clinical trials are also ongoing for advanced IPF treatments. This article elaborates on the pathophysiology of IPF, its risk factors, and different advanced drug delivery systems for treating IPF. Although extensive preclinical data is available for these delivery systems, the clinical performance and scale-up studies would decide their commercial translation.

Emerging delivery approaches for targeted pulmonary fibrosis treatment

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a progressive, and life-threatening interstitial lung disease which causes scarring in the lung parenchyma and thereby affects architecture and functioning of lung. It is an irreversible damage to lung functioning which is related to epithelial cell injury, immense accumulation of immune cells and inflammatory cytokines, and irregular recruitment of extracellular matrix. The inflammatory cytokines trigger the differentiation of fibroblasts into activated fibroblasts, also known as myofibroblasts, which further increase the production and deposition of collagen at the injury sites in the lung. Despite the significant morbidity and mortality associated with PF, there is no available treatment that efficiently and effectively treats the disease by reversing their underlying pathologies. In recent years, many therapeutic regimens, for instance, rho kinase inhibitors, Smad signaling pathway inhibitors, p38, BCL-xL/ BCL-2 and JNK pathway inhibitors, have been found to be potent and effective in treating PF, in preclinical stages. However, due to non-selectivity and non-specificity, the therapeutic molecules also result in toxicity mediated severe side effects. Hence, this review demonstrates recent advances on PF pathology, mechanism and targets related to PF, development of various drug delivery systems based on small molecules, RNAs, oligonucleotides, peptides, antibodies, exosomes, and stem cells for the treatment of PF and the progress of various therapeutic treatments in clinical trials to advance PF treatment.

Inhalation Lenalidomide-Loaded Liposome for Bleomycin-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis Improvement

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive, fibrotic interstitial lung disease with unclear etiology and increasing prevalence. Pulmonary administration can make the drug directly reach the lung lesion location and reduce systemic toxic and side effects. The effectiveness of lenalidomide (Len) liposomal lung delivery in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis was investigated. Len liposomes (Len-Lip) were prepared from soybean lecithin, cholesterol (Chol), and medicine in different weight ratios by thin film hydration method. The Len-Lip were spherical in shape with an average size of 226.7 ± 1.389 nm. The liposomes with a higher negative zeta potential of around - 34 mV, which was conducive to improving stability by repelling each other. The drug loading and encapsulation rate were 2.42 ± 0.07% and 85.47 ± 2.42%. Len-Lip had little toxicity at the cellular level and were well taken up by cells. At bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis model mice, inhalation Len-Lip could improve lung function and decrease lung hydroxyproline contents, and alleviate pulmonary fibrosis state. Inhalation Len-Lip provided a reference for the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.

Pulmonary Fibrosis: Unveiling the Pathogenesis, Exploring Therapeutic Targets, and Advancements in Drug Delivery Strategies

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is an ailment with no cure and a very high rate of progression that ultimately leads to death. The exact reason for this disease is still not acknowledged. Many underlying mechanisms of wound healing and various types of stimuli that trigger the pathogenesis of IPF continue to be intensively explored. The exact therapy for the reversal of this disease is not yet known and is constantly in progress. Existing treatments only slow down the process or mitigate the symptoms to enhance the patient's healthcare system. The only two Food and Drug Administration-approved oral medications include pirfenidone and nintedanib whose high dose and systemic circulation can have side effects to a greater extent. Further research on restorative and extra-curative therapies for IPF is necessary due to the absence of viable therapeutic choices. To assure minimum off-targeted site delivery and longer duration of action, techniques that offer a sustainable release of the drug, better bioavailability, and patient compliance can be used.The work is an overview of the main therapeutic targets and pertinent developing therapies for the management of IPF. This study is an attempt to focus on various drug delivery systems that are responsible for showing effectiveness in defense mechanisms against IPF.

Novel drug delivery systems and disease models for pulmonary fibrosis

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a serious and progressive lung disease which is possibly life-threatening. It causes lung scarring and affects lung functions including epithelial cell injury, massive recruitment of immune cells and abnormal accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM). There is currently no cure for PF. Treatment for PF is aimed at slowing the course of the disease and relieving symptoms. Pirfenidone (PFD) and nintedanib (NDNB) are currently the only two FDA-approved oral medicines to slow down the progress of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, a specific type of PF. Novel drug delivery systems and therapies have been developed to improve the prognosis of the disease, as well as reduce or minimize the toxicities during drug treatment. The drug delivery routes for these therapies are various including oral, intravenous, nasal, inhalant, intratracheal and transdermal; although this is dependent on specific treatment mechanisms. In addition, researchers have also expanded current animal models that could not fully restore the clinicopathology, and developed a series of in vitro models such as organoids to study the pathogenesis and treatment of PF. This review describes recent advances on pathogenesis exploration, classifies and specifies the progress of drug delivery systems by their delivery routes, as well as an overview on the in vitro and in vivo models for PF research.

Treating Pulmonary Fibrosis with Non-Viral Gene Therapy: From Bench to Bedside

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic, progressive lung disease characterized by irreversible lung scarring, which achieves almost 80% five-year mortality rate. Undeniably, commercially available pharmaceuticals, such as pirfenidone and nintedanib, exhibit certain effects on improving the well-being of IPF patients, but the stubbornly high mortality still indicates a great urgency of developing superior therapeutics against this devastating disease. As an emerging strategy, gene therapy brings hope for the treatment of IPF by precisely regulating the expression of specific genes. However, traditional administration approaches based on viruses severely restrict the clinical application of gene therapy. Nowadays, non-viral vectors are raised as potential strategies for in vivo gene delivery, attributed to their low immunogenicity and excellent biocompatibility. Herein, we highlight a variety of non-viral vectors, such as liposomes, polymers, and proteins/peptides, which are employed in the treatment of IPF. By respectively clarifying the strengths and weaknesses of the above candidates, we would like to summarize the requisite features of vectors for PF gene therapy and provide novel perspectives on design-decisions of the subsequent vectors, hoping to accelerate the bench-to-bedside pace of non-viral gene therapy for IPF in clinical setting.

Nanotechnology-based therapeutics for targeting inflammatory lung diseases

The physiochemical properties of drugs used in treating inflammation-associated lung diseases (i.e., asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pulmonary fibrosis) play an important role in determining the effectiveness of formulations. Most commonly used drugs are associated with low solubility, low stability and rapid clearance, thus resulting in low bioavailability and therapeutic index. This review focuses on current trends and development of drugs (i.e., corticosteroids, long-acting β-agonists and biomacromolecules such as DNA, siRNA and mRNA) employed to treat inflammatory lung diseases. In addition, this review includes the current challenges of and future perspective with regard to nanotechnology in the treatment of inflammatory lung diseases.

Broad-Spectrum Theranostics and Biomedical Application of Functionalized Nanomaterials

Nanotechnology is an important branch of science in therapies known as “nanomedicine” and is the junction of various fields such as material science, chemistry, biology, physics, and optics. Nanomaterials are in the range between 1 and 100 nm in size and provide a large surface area to volume ratio; thus, they can be used for various diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, cancer, bacterial infections, and diabetes. Nanoparticles play a crucial role in therapy as they can enhance the accumulation and release of pharmacological agents, improve targeted delivery and ultimately decrease the intensity of drug side effects. In this review, we discussthe types of nanomaterials that have various biomedical applications. Biomolecules that are often conjugated with nanoparticles are proteins, peptides, DNA, and lipids, which can enhance biocompatibility, stability, and solubility. In this review, we focus on bioconjugation and nanoparticles and also discuss different types of nanoparticles including micelles, liposomes, carbon nanotubes, nanospheres, dendrimers, quantum dots, and metallic nanoparticles and their crucial role in various diseases and clinical applications. Additionally, we review the use of nanomaterials for bio-imaging, drug delivery, biosensing tissue engineering, medical devices, and immunoassays. Understandingthe characteristics and properties of nanoparticles and their interactions with the biological system can help us to develop novel strategies for the treatment, prevention, and diagnosis of many diseases including cancer, pulmonary diseases, etc. In this present review, the importance of various kinds of nanoparticles and their biomedical applications are discussed in much detail.

Recent Advances in Fluorescence Imaging of Pulmonary Fibrosis in Animal Models

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a lung disease that may cause impaired gas exchange and respiratory failure while being difficult to treat. Rapid, sensitive, and accurate detection of lung tissue and cell changes is essential for the effective diagnosis and treatment of PF. Currently, the commonly-used high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) imaging has been challenging to distinguish early PF from other pathological processes in the lung structure. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) using hyperpolarized gases is hampered by the higher cost to become a routine diagnostic tool. As a result, the development of new PF imaging technologies may be a promising solution. Here, we summarize and discuss recent advances in fluorescence imaging as a talented optical technique for the diagnosis and evaluation of PF, including collagen imaging, oxidative stress, inflammation, and PF-related biomarkers. The design strategies of the probes for fluorescence imaging (including multimodal imaging) of PF are briefly described, which can provide new ideas for the future PF-related imaging research. It is hoped that this review will promote the translation of fluorescence imaging into a clinically usable assay in PF.

Emerging drug delivery strategies for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis treatment

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a debilitating and fatal condition that causes severe scarring of the lungs. While the pathogenesis of IPF continues to be extensively studied and several factors have been considered, an exact cause has yet to be established. With inadequate treatment options and no cure available, overall disease prognosis is still poor. Existing oral therapies, pirfenidone and nintedanib, may attempt to improve the patients' quality of life by mitigating symptoms and slowing disease progression, however chronic doses and systemic deliveries of these drugs can lead to severe side effects. The lack of effective treatment options calls for further investigation of restorative as well as additional palliative therapies for IPF. Nanoparticle-based sustained drug delivery strategies can be utilized to ensure targeted delivery for site-specific treatment as well as long-acting therapy, improving overall patient compliance. This review provides an update on promising strategies for the delivery of anti-fibrotic agents, along with an overview of key therapeutic targets as well as relevant emerging therapies currently being evaluated for IPF treatment.

Fluorofenidone attenuates paraquat‑induced pulmonary fibrosis by regulating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway and autophagy

Paraquat (PQ) is a widely used herbicide that is severely toxic to humans and animals. Pulmonary fibrosis is a disorder that can result from PQ poisoning. Fluorofenidone (AKF‑PD) is a novel small molecule pyridone drug with a widespread and clear anti‑organ fibrosis effect; however, its mechanism of action on PQ poisoning‑induced pulmonary fibrosis is not clear. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the protective effect and underlying mechanism of AKF‑PD on PQ poisoning‑induced pulmonary fibrosis. Human alveolar epithelial cells (HPAEpiC) and Sprague‑Dawley rats were treated with AKF‑PD in the presence or absence of PQ. Hematoxylin‑eosin and Masson staining were used to observe the morphological changes in lung tissue. Cell Counting Kit‑8 and lactate dehydrogenase assays were used to evaluate the viability of HPAEpiC cells. ELISA was used to detect inflammatory factors and the collagen content. Finally, the effects of AKF‑PD on pulmonary fibrosis, as well as the underlying mechanisms, were evaluated via western blotting, reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and immunofluorescence analysis. AKF‑PD effectively alleviated PQ‑induced pulmonary fibrosis and reduced the expression of oxidative stress and inflammatory factors. Moreover, AKF‑PD treatment effectively inhibited the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway and upregulated autophagy. Overall, these findings suggested that AKF‑PD can alleviate PQ‑induced inflammation and pulmonary fibrosis by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway and by upregulating autophagy.

Afatinib-loaded inhalable PLGA nanoparticles for localized therapy of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)-development and in-vitro efficacy

Afatinib (AFA) is a potent aniline-quinazoline derivative, approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2013, as a first-line treatment for metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, its clinical application is highly limited by its poor solubility, and consequently low bioavailability. We hypothesize that loading of AFA into biodegradable PLGA nanoparticles for localized inhalational drug delivery will be instrumental in improving therapeutic outcomes in NSCLC patients. Formulated AFA nanoparticles (AFA-NP) were evaluated for physicochemical properties (particle size: 180.2 ± 15.6 nm, zeta potential: - 23.1 ± 0.2 mV, % entrapment efficiency: 34.4 ± 2.3%), formulation stability, in-vitro aerosol deposition behavior, and anticancer efficacy. Stability studies revealed the physicochemical stability of AFA-NP. Moreover, AFA-NP exhibited excellent inhalable properties (mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD): 4.7 ± 0.1 μm; fine particle fraction (FPF): 77.8 ± 4.3%), indicating efficient particle deposition in deep lung regions. With respect to in-vitro drug release, AFA-NP showed sustained drug release with cumulative release of 56.8 ± 6.4% after 48 h. Cytotoxic studies revealed that encapsulation of AFA into PLGA nanoparticles significantly enhanced its cytotoxic potential in KRAS-mutated NSCLC cell lines (A549, H460). Cellular uptake studies revealed enhanced internalization of coumarin-loaded nanoparticles compared to plain coumarin in A549. In addition, 3D tumor spheroid studies demonstrated superior efficacy of AFA-NP in tumor penetration and growth inhibition. To conclude, we have established in-vitro efficacy of afatinib-loaded PLGA nanoparticles as inhalable NSCLC therapy, which will be of great significance when designing preclinical and clinical studies. Graphical abstract.

Effect of Fluorofenidone Against Paraquat-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis Based on Metabolomics and Network Pharmacology

BACKGROUND Fluorofenidone (AKF-PD) is an anti-fibrotic small-molecule compound. Its mechanism of action on paraquat (PQ)-induced pulmonary fibrosis is still unclear. MATERIAL AND METHODS Forty-eight SD rats were divided into 4 groups: control group, PQ group, PQ+AKF-PD group, and AKF-PD group. The pathological changes of lung tissues were observed by Masson and HE staining. The UPLC-QTOF-MS analysis was performed to detect the differences in metabolites among groups, then the possible mechanisms of the anti-pulmonary fibrosis effects of fluorofenidone were further revealed by network pharmacology analysis. Biological methods were used to verify the results of the network pharmacology analysis. RESULTS The results showed that fluorofenidone treatment significantly alleviated paraquat-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Metabolomics analysis showed that 18 metabolites were disordered in the serum of paraquat-poisoned rats, of which 13 were restored following fluorofenidone treatment. Network pharmacology analysis showed that the drug screened a total of 12 targets and mainly involved multiple signaling pathways and metabolic pathways to jointly exert anti-pulmonary fibrosis effects. Autophagy is the main pathway of fluorofenidone in treatment pulmonary fibrosis. The western blot results showed that fluorofenidone upregulated the expression of LC3-II/I and E-cadherin, and downregulated the expression of p62, alpha-SMA, and TGF-ß1, which validated that fluorofenidone could inhibit the development of paraquat-induced pulmonary fibrosis by increasing autophagy. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, metabolomics combined with network pharmacology research strategy revealed that fluorofenidone has a multi-target and multi-path mechanism of action in the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis.

Tailoring of silica-based nanoporous pod by spermidine multi-activity

Ubiquitous in nature, polyamines (PAs) are a class of low-molecular aliphatic amines critically involved in cell growth, survival and differentiation. The polycation behavior is validated as a successful strategy in delivery systems to enhance oligonucleotide loading and cellular uptake. In this study, the chemical features and the functional roles of the PA spermidine are synergistically exploited in the synthesis and bioactive functionalization of SiO2-based structures. Inspired by biosilicification, the role of spermidine is assessed both as catalyst and template in a biomimetic one-pot synthesis of dense silica-based particles (SPs) and as a competitive agent in an interfacial reassembly strategy, to empty out SPs and generate spermidine-decorated hollow silica nanoporous pods (spd-SNPs). Spermidine bioactivity is then employed for targeting tumor cell over-expressed polyamine transport system (PTS) and for effective delivery of functional miRNA into melanoma cells. Spermidine decoration promotes spd-SNP cell internalization mediated by PTS and along with hollow structure enhances oligonucleotide loading. Accordingly, the functional delivery of the tumor suppressor miR-34a 3p resulted in intracellular accumulation of histone-complexed DNA fragments associated with apoptosis. Overall, the results highlight the potential of spd-SNP as a multi-agent anticancer therapy.

The Potential of Frog Skin Peptides for Anti-Infective Therapies: The Case of Esculentin-1a(1-21)NH2

Antimicrobial Peptides (AMPs) are the key effectors of the innate immunity and represent promising molecules for the development of new antibacterial drugs. However, to achieve this goal, some problems need to be overcome: (i) the cytotoxic effects at high concentrations; (ii) the poor biostability and (iii) the difficulty in reaching the target site. Frog skin is one of the richest natural storehouses of AMPs, and over the years, many peptides have been isolated from it, characterized and classified into several families encompassing temporins, brevinins, nigrocins and esculentins. In this review, we summarized how the isolation/characterization of peptides belonging to the esculentin-1 family drove us to the design of an analogue, i.e. esculentin-1a(1-21)NH2, with a powerful antimicrobial action and immunomodulatory properties. The peptide had a wide spectrum of activity, especially against the opportunistic Gram-negative bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We described the structural features and the in vitro/in vivo biological characterization of this peptide as well as the strategies used to improve its biological properties. Among them: (i) the design of a diastereomer carrying Damino acids in order to reduce the peptide's cytotoxicity and improve its half-life; (ii) the covalent conjugation of the peptide to gold nanoparticles or its encapsulation into poly(lactide- co-glycolide) nanoparticles; and (iii) the peptide immobilization to biomedical devices (such as silicon hydrogel contact lenses) to obtain an antibacterial surface able to reduce microbial growth and attachment. Summing up the best results obtained so far, this review traces all the steps that led these frog-skin AMPs to the direction of peptide-based drugs for clinical use.

Targeting neutrophils using novel drug delivery systems in chronic respiratory diseases

Neutrophils are essential effector cells of immune system for clearing the extracellular pathogens during inflammation and immune reactions. Neutrophils play a major role in chronic respiratory diseases. In respiratory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cystic fibrosis, lung cancer and others, there occurs extreme infiltration and activation of neutrophils followed by a cascade of events like oxidative stress and dysregulated cellular proteins that eventually result in apoptosis and tissue damage. Dysregulation of neutrophil effector functions including delayed neutropil apoptosis, increased neutrophil extracellular traps in the pathogenesis of asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease enable neutrophils as a potential therapeutic target. Accounting to their role in pathogenesis, neutrophils present as an excellent therapeutic target for the treatment of chronic respiratory diseases. This review highlights the current status and the emerging trends in novel drug delivery systems such as nanoparticles, liposomes, microspheres, and other newer nanosystems that can target neutrophils and their molecular pathways, in the airways against infections, inflammation, and cancer. These drug delivery systems are promising in providing sustained drug delivery, reduced therapeutic dose, improved patient compliance, and reduced drug toxicity. In addition, the review also discusses emerging strategies and the future perspectives in neutrophil-based therapy.

Polyelectrolyte-Based Platforms for the Delivery of Peptides and Proteins

The use of peptides and proteins in the pharmaceutical field has increased dramatically over recent years. They have been especially relevant to advances in the treatment of cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, leukemia, and cardiovascular, ophthalmological, metabolic, and infectious diseases. Despite the great potential of peptides and proteins, their use in pharmaceuticals has failed to reach its full potential because of some outstanding challenges. They are unstable under storage conditions and in biological milieus, and their high molecular weight limits permeation through biological membranes. A variety of delivery systems have been investigated to overcome these limitations. Polyelectrolytes (PEs) are molecules that bear multiple negative or positive charges. These molecules play an important role in various platforms relating to the delivery of peptide/protein-based drugs and subunit vaccines. The most commonly utilized PEs include chitosan, alginate, chondroitin sulfate, and poly(γ-glutamic acid). PE-based delivery systems, such as polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs), PE-coated nanocarriers, and PE multilayers, were designed to protect peptides and proteins from degradation and facilitate their absorption. These delivery systems are especially effective when administered orally or intranasally. This review emphasizes the important role of PEs and PE-based delivery vehicles in peptide/protein-based drugs and vaccines.

Spermine modified polymeric micelles with pH-sensitive drug release for targeted and enhanced antitumor therapy

Tumor targeting delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs by nanocarriers has been demonstrated to be a promising strategy for cancer therapy with improved therapeutic efficacy. In this work, we reported a novel type of active targeting micelle with pH-responsive drug release by using biodegradable poly(lactide)-poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) di-block copolymers functionalized with spermine (SPM). SPM has been considered as a tumor binding ligand through its specific interaction with the polyamine transport system (PTS), a transmembrane protein overexpressed on various types of cancer cell, while its application in nano-drug delivery systems has rarely been explored. The micelles with spherical shape (∼110 nm) could load hydrophobic paclitaxel (PTX) with high capacity, and release the payload much faster at acidic pH (4.5–6.5) than at pH 7.4. This pH-responsive property assisted the rapid escape of drug from the endo/lysosome after internalization as demonstrated by confocal laser scanning microscopy images using coumarin-6 (Cou-6) as a fluorescent probe. With surface SPM modification, the micelles displayed much higher cellular uptake than SPM lacking micelles in various types of cancer cells, demonstrating tumor targeting ability. The uptake mechanism of SPM modified micelles was explored by flow cytometry, which suggested an energy-consuming sag vesicle-mediated endocytosis pathway. As expected, the micelles displayed significantly enhanced anti-cancer activity. This work demonstrates that SPM modified pH-sensitive micelles may be potential drug delivery vehicles for targeting and effective cancer therapy.

Tumor targeting delivery of SPM functionalized micelles via PTS binding and their endocytosis and pH-triggered endo/lysosome drug release for anti-cancer therapy.

Biotin-Modified Polylactic- co-Glycolic Acid Nanoparticles with Improved Antiproliferative Activity of 15,16-Dihydrotanshinone I in Human Cervical Cancer Cells

15,16-Dihydrotanshinone I (DI), a natural compound isolated from a traditional Asian functional food Salvia Miltiorrhiza Bunge, is known for its anticancer activity. However, poor solubility of DI limits its desirable anticancer application. Herein, polylactic- co-glycolic acid (PLGA) was functionalized with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and biotin to form copolymers PEG-PLGA (PPA) and biotin-PEG-PLGA (BPA). DI was encapsulated in copolymers PPA and BPA to obtain DI-PPA-NPs (NPs = nanoparticles) and DI-BPA-NPs, respectively. The particle size and its distribution, encapsulation efficiency, and in vitro releasing capacity of DI-BPA-NPs were characterized by biophysical methods. MTT assay was used to evaluate the antiproliferative activity of free DI, DI-PPA-NPs, and DI-BPA-NPs in human cervical cancer Hela cells. DI-BPA-NPs showed the highest cytotoxicity on Hela cells with an IC₅₀ value of 4.55 ± 0.631 μM, while it was 8.20 ± 0.849 and 6.14 ± 0.312 μM for DI and DI-PPA-NPs in 72 h, respectively. The superior antiproliferative activity was supported by the fact that DI-BPA-NPs could be preferentially internalized by Hela cells, owing to their specific interaction between biotin and overexpressed biotin receptors. In addition, DI-BPA-NPs effectively inhibited Hela cell proliferation by inducing G2/M phase cycle arrest and decreasing the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level by 31.50 ± 2.29% in 5 min. In summary, DI-BPA-NPs shows improved antiproliferative activity against human cervical cancer as comparing with free DI, demonstrating its application potential in cancer therapy.