Aptamer-Antibody Complementation On Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube-Gold Transduced Dielectrode Surfaces To Detect Pandemic Swine Influenza Virus

Nanomaterials-based immunosensors for avian influenza virus detection

Avian influenza viruses (AIV) are capable of infecting a considerable proportion of the world's population each year, leading to severe epidemics with high rates of morbidity and mortality. The methods now used to diagnose influenza virus A include the Western blot test (WB), hemagglutination inhibition (HI), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). But because of their labor-intensiveness, lengthy procedures, need for costly equipment, and inexperienced staff, these approaches are considered inappropriate. The present review elucidates the recent advancements in the field of avian influenza detection through the utilization of nanomaterials-based immunosensors between 2014 and 2024. The classification of detection techniques has been taken into account to provide a comprehensive overview of the literature. The review encompasses a detailed illustration of the commonly employed detection mechanisms in immunosensors, namely, colorimetry, fluorescence assay, surface plasmon resonance (SPR), surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), electrochemical detection, quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) piezoelectric, and field-effect transistor (FET). Furthermore, the challenges and future prospects for the immunosensors have been deliberated upon. The present review aims to enhance the understanding of immunosensors-based sensing platforms for virus detection and to stimulate the development of novel immunosensors by providing novel ideas and inspirations. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to provide an updated information about biosensors, as a recent detection technique of influenza with its details regarding the various types of biosensors, which can be used for this review.

An overview of influenza A virus detection methods: from state-of-the-art of laboratories to point-of-care strategies

Influenza A virus (IAV), a common respiratory infectious pathogen, poses a significant risk to personal health and public health safety due to rapid mutation and wide host range. To better prevent and treat IAV, comprehensive measures are needed for early and rapid screening and detection of IAV. Although traditional laboratory-based techniques are accurate, they are often time-consuming and not always feasible in emergency or resource-limited areas. In contrast, emerging point-of-care strategies provide faster results but may compromise sensitivity and specificity. Here, this review critically evaluates various detection methods for IAV from established laboratory-based procedures to innovative rapid diagnosis. By analyzing the recent research progress, we aim to address significant gaps in understanding the effectiveness, practicality, and applicability of these methods in different scenarios, which could provide information for healthcare strategies, guide public health response measures, and ultimately strengthen patient care in the face of the ongoing threat of IAV. Through a detailed comparison of diagnostic models, this review can provide a reliable reference for rapid, accurate and efficient detection of IAV, and to contribute to the diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and control of IAV.

Gold nanourchin enhances detection of Alzheimer's disease biomarker "miRNA-137" on dual electrode sensing surface

Diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex task, and at present, neuroimaging such as magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography is commonly used for the diagnosis of AD. This research work developed a new biosensing method with gold nanomaterial to identify AD biomarker of miRNA-137. Gold nanourchin (GNU) was attached on the interdigitated electrode through the silane linker and COOH-ended capture oligonucleotide was immobilized on the GNU surface. This surface helps to quantify the target sequence of miRNA-137 and the detection limit reached to 0.01 pM on the linear range of 0.01-100 pM. With 3δ calculation on the linearity, the determination coefficient was noticed as y = 1.2867x - 2.2697; R²  = 0.9059. The control performances did not show a significant response, indicating the specific identification of target.

Aptamer-based biosensors for virus protein detection

Virus threatens life health seriously. The accurate early diagnosis of the virus is vital for clinical control and treatment of virus infection. Aptamers are small single-stranded oligonucleotides (DNAs or RNAs). In this review, we summarized aptasensors for virus detection in recent years according to the classification of the viral target protein, and illustrated common detection mechanisms in the aptasensors (colorimetry, fluorescence assay, surface plasmon resonance (SPR), surface-enhanced raman spectroscopy (SERS), electrochemical detection, and field-effect transistor (FET)). Furthermore, aptamers against different target proteins of viruses were summarized. The relationships between the different biomarkers of the viruses and the detection methods, and their performances were revealed. In addition, the challenges and future directions of aptasensors were discussed. This review will provide valuable references for constructing on-site aptasensors for detecting viruses, especially the SARS-CoV-2.

