Water-soluble fullerene (C60) inhibits the development of arthritis in the rat model of arthritis

Carbon Nanomaterial-Based Hydrogels as Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering: A Comprehensive Review

Carbon-based nanomaterials (CBNs) are a category of nanomaterials with various systems based on combinations of sp2 and sp3 hybridized carbon bonds, morphologies, and functional groups. CBNs can exhibit distinguished properties such as high mechanical strength, chemical stability, high electrical conductivity, and biocompatibility. These desirable physicochemical properties have triggered their uses in many fields, including biomedical applications. In this review, we specifically focus on applying CBNs as scaffolds in tissue engineering, a therapeutic approach whereby CBNs can act for the regeneration or replacement of damaged tissue. Here, an overview of the structures and properties of different CBNs will first be provided. We will then discuss state-of-the-art advancements of CBNs and hydrogels as scaffolds for regenerating various types of human tissues. Finally, a perspective of future potentials and challenges in this field will be presented. Since this is a very rapidly growing field, we expect that this review will promote interdisciplinary efforts in developing effective tissue regeneration scaffolds for clinical applications.

Therapeutic applications of nanobiotechnology

Nanobiotechnology, as a novel and more specialized branch of science, has provided a number of nanostructures such as nanoparticles, by utilizing the methods, techniques, and protocols of other branches of science. Due to the unique features and physiobiological characteristics, these nanostructures or nanocarriers have provided vast methods and therapeutic techniques, against microbial infections and cancers and for tissue regeneration, tissue engineering, and immunotherapies, and for gene therapies, through drug delivery systems. However, reduced carrying capacity, abrupt and non-targeted delivery, and solubility of therapeutic agents, can affect the therapeutic applications of these biotechnological products. In this article, we explored and discussed the prominent nanobiotechnological methods and products such as nanocarriers, highlighted the features and challenges associated with these products, and attempted to conclude if available nanostructures offer any scope of improvement or enhancement. We aimed to identify and emphasize the nanobiotechnological methods and products, with greater prospect and capacity for therapeutic improvements and enhancements. We found that novel nanocarriers and nanostructures, such as nanocomposites, micelles, hydrogels, microneedles, and artificial cells, can address the associated challenges and inherited drawbacks, with help of conjugations, sustained and stimuli-responsive release, ligand binding, and targeted delivery. We recommend that nanobiotechnology, despite having few challenges and drawbacks, offers immense opportunities that can be harnessed in delivering quality therapeutics with precision and prediction. We also recommend that, by exploring the branched domains more rigorously, bottlenecks and obstacles can also be addressed and resolved in return.

Nanomedicine is more than a supporting role in rheumatoid arthritis therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis(RA) is an autoimmune disorder that affects the joints. Various medications successfully alleviate the symptoms of RA in clinical. Still, few therapy strategies can cure RA, especially when joint destruction begins, and there is currently no effective bone-protective treatment to reverse the articular damage. Furthermore, the RA medications now used in clinical practice accompany various adverse side effects. Nanotechnology can improve the pharmacokinetics of traditional anti-RA drugs and therapeutic precision through targeting modification. Although the clinical application of nanomedicines for RA is in its infancy, preclinical research is rising. Current anti-RA nano-drug studies mainly focus on the following: drug delivery systems, nanomedicines with anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic properties, biomimetic design with better biocompatibility and therapeutic features, and nanoparticle-dominated energy conversion therapies. These therapies have shown promising therapeutic benefits in animal models, indicating that nanomedicines are a potential solution to the current bottleneck in RA treatment. This review will summarize the present state of anti-RA nano-drug research.

Wound healing activity of aqueous dispersion of fullerene C60 produced by "green technology"

In addition to exhibited antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, fullerene C60 is a promising wound healing agent. An important stage in the production of fullerene-based ointments is the stability of the aqueous fullerene dispersion (AFD) with minimum size of colloidal fullerene aggregates and sufficiently high concentration. To achieve these parameters tangential flow filtration of fullerene C60 was used ("green technology"). As estimated by small-angle neutron scattering and dynamic light scattering purified AFDs with narrow-size distribution nanoclusters have a size of 6 nm and are assembled into agglomerates which reach a size of 150 nm. The ability of the AFD to exhibit regenerative activity was studied using the animal wound model. This study shows for the first time that the fullerene-based composition stimulates the healing of wounds of various origins. We assume that the mechanism of the AFD wound-healing activity is associated with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor and macrophages activity.

Nanozymes in the Treatment of Diseases Caused by Excessive Reactive Oxygen Specie

Excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) may generate deleterious effects on biomolecules, such as DNA damage, protein oxidation and lipid peroxidation, causing cell and tissue damage and eventually leading to the pathogenesis of diseases, such as neurodegenerative diseases, ischemia/reperfusion ((I/R)) injury, and inflammatory diseases. Therefore, the modulation of ROS can be an efficient means to relieve the aforementioned diseases. Several studies have verified that antioxidants such as Mitoquinone (a mitochondrial-targeted coenzyme Q10 derivative) can scavenge ROS and attenuate related diseases. Nanozymes, defined as nanomaterials with intrinsic enzyme-like properties that also possess antioxidant properties, are hence expected to be promising alternatives for the treatment of ROS-related diseases. This review introduces the types of nanozymes with inherent antioxidant activities, elaborates on various strategies (eg, controlling the size or shape of nanozymes, regulating the composition of nanozymes and environmental factors) for modulating their catalytic activities, and summarizes their performances in treating ROS-induced diseases.

Immunotherapeutic nanoparticles: From autoimmune disease control to the development of vaccines

The development of nanoparticles (NPs) with potential therapeutic uses represents an area of vast interest in the scientific community during the last years. Recently, the pandemic caused by COVID-19 motivated a race for vaccines creation to overcome the crisis generated. This is a good demonstration that nanotechnology will most likely be the basis of future immunotherapy. Moreover, the number of publications based on nanosystems has significantly increased in recent years and it is expected that most of these developments can go on to experimentation in clinical stages soon. The therapeutic use of NPs to combat different diseases such as cancer, allergies or autoimmune diseases will depend on their characteristics, their targets, and the transported molecules. This review presents an in-depth analysis of recent advances that have been developed in order to obtain novel nanoparticulate based tools for the treatment of allergies, autoimmune diseases and for their use in vaccines. Moreover, it is highlighted that by providing targeted delivery an increase in the potential of vaccines to induce an immune response is expected in the future. Definitively, the here gathered analysis is a good demonstration that nanotechnology will be the basis of future immunotherapy.

Multiadducts of C60 Modulate Amyloid-β Fibrillation with Dual Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition and Antioxidant Properties: In Vitro and In Silico Studies

Background: Amyloid-β (Aβ) fibrils induce cognitive impairment and neuronal loss, leading to onset of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The inhibition of Aβ aggregation has been proposed as a therapeutic strategy for AD. Pristine C60 has shown the capacity to interact with the Aβ peptide and interfere with fibril formation but induces significant toxic effects in vitro and in vivo. Objective: To evaluate the potential of a series of C60 multiadducts to inhibit the Aβ fibrillization. Methods: A series of C60 multiadducts with four to six diethyl malonyl and their corresponding disodium-malonyl substituents were synthesized as individual isomers. Their potential on Aβ fibrillization inhibition was evaluated in vitro, in cellulo, and silico. Antioxidant activity, acetylcholinesterase inhibition capacity, and toxicity were assessed in vitro. Results: The multiadducts modulate Aβ fibrils formation without inducing cell toxicity, and that the number and polarity of the substituents play a significant role in the adducts efficacy to modulate Aβ aggregation. The molecular mechanism of fullerene-Aβ interaction and modulation was identified. Furthermore, the fullerene derivatives exhibited antioxidant capacity and reduction of acetylcholinesterase activity. Conclusion: Multiadducts of C60 are novel multi-target-directed ligand molecules that could hold considerable promise as the starting point for the development of AD therapies.

Immuno-modulatory biomaterials as anti-inflammatory therapeutics

Biocompatible and biodegradable biomaterials are used extensively in regenerative medicine and serve as a tool for tissue replacement, as a platform for regeneration of injured tissue, and as a vehicle for delivery of drugs. One of the key factors that must be addressed in developing successful biomaterial-based therapeutics is inflammation. Whilst inflammation is initially essential for wound healing; bringing about clearance of debris and infection, prolonged inflammation can result in delayed wound healing, rejection of the biomaterial, further tissue damage and increased scarring and fibrosis. In this context, the choice of biomaterial must be considered carefully to minimise further induction of inflammation. Here we address the ability of the biomaterials themselves to modulate inflammatory responses and outline how the physico-chemical properties of the materials impact on their pro and anti-inflammatory properties (Fig. 1).

The effect of water-soluble pristine C60 fullerene on 6-OHDA-induced Parkinson’s disease in rats

Oxidative stress is thought to be one of the mechanisms that leads to the dysfunction and degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease pathogenesis and presumed to be underway during the prodromal phase. Therefore, therapy, which is effective against pre-motor symptoms, might be effective in preventing or delaying the development and progression of Parkinson’s disease. The aim of our study was to investigate the therapeutic efficiency of pristine C60 fullerene aqueous solution (C60FAS) during Parkinson’s disease in rats. The unilateral dopamine deficiency was induced in male Wistar rats (220–250 g) by stereotaxic microinjection of neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA, 12 μg). C60FAS was injected to rats intraperitoneally daily for 10 days (0.65 mg/kg per day). The percentage of destroyed dopaminergic neurons was determined by the apomorphine test and by IHC staining of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons in substantia nigra. We evaluated the rat body weight, the water and food intake, Open Field behavioural test, the level of biochemical antioxidant system, the activity of peritoneal macrophages. Levels of spontaneous and carbachol-stimulated colon motility were estimated by ballonographic method in vivo. C60FAS showed a positive tendency to increase the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells in the midbrain, which was associated with more profound improvement in apomorphine-rotation behaviour and slight relief of the anxiety level in Open Field test. Furthermore, C60FAS treatment increased the index of stimulated distal colon motor activity while it did not have a significant effect on water content in feces and total gastrointestinal transit time. C60FAS treatment did not affect water intake behaviour or body weight changes while it induced an increase of glutathione level and decrease activity of glutathione peroxidase in the brain as well as an increase in activity of peritoneal macrophages in 6-OHDA-Parkinson’s disease rats. These findings confirmed the potential therapeutic effectiveness of water-soluble pristine C60 fullerene in Parkinson’s disease pathogenesis, though there is ground for caution because of its systemic mild toxic effect.

Se-[(2,2-Dimethyl-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl)methyl] 4-Chlorobenzoselenolate Attenuates Inflammatory Response, Nociception, and Affective Disorders Related to Rheumatoid Arthritis in Mice

Despite major advances, not all patients achieve rheumatoid arthritis (RA) remission, thus highlighting a pressing need for new therapeutic treatments. Given this scenario, this study sought to evaluate Se-[(2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl)methyl] 4-chlorobenzoselenolate (Se-DMC) potential on a complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced unilateral arthritis model. The effects of Se-DMC (5 mg/kg; oral dose) and meloxicam (5 mg/kg; oral dose), both administered to animals daily for 14 days, on paw edema, mechanical sensitivity, neurobehavioral deficits (anxiogenic- and depressive-like behaviors), Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity, oxidative stress, and inflammation were evaluated in male Swiss mice exposed to CFA (intraplantar injection of 0.1 mL; 10 mg/mL). Se-DMC reduced the paw withdrawal threshold and CFA-induced paw edema. Histopathological results revealed the antiedematogenic potential of the compound, which was evidenced by lower quantities of dilated lymphatic vessels compared with the CFA group. Se-DMC reduced mRNA relative expression levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in the hippocampus and paw of CFA mice. The CFA-induced anxiogenic- and depressive-like behaviors were reversed by Se-DMC to the control levels in the elevated plus-maze and tail suspension tests. Se-DMC reduced the paw reactive species levels and restored the superoxide dismutase (hippocampus and paw) and Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase (hippocampus) activities previously increased by CFA. Moreover, CFA administration inhibited serum creatinine kinase activity, albeit the Se-DMC effects did not appear to involve the modulation of this enzyme and were equal to or greater than meloxicam. Se-DMC attenuates CFA-induced inflammatory response, nociception, and neurobehavioral deficits in mice.

Antileishmanial activity of fullerol and its liposomal formulation in experimental models of visceral leishmaniasis

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a systemic parasitic disease that leads to high rates of morbidity and mortality in humans worldwide. There is a great need to develop new drugs and novel strategies to make chemotherapy for this disease more efficacious and well tolerated. Recent reports on the immunomodulatory effects and the low toxicity of the spherical carbon nanostructure fullerol led us to investigate in vitro and in vivo antileishmanial activity in free and encapsulated forms in liposomes. When assayed against intramacrophagic Leishmania amastigotes, fullerol showed a dose-dependent reduction of the infection index with IC50 of 0.042 mg/mL. When given daily by i.p. route for 20 days (0.05 mg/kg/d) in a murine model of acute VL, fullerol promoted significant reduction in the liver parasite load. To improve the delivery of fullerol to the infection sites, liposomal formulations were prepared by the dehydration-rehydration method. When evaluated in the acute VL model, liposomal fullerol (Lip-Ful) formulations given i.p. at 0.05 and 0.2 mg/kg with 4-days intervals were more effective than the free form, with significant parasite reductions in both liver and spleen. Lip-Ful at 0.2 mg/kg promoted complete parasite elimination in the liver. The antileishmanial activity of Lip-Ful was further confirmed in a chronic model of VL. Lip-Ful was also found to induce secretion of pro-inflammatory TNF-α, IFN-γ and IL-1β cytokines. In conclusion, this work reports for the first time the antileishmanial activity of fullerol and introduces an innovative approach for treatment of VL based on the association of this nanostructure with liposomes.

Therapeutic Nanoparticles and Their Targeted Delivery Applications

Nanotechnology offers many advantages in various fields of science. In this regard, nanoparticles are the essential building blocks of nanotechnology. Recent advances in nanotechnology have proven that nanoparticles acquire a great potential in medical applications. Formation of stable interactions with ligands, variability in size and shape, high carrier capacity, and convenience of binding of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances make nanoparticles favorable platforms for the target-specific and controlled delivery of micro- and macromolecules in disease therapy. Nanoparticles combined with the therapeutic agents overcome problems associated with conventional therapy; however, some issues like side effects and toxicity are still debated and should be well concerned before their utilization in biological systems. It is therefore important to understand the specific properties of therapeutic nanoparticles and their delivery strategies. Here, we provide an overview on the unique features of nanoparticles in the biological systems. We emphasize on the type of clinically used nanoparticles and their specificity for therapeutic applications, as well as on their current delivery strategies for specific diseases such as cancer, infectious, autoimmune, cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, ocular, and pulmonary diseases. Understanding of the characteristics of nanoparticles and their interactions with the biological environment will enable us to establish novel strategies for the treatment, prevention, and diagnosis in many diseases, particularly untreatable ones.

Amelioration of Experimentally Induced Arthritis by Reducing Reactive Oxygen Species Production through the Intra-Articular Injection of Water-Soluble Fullerenol

Accumulated evidence suggests a pathogenic role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in perpetually rheumatoid joints. Therefore, the application of radical scavengers for reducing the accumulation of ROS is beneficial for patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). We synthesized water-soluble fullerenols that could inhibit the production of ROS and applied intra-articular (i.a.) injection in an experimental arthritis model to examine the anti-arthritic effect of the synthesized compound. RAW 264.7 cells were used to examine the activity of the synthesized fullerenol. Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) was induced in Sprague–Dawley rats by injecting their joints with fullerenol. The therapeutic effects were evaluated using the articular index as well as radiological and histological scores. Dose-dependent suppression of nitric oxide (NO) production caused by the fullerenol was demonstrated in the RAW 264.7 cell culture, thus confirming the ability of fullerenol to reduce ROS production. In the fullerenol-injected joints, articular indexes, synovial expression of ROS, histological and radiological scores, pannus formation, and erosion of cartilage and bone were all reduced. Moreover, interleukin (IL)-1β and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels were reduced, and fewer von Willebrand factor (vWF)-stained areas were identified in the fullerenol-treated joints than in control joints. The i.a. injection of fullerenol for reducing ROS production can ameliorate arthritis in joints by suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokine production and the angiogenesis process. Thus, the i.a. injection of fullerenol for reducing the production of ROS can be used as a pharmacological approach for RA patients.

Distinct Impacts of Fullerene on Cognitive Functions of Dementia vs. Non-dementia Mice

Fullerene is a family of carbon materials widely applied in modern medicine and ecosystem de-contamination. Its wide application makes human bodies more and more constantly exposed to fullerene particles. Since fullerene particles are able to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) (Yamago et al. 1995), if and how fullerene would affect brain functions need to be investigated for human health consideration. For this purpose, we administered fullerene on subcortical ischemic vascular dementia (SIVD) model mice and sham mice, two types of mice with distinct penetration properties of BBB and hence possibly distinct vulnerabilities to fullerene. We studied the spatial learning and memory abilities of mice with Morris water maze (MWM) and the neuroplasticity properties of the hippocampus. Results showed that fullerene administration suppressed outcomes of MWM in sham mice, along with suppressed long-term potentiation (LTP) and dendritic spine densities. Oppositely, recoveries of MWM outcomes and neuroplasticity properties were observed in fullerene-treated SIVD mice. To further clarify the mechanism of the impact of fullerene on neuroplasticity, we measured the levels of postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95), synaptophysin (SYP), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) by western blot assay. Results suggest that the distinct impacts of fullerene on behavior test and neuroplasticity may be conducted through postsynaptic regulations that were mediated by BDNF.

Scavenging of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species with nanomaterials

Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) are essential for normal physiological processes and play important roles in cell signaling, immunity, and tissue homeostasis. However, excess radical species are implicated in the development and augmented pathogenesis of various diseases. Several antioxidants may restore the chemical balance, but their use is limited by disappointing results of clinical trials. Nanoparticles are an attractive therapeutic alternative because they can change the biodistribution profile of antioxidants, and possess intrinsic ability to scavenge RONS. Herein, we review the types of RONS, how they are implicated in several diseases, and the types of nanoparticles with inherent antioxidant capability, their mechanisms of action, and their biological applications.

Anti-inflammatory and membrane stabilizing properties of methyl jasmonate in rats

The present investigation was carried out to evaluate anti-inflammatory and membrane stabilizing properties of methyl jasmonate (MJ) in experimental rat models of acute and chronic inflammation. The effects of MJ on acute inflammation were assessed using carrageenan-induced rat's paw edema model. The granuloma air pouch model was employed to evaluate the effects of MJ on chronic inflammation produced by carrageenan in rats. The number of white blood cells (WBC) in pouch exudates was estimated using light microscopy. The levels of biomarkers of oxidative stress, such as malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH) and activity of antioxidant enzymes in the exudates, were determined using spectrophotometry. The membrane stabilizing property of MJ was assessed based on inhibition of hemolysis of rat red blood cells (RBC) exposed to hypotonic medium. Our results indicated that MJ (25-100 mg·kg^-1, i.p.) produced significant anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats (P < 0.05). MJ reduced the volume of pouch exudates and the number of WBC in carrageenan-induced granulomatous inflammation. It also exhibited potent antioxidant and membrane stabilizing activities. In conclusion, these findings suggest the therapeutic potentials of methyl jasmonate in disease conditions associated with inflammation and its anti-inflammatory activity may be related to its antioxidant and membrane stabilizing activities.

Preferential uptake of antioxidant carbon nanoparticles by T lymphocytes for immunomodulation

Autoimmune diseases mediated by a type of white blood cell-T lymphocytes-are currently treated using mainly broad-spectrum immunosuppressants that can lead to adverse side effects. Antioxidants represent an alternative approach for therapy of autoimmune disorders; however, dietary antioxidants are insufficient to play this role. Antioxidant carbon nanoparticles scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) with higher efficacy than dietary and endogenous antioxidants. Furthermore, the affinity of carbon nanoparticles for specific cell types represents an emerging tactic for cell-targeted therapy. Here, we report that nontoxic poly(ethylene glycol)-functionalized hydrophilic carbon clusters (PEG-HCCs), known scavengers of the ROS superoxide (O2•-) and hydroxyl radical, are preferentially internalized by T lymphocytes over other splenic immune cells. We use this selectivity to inhibit T cell activation without affecting major functions of macrophages, antigen-presenting cells that are crucial for T cell activation. We also demonstrate the in vivo effectiveness of PEG-HCCs in reducing T lymphocyte-mediated inflammation in delayed-type hypersensitivity and in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, an animal model of multiple sclerosis. Our results suggest the preferential targeting of PEG-HCCs to T lymphocytes as a novel approach for T lymphocyte immunomodulation in autoimmune diseases without affecting other immune cells.

Toxic and DNA damaging effects of a functionalized fullerene in human embryonic lung fibroblasts

Water-soluble fullerenes have been studied as potential nanovectors and therapeutic agents, but their possible toxicity is of concern. We have studied the effects of F-828, a soluble fullerene [C60] derivative, on diploid human embryonic lung fibroblasts (HELFs) in vitro. F-828 causes complex time-dependent changes in ROS levels. Inhibition of Nox4 activity by plumbagin blocks F-828-dependent ROS elevation. F-828 induces DNA breaks, as measured by the comet assay and γH2AX expression, and the activities of the transcription factors NF-kB and p53 increase. F-828 concentrations>25μM are cytotoxic; cell death occurs by necrosis. Expression levels of TGF-β, RHOA, RHOC, ROCK1, and SMAD2 increase following exposure to F-828. Our results raise the possibility that fullerene F-828 may induce pulmonary fibrosis in vivo.

Nanoparticles and direct immunosuppression

Targeting the immune system with nanomaterials is an intensely active area of research. Specifically, the capability to induce immunosuppression is a promising complement for drug delivery and regenerative medicine therapies. Many novel strategies for immunosuppression rely on nanoparticles as delivery vehicles for small-molecule immunosuppressive compounds. As a consequence, efforts in understanding the mechanisms in which nanoparticles directly interact with the immune system have been overshadowed. The immunological activity of nanoparticles is dependent on the physiochemical properties of the nanoparticles and its subsequent cellular internalization. As the underlying factors for these reactions are elucidated, more nanoparticles may be engineered and evaluated for inducing immunosuppression and complementing immunosuppressive drugs. This review will briefly summarize the state-of-the-art and developments in understanding how nanoparticles induce immunosuppressive responses, compare the inherent properties of nanomaterials which induce these immunological reactions, and comment on the potential for using nanomaterials to modulate and control the immune system.

Jobelyn® exhibited anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and membrane-stabilizing activities in experimental models

BACKGROUND

Jobelyn® (JB) is an African sorghum-based food supplement claimed to be efficacious for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Although in vitro studies confirmed its anti-inflammatory property, no study had shown the effect of JB using in vivo animal models of inflammation. Thus, its effects on acute and chronic inflammation in rats were evaluated in this study. Its effect on rat red blood cell (RBC) lysis was also assessed.

METHODS

Acute inflammation was induced with intraplanter injection of carrageenan and increase in rat paw volume was measured using plethysmometer. The volume of fluid exudates, number of leukocytes, concentrations of malondialdehyde (MDA), and glutathione (GSH) in the fluid were measured on day 5 after induction of chronic inflammation with carrageenan in the granuloma air pouch model. RBC lysis induced by hypotonic medium as determined by release of hemoglobin was measured spectrophotometerically.

RESULTS

JB (50-200 mg/kg) given orally produced a significant inhibition of acute inflammation induced by carrageenan in rats. It reduced the volume and number of leukocytes in inflammatory fluid in the granuloma air pouch model of chronic inflammation. It further decreased the levels of MDA in the fluid suggesting antioxidant property. JB elevated the concentrations of GSH in inflammatory exudates indicating free radical scavenging activity. It also significantly inhibited RBC lysis caused by hypotonic medium, suggesting membrane-stabilizing property.

CONCLUSIONS

JB has in vivo anti-inflammatory activity, which may be related to its antioxidant and membrane-stabilizing properties, supporting its use for the treatment of arthritic disorder.

The reduction of oxidative stress by nanocomposite Fullerol decreases mucositis severity and reverts leukopenia induced by Irinotecan

Irinotecan is a useful chemotherapeutic agent for the treatment of several solid tumors. However, this therapy is associated with side effects, including leukopenia and mucositis. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) activate inflammatory pathways and contribute to Irinotecan-induced mucositis. Fullerol is a nanocomposite with anti-oxidant properties that may reduce tissue damage after inflammatory stimuli. In this paper, the effects of Fullerol and mechanisms of protection were investigated in a model of Irinotecan-induced mucositis. Mucositis was induced by an injection of Irinotecan per 4 days in C57BL/6. Fullerol or a vehicle was injected every 12h. On day 7, the intestines were removed to evaluate histological changes, leukocyte influx, and the production of cytokines and ROS. Irinotecan therapy resulted in weight loss, an increased clinical score and intestinal injury. Treatment with Fullerol attenuated weight loss, decreased clinical score and intestinal damage. Irinotecan also induced increased ROS production in enterocytes, oxidative stress, IL-1β production, neutrophil and eosinophil influx in the ileum. Fullerol treatment decreased production of ROS in the enterocytes, oxidative stress, IL-1β production, neutrophil and eosinophil influx in the ileum. Irinotecan therapy also induced leukopenia in an ROS-dependent manner because leukopenia reverted in WT mice treated with Fullerol or Apocynin or in Gp91phox(-/-) mice. Mice treated with Irinotecan presented less melanoma tumor growth compared to the control group. Fullerol does not interfere in the anti-tumor action of Irinotecan. Fullerol has a great pharmacology potential to decreases the severity of mucositis and of leukopenia during chemotherapy treatment.

Ti–O based nanomaterials ameliorate experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and collagen-induced arthritis

Administration of Ti–O based nanomaterials ameliorated the clinical severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and collagen induced arthritis, thus provide novel therapeutic approach for multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis.

Carboxylic Acid Fullerene (C60) Derivatives Attenuated Neuroinflammatory Responses by Modulating Mitochondrial Dynamics

Fullerene (C60) derivatives, a unique class of compounds with potent antioxidant properties, have been reported to exert a wide variety of biological activities including neuroprotective properties. Mitochondrial dynamics are an important constituent of cellular quality control and function, and an imbalance of the dynamics eventually leads to mitochondria disruption and cell dysfunctions. This study aimed to assess the effects of carboxylic acid C60 derivatives (C60-COOH) on mitochondrial dynamics and elucidate its associated mechanisms in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated BV-2 microglial cell model. Using a cell-based functional screening system labeled with DsRed2-mito in BV-2 cells, we showed that LPS stimulation led to excessive mitochondrial fission, increased mitochondrial localization of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1), both of which were markedly suppressed by C60-COOH pretreatment. LPS-induced mitochondria reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and collapse of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) were also significantly inhibited by C60-COOH. Moreover, we also found that C60-COOH pretreatment resulted in the attenuation of LPS-mediated activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, as well as the production of pro-inflammatory mediators. Taken together, these findings demonstrated that carboxylic acid C60 derivatives may exert neuroprotective effects through regulating mitochondrial dynamics and functions in microglial cells, thus providing novel insights into the mechanisms of the neuroprotective properties of carboxylic acid C60 derivatives.

Nanocomposite treatment reduces disease and lethality in a murine model of acute graft-versus-host disease and preserves anti-tumor effects

Graft versus host disease (GVHD) is an immunological disorder triggered by bone marrow transplantation that affects several organs, including the gastrointestinal tract and liver. Fullerenes and their soluble forms, fullerols, are nanocomposites with a closed symmetrical structure with anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties. The present study evaluated the effects of treatment with the fullerol (C60(OH)18-20) in the development and pathogenesis of GVHD in a murine model. Mice with experimental GVHD that were treated with the fullerol showed reduced clinical signs of disease and mortality compared with untreated mice. Treatment with the fullerol decreased the hepatic damage associated with reduced hepatic levels of reactive oxygen species, pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines (IFN-γ TNF-α, CCL2, CCL3 and CCL5) and reduced leukocyte accumulation. The amelioration of GVHD after treatment with the fullerol was also associated with reduced intestinal lesions and consequent bacterial translocation to the blood, liver and peritoneal cavity. Moreover, the fullerol treatment alleviated the GVHD while preserving effects of the graft against a leukemia cell line (GFP+P815). In summary, the fullerol was effective in reducing the GVHD inflammatory response in mice and may suggest novel ways to treat this disease.

Absence of systemic toxicity in mouse model towards BaTiO3 nanoparticulate based eluate treatment

One of the existing issues in implant failure of orthopedic biomaterials is the toxicity induced by the fine particles released during long term use in vivo, leading to acute inflammatory response. In developing a new class of piezobiocomposite to mimic the integrated electrical and mechanical properties of bone, bone-mimicking physical properties as well as in vitro cytocompatibility properties have been achieved with spark plasma sintered hydroxyapatite (HA)-barium titanate (BaTiO3) composites. However, the presence of BaTiO3 remains a concern towards the potential toxicity effect. To address this issue, present work reports the first result to conclusively confirm the non-toxic effect of HA-BaTiO3 piezobiocomposite nanoparticulates, in vivo. Twenty BALB/c mice were intra-articularly injected at their right knee joints with different concentrations of HA-BaTiO3 composite of up to 25 mg/ml. The histopathological examination confirmed the absence of any trace of injected particles or any sign of inflammatory reaction in the vital organs, such as heart, spleen, kidney and liver at 7 days post-exposure period. Rather, the injected nanoparticulates were found to be agglomerated in the vicinity of the knee joint, surrounded by macrophages. Importantly, the absence of any systemic toxicity response in any of the vital organs in the treated mouse model, other than a mild local response at the site of delivery, was recorded. The serum biochemical analyses using proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β) also complimented to the non-immunogenic response to injected particulates. Altogether, the absence of any inflammatory/adverse reaction will open up myriad of opportunities for BaTiO3 based piezoelectric implantable devices in biomedical applications.

Immunomodulation of nanoparticles in nanomedicine applications

Nanoparticles (NPs) have promising applications in medicine. Immune system is an important protective system to defend organisms from non-self matters. NPs interact with the immune system and modulate its function, leading to immunosuppression or immunostimulation. These modulating effects may bring benefits or danger. Compositions, sizes, and surface chemistry, and so forth, affect these immunomodulations. Here we give an overview of the relationship between the physicochemical properties of NPs, which are candidates to be applied in medicine, and their immunomodulation properties.

Polyhydroxylated fullerene attenuates oxidative stress-induced apoptosis via a fortifying Nrf2-regulated cellular antioxidant defence system

Polyhydroxylated derivatives of fullerene C60, named fullerenols (C60[OH]n), have stimulated great interest because of their potent antioxidant properties in various chemical and biological systems, which enable them to be used as a new promising pharmaceutical for the future treatment of oxidative stress-related diseases, but the details remain unknown. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a principal transcription factor that regulates expression of several antioxidant genes via binding to the antioxidant response element and plays a crucial role in cellular defence against oxidative stress. In this study we investigated whether activation of the Nrf2/antioxidant response element pathway contributes to the cytoprotective effects of C60(OH)24. Our results showed that C60(OH)24 enhanced nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and upregulated expression of phase II antioxidant enzymes, including heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H: quinine oxidoreductase 1, and γ-glutamate cysteine ligase in A549 cells. Treatment with C60(OH)24 resulted in phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38 MAPK), extracellular signal-regulated kinases, and c-Jun-N-terminal kinases. By using inhibitors of cellular kinases, we showed that pretreatment of A549 cells with SB203580, a specific inhibitor of p38 MAPK, abolished nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and induction of HO-1 protein induced by C60(OH)24, indicating an involvement of p38 MAPK in Nrf2/HO-1 activation by C 60(OH)24. Furthermore, pretreatment with C60(OH)24 attenuated hydrogen peroxide-induced apoptotic cell death in A549 cells, and knockdown of Nrf2 by small interfering ribonucleic acid diminished C60(OH)24-mediated cytoprotection. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that C60(OH)24 may attenuate oxidative stress-induced apoptosis via augmentation of Nrf2-regulated cellular antioxidant capacity, thus providing insights into the mechanisms of the antioxidant properties of C60(OH)24.

Polyhydroxylated fullerene attenuates oxidative stress-induced apoptosis via a fortifying Nrf2-regulated cellular antioxidant defence system

Polyhydroxylated derivatives of fullerene C60, named fullerenols (C60[OH]n), have stimulated great interest because of their potent antioxidant properties in various chemical and biological systems, which enable them to be used as a new promising pharmaceutical for the future treatment of oxidative stress-related diseases, but the details remain unknown. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a principal transcription factor that regulates expression of several antioxidant genes via binding to the antioxidant response element and plays a crucial role in cellular defence against oxidative stress. In this study we investigated whether activation of the Nrf2/antioxidant response element pathway contributes to the cytoprotective effects of C60(OH)24. Our results showed that C60(OH)24 enhanced nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and upregulated expression of phase II antioxidant enzymes, including heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H: quinine oxidoreductase 1, and γ-glutamate cysteine ligase in A549 cells. Treatment with C60(OH)24 resulted in phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38 MAPK), extracellular signal-regulated kinases, and c-Jun-N-terminal kinases. By using inhibitors of cellular kinases, we showed that pretreatment of A549 cells with SB203580, a specific inhibitor of p38 MAPK, abolished nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and induction of HO-1 protein induced by C60(OH)24, indicating an involvement of p38 MAPK in Nrf2/HO-1 activation by C 60(OH)24. Furthermore, pretreatment with C60(OH)24 attenuated hydrogen peroxide-induced apoptotic cell death in A549 cells, and knockdown of Nrf2 by small interfering ribonucleic acid diminished C60(OH)24-mediated cytoprotection. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that C60(OH)24 may attenuate oxidative stress-induced apoptosis via augmentation of Nrf2-regulated cellular antioxidant capacity, thus providing insights into the mechanisms of the antioxidant properties of C60(OH)24.

Growth and potential damage of human bone-derived cells on fresh and aged fullerene c60 films

Fullerenes are nanoparticles composed of carbon atoms arranged in a spherical hollow cage-like structure. Numerous studies have evaluated the therapeutic potential of fullerene derivates against oxidative stress-associated conditions, including the prevention or treatment of arthritis. On the other hand, fullerenes are not only able to quench, but also to generate harmful reactive oxygen species. The reactivity of fullerenes may change in time due to the oxidation and polymerization of fullerenes in an air atmosphere. In this study, we therefore tested the dependence between the age of fullerene films (from one week to one year) and the proliferation, viability and metabolic activity of human osteosarcoma cells (lines MG-63 and U-2 OS). We also monitored potential membrane and DNA damage and morphological changes of the cells. After seven days of cultivation, we did not observe any cytotoxic morphological changes, such as enlarged cells or cytosolic vacuole formation. Furthermore, there was no increased level of DNA damage. The increasing age of the fullerene films did not cause enhancement of cytotoxicity. On the contrary, it resulted in an improvement in the properties of these materials, which are more suitable for cell cultivation. Therefore, fullerene films could be considered as a promising material with potential use as a bioactive coating of cell carriers for bone tissue engineering.

Antioxidant carbon particles improve cerebrovascular dysfunction following traumatic brain injury

Injury to the neurovasculature is a feature of brain injury and must be addressed to maximize opportunity for improvement. Cerebrovascular dysfunction, manifested by reduction in cerebral blood flow (CBF), is a key factor that worsens outcome after traumatic brain injury (TBI), most notably under conditions of hypotension. We report here that a new class of antioxidants, poly(ethylene glycol)-functionalized hydrophilic carbon clusters (PEG-HCCs), which are nontoxic carbon particles, rapidly restore CBF in a mild TBI/hypotension/resuscitation rat model when administered during resuscitation--a clinically relevant time point. Along with restoration of CBF, there is a concomitant normalization of superoxide and nitric oxide levels. Given the role of poor CBF in determining outcome, this finding is of major importance for improving patient health under clinically relevant conditions during resuscitative care, and it has direct implications for the current TBI/hypotension war-fighter victims in the Afghanistan and Middle East theaters. The results also have relevancy in other related acute circumstances such as stroke and organ transplantation.

Fullerol antagonizes dexamethasone-induced oxidative stress and adipogenesis while enhancing osteogenesis in a cloned bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell

Increased oxidative stress is currently considered as a crucial cause of corticosteroid-induced osteonecrosis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of fullerol, a powerful antioxidant, on adipogenic and osteogenic differentiation of a mouse bone marrow derived multipotent cell line, D1. Upon treatment with dexamethasone, D1 cells containing lipid vesicles were distinguishable from the surrounding cells by Oil Red O staining at day 21. Simultaneous treatment of dexamethasone with antioxidant glutathione or fullerol decreased the number of cells containing lipid vesicles. Treatment with dexamethasone for 7 days resulted in a significant increase in adipogenic markers peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and adipocyte protein 2 gene expression and decrease in expression of osteogenic markers runt-related transcription factor 2 and osteocalcin and antioxidative enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase as revealed by quantitative real-time PCR. While glutathione and fullerol both were able to antagonize the effects of dexamethasone, fullerol had a greater effect than glutathione. Staining with a fluorescent dye CM-H(2) DCFDA as indicator of cellular reactive oxygen species revealed that the percentage of positively stained cells increased after dexamethasone treatment, and addition of fullerol attenuated this activity. These results indicated that fullerol inhibited adipogenesis and simultaneously enhanced osteogenesis by marrow mesenchymal stem cells possibly through elimination of cellular reactive oxygen species. The results indicated that fullerol can potentially be used for prevention and treatment of corticosteroid-induced osteonecrosis.

Effect of buckminsterfullerenes on cells of the innate and adaptive immune system: an in vitro study with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

C60 nanoparticles, the so-called buckminsterfullerenes, have attracted great attention for medical applications as carriers, enzyme inhibitors or radical scavengers. However, publications evaluating their immunological mechanisms are still rather limited. Therefore, we aimed to analyze systematically the in vitro influence of polyhydroxy-C60 (poly-C60) and N-ethyl-polyamino-C60 (nepo-C60) on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from healthy individuals, angling their effect on proliferation, expression of surface markers, and cytokine production. We isolated PBMC from 20 healthy subjects and incubated them in a first step only with poly-C60 or nepo-C60, and in a second step together with recall antigens (purified protein derivative, tetanus toxoid, bacillus Calmette-Guérin). Proliferation was determined by (3)H-thymidine incorporation, activation of PBMC-subpopulations by flow cytometry by measurement of the activation marker CD69, and secretion of T helper cell type 1 (TH1)- (interferon-gamma [IFN-γ], tumor necrosis factor beta [TNF-β]), TH2- (interleukin-5 [IL-5], -13, -10) and macrophage/monocyte-related cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α) into the supernatants by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Both fullerenes did not influence T cell reactivity, with no enhanced expression of CD69 and production of T cell cytokines observed, the CD4/CD8 ratio remaining unaffected. In contrast, they significantly enhanced the release of IL-6 and CD69-expression by CD56 positive natural killer cells. PBMC, which had been cultured together with the three recall antigens were not affected by both fullerenes at all. These data indicate that fullerenes do not interact with T cell reactivity but may activate cells of the innate immune system. Furthermore, they seem to act only on 'naïve' cells, which have not been prestimulated with recall antigens, there are