Biosensing epidemic and pandemic respiratory viruses: Internet of Things with Gaussian noise channel algorithmic model

The current world condition is dire due to epidemics and pandemics as a result of novel viruses, such as influenza and the coronavirus, causing acute respiratory syndrome. To overcome these critical situations, the current research seeks to generate a common surveillance system with the assistance of a controlled Internet of Things operated under a Gaussian noise channel. To create the model system, a study with an analysis of H1N1 influenza virus determination on an interdigitated electrode (IDE) sensor was validated by current-volt measurements. The preliminary data were generated using hemagglutinin as the target against gold-conjugated aptamer/antibody as the probe, with the transmission pattern showing consistency with the Gaussian noise channel algorithm. A good fit with the algorithmic values was found, displaying a similar pattern to that output from the IDE, indicating reliability. This study can be a model for the surveillance of varied pathogens, including the emergence and reemergence of novel strains.

Decadal Journey of CNT-Based Analytical Biosensing Platforms in the Detection of Human Viruses

It has been proven that viral infections pose a serious hazard to humans and also affect social health, including morbidity and mental suffering, as illustrated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The early detection and isolation of virally infected people are, thus, required to control the spread of viruses. Due to the outstanding and unparalleled properties of nanomaterials, numerous biosensors were developed for the early detection of viral diseases via sensitive, minimally invasive, and simple procedures. To that aim, viral detection technologies based on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are being developed as viable alternatives to existing diagnostic approaches. This article summarizes the advancements in CNT-based biosensors since the last decade in the detection of different human viruses, namely, SARS-CoV-2, dengue, influenza, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and hepatitis. Finally, the shortcomings and benefits of CNT-based biosensors for the detection of viruses are outlined and discussed.

An overview of advancement in aptasensors for influenza detection

INTRODUCTION

The platforms for early identification of infectious diseases such as influenza has seen a surge in recent years as delayed diagnosis of such infections can lead to dreadful effects causing large numbers of deaths. The time taken in detection of an infectious disease may vary from a few days to a few weeks depending upon the choice of the techniques. So, there is an urgent need for advanced methodologies for early diagnosis of the influenza.

AREAS COVERED

The emergence of "Aptasensor" synergistically with biosensors for diagnosis has opened a new era for sensitive, selective and early detection approaches. This review described various conventional as well as advanced methods based on artificial immunogenic nucleotide sequences complementing a part of the virus, i.e., aptamers based aptasensors for influenza diagnosis and the challenges faced in their commercialization.

EXPERT OPINION

Although numerous traditional methods are available for influenza detection but mostly associated with low sensitivity, specificity, high cost, trained personnel, and animals required for virus culture/ antibody raising as the major drawbacks. Aptamers can be manufactured invitro as 'chemical antibodies' at commercial level, no animal required. Following these advantages, aptamers can pave the way for an efficient diagnostic technique as compared to other existing conventional methods..

Engineering carbon nanotubes for sensitive viral detection

Viral infections have been proven a severe threat to human beings, and the pandemic of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a societal health concern, including mental distress and morbidity. Therefore, the early diagnosis and differentiation of viral infections are the prerequisite for curbing the local and global spread of viruses. To this end, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) based virus detection strategies are developed that provide feasible alternatives to conventional diagnostic techniques. Here in this review, an overview of the design and engineering of CNTs-based sensors for virus detection is summarized, followed by the nano-bio interactions used in developing biosensors. Then, we classify the viral sensors into covalently engineered CNTs, non-covalently engineered CNTs, and size-tunable CNTs arrays for viral detection, based on the type of CNTs-based nano-bio interfaces. Finally, the current challenges and prospects of CNTs-based sensors for virus detection are discussed.

Nanomaterials for virus sensing and tracking

The effect of the on-going COVID-19 pandemic on global healthcare systems has underlined the importance of timely and cost-effective point-of-care diagnosis of viruses. The need for ultrasensitive easy-to-use platforms has culminated in an increased interest for rapid response equipment-free alternatives to conventional diagnostic methods such as polymerase chain reaction, western-blot assay, etc. Furthermore, the poor stability and the bleaching behavior of several contemporary fluorescent reporters is a major obstacle in understanding the mechanism of viral infection thus retarding drug screening and development. Owing to their extraordinary surface-to-volume ratio as well as their quantum confinement and charge transfer properties, nanomaterials are desirable additives to sensing and imaging systems to amplify their signal response as well as temporal resolution. Their large surface area promotes biomolecular integration as well as efficacious signal transduction. Due to their hole mobility, photostability, resistance to photobleaching, and intense brightness, nanomaterials have a considerable edge over organic dyes for single virus tracking. This paper reviews the state-of-the-art of combining carbon-allotrope, inorganic and organic-based nanomaterials with virus sensing and tracking methods, starting with the impact of human pathogenic viruses on the society. We address how different nanomaterials can be used in various virus sensing platforms (e.g. lab-on-a-chip, paper, and smartphone-based point-of-care systems) as well as in virus tracking applications. We discuss the enormous potential for the use of nanomaterials as simple, versatile, and affordable tools for detecting and tracing viruses infectious to humans, animals, plants as well as bacteria. We present latest examples in this direction by emphasizing major advantages and limitations.

Nanomaterial-assisted determination of osteosarcoma by antibody-osteopontin-aptamer sandwich ELISA

Immobilization and detection of small molecules is one of the challenging tasks in any given sensing system as the dissociation equilibrium constant is higher. Generating a right immobilization system with small molecules is mandatory for developing the drug-discovery process and disease identification. Immobilizing smaller probes on the ELISA plate is challenging because of its less adsorption on the polystyrene (PS) substrate. This research work developed an iron nanomaterial-based linker to attach osteopontin-specific aptamer on PS substrate. Iron oxide nanoparticle was attached on PS plate through amine modification and then antibody was attached by COOH reaction. On the osteopontin-modified plate, osteosarcoma biomarker of osteopontin was identified by its specific antibody and aptamer sandwich with the detection limit of 1 nM. Further, biofouling experiments with other molecules, such as lysozyme, and complementary aptamer failed to show the ELISA adsorption signal, indicating the iron oxide nanoparticle-modified PS plate specifically recognizes osteopontin. This research work effectively identifies the lesser abundance of osteopontin and helps to diagnose the osteosarcoma-related problems.

Thyroglobulin determination on silane-antibody functionalized interdigitated dielectrode surface to diagnose thyroid tumor

Thyroid cancer appears in endocrine glands and specific to thyroid glands has been reported widely. This work was targeted to identify and quantify thyroglobulin by using antithyroglobulin antibody complexed silane surface on interdigitated electrode (IDE) sensing surface. (3-Aminopropyl)triethoxysilane linker was used to make silane-coupling with antibody and attached on the hydroxylated IDE. This electroanalytical IDE revealed the dose-dependent responses with thyroglobulin concentrations. By getting increments with the thyroglobulin concentrations, the current responses were enhanced concomitantly and the thyroglobulin detection limit was noted as 1 pM on the linear curve [y = 0.1311x + 0.5386; R² = 0.9707] with the sensitivity at lower picomolar range. Moreover, the control experiments with thyroid peroxidase and nonimmune antibody cannot yield any response of current, confirming the specific detection of thyroglobulin. This research set-up is useful to determine and quantify the thyroglobulin and diagnose thyroid cancer.

Myocardial infarction biomarker C-reactive protein detection on nanocomposite aptasensor

Myocardial infarction (MI) is considered as one of the major life-threatening health issues worldwide. Growing number of cases every year is demanding rapid, portable, and early detection by the sensing devices for the identification of MI. This research work introduces a modified interdigitated electrode (IDE) sensing surface constructed with single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCN) to detect the cardiac biomarker, C-reactive protein (CRP). CRP-specific aptamer was conjugated with gold nanoparticle and attached on SWCN-constructed IDE surface. This probe-modified sensing surface has reached the limit of CRP detection to 10 pM on a linear regression curve with the regression coefficient of R² = 0.9223 [y = 0.9198x - 0.4326]. Further, control molecules, such as random aptamer sequence and nontarget cardiac biomarker (Troponin I), did not show the current response, indicating the specific CRP detection. This sensing strategy helps to detect the lower level of CRP and diagnose the MI at its earlier stages.

Biosensors for the detection of respiratory viruses: A review

The recent events of outbreaks related to different respiratory viruses in the past few years, exponentiated by the pandemic caused by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), reported worldwide caused by SARS-CoV-2, raised a concern and increased the search for more information on viruses-based diseases. The detection of the virus with high specificity and sensitivity plays an important role for an accurate diagnosis. Despite the many efforts to identify the SARS-CoV-2, the diagnosis still relays on expensive and time-consuming analysis. A fast and reliable alternative is the use of low-cost biosensor for in loco detection. This review gathers important contributions in the biosensor area regarding the most current respiratory viruses, presents the advances in the assembly of the devices and figures of merit. All information is useful for further biosensor development for the detection of respiratory viruses, such as for the new coronavirus.

Nanobiotechnology in combating CoVid-19

Emergence of novel pandemic viral disease CoVid-19 and its mutational behaviour are alarming. The potential use of nano-biotechnology in combating CoVid-19 is promising. We glean available data to explore such possibility in this short note.

An interdigitated aptasensor to detect interleukin-6 for diagnosing rheumatoid arthritis in serum

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disorder causing chronic inflammation in the small joints of the articular bone and destruction of articular cartilage. RA causes stiffness, pain, joint destruction, substantial comorbidity, and functional disability. Early-stage diagnosis of RA can help in the treatment of the disease and expand the patient life span. Interleukins are a group of inflammatory cytokines; in particular, an abundance of interleukin-6 (IL-6) was found in the synovial fluid and serum. In RA patients, the levels of IL-6 have been found to be correlated with the disease, and this work focused on detecting IL-6 by its aptamer with the help of a biotin-streptavidin strategy on an interdigitated electrode. A sensitivity of 1 fM (0.021 pg/mL) and a limit of detection of 10 fM (0.21 pg/mL) were found by a linear regression [y = 0.6413x - 0.6249; R² = 0.952] of the linear range from 1 fM to 100 pM. This method enhanced the immobilization of higher aptamer molecules for recognizing RA in serum-containing samples and is applicable to other diseases.

Detection of interleukin-8 on microgapped dual electrodes for measuring asthma complication

Detection of asthma by a suitable biomarker is mandatory for the early identification, which helps in providing a right medication for the complete cure. Interleukins (ILs) have played a major role in asthma; in particular IL-8 is highly correlated with severe asthma. This research was focused on to detect IL-8 level by its partner antibody on a microgapped dual electrodes sensor. The sensing surface was modified into graphene oxide (GO), and an antibody was fixed by using the amine-aldehyde linker. GO enhanced the antibody immobilization and the consequence electric current flow upon interacting with IL-8. The detection limit of IL-8 was reached to 10 pg/mL in a linear range from 1 to 10,000 pg/mL with the regression of y = 0.7246x - 0.906 (R² = 0.9758); further, the sensitivity falls at 1 pg/mL. The surface does not show the antifouling effect with control antibody, and proteins, indicating the specific IL-8 detection. The detection of IL-8 helps in diagnosing and solving the related problems of asthmatic patients.

Sensitive identification of prostate-specific antigen by iron oxide nanoparticle antibody conjugates on the gap-finger electrode surface

Researches have proved that increasing level of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is an indicator for the progression of prostate cancer. The present study was focused to determine the PSA level by using anti-PSA antibody conjugated iron oxide nanoparticles, as the probe immobilized on the gap-fingered electrode sensing surface. The detection limit and sensitivity were found at the level of 1.9 pg/mL on the linear regression curve (y = 1.6939x - 0.5671; R² = 0.9878). A dose-dependent liner range was found from 1.9 until 60 pg/mL. Further, PSA was spiked in human serum and did not affect the interaction of PSA and its antibody. This method of detection quantifies the level of PSA, which helps to diagnose prostate cancer at its earlier stage.

Electrochemical mixed aptamer-antibody sandwich assay for mucin protein 16 detection through hybridization chain reaction amplification

A mixed aptamer-antibody sandwich assay for the determination of mucin protein 16 (MUC16) was developed based on hybridization chain reaction (HCR) with methylene blue (MB) as an electrochemical indicator. First, MUC16 antibody was adsorbed onto the surface of the Au nanoparticle (AuNP)-modified indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode to effectively capture the target MUC16. After MUC16 was captured by the MUC16 aptamer, an antibody/MUC16/aptamer sandwich structure formed for the highly selective detection of MUC16. The 3' end of the aptamer was then subjected to HCR with the assistance of auxiliary probes to obtain DNA concatemers. Numerous MB molecules bonded with G bases in the DNA concatemers by immersing the modified ITO electrode into a stirred solution containing MB with KCl. Stepwise changes in the microscopic features of the electrode surface were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were used to characterize the electrochemical behavior of the different modified electrodes. The oxidation current of MB was detected by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). Under the optimum conditions, the proposed mixed aptamer-antibody sandwich assay showed wide dynamic range from 0.39 to 200 unit mL^-1 with a low detection limit of 0.02 unit mL^-1 (S/N ratio = 3). The proposed method showed good accuracy, selectivity, and acceptable reproducibility. Graphical abstract An electrochemical mixed aptamer-antibody sandwich assay based on the aptamer-induced HCR amplification strategy was fabricated for the highly sensitive detection of MUC16. The mixed aptamer-antibody sandwich assay showed acceptable performance of detection range, detection limit, reproducibility, and selectivity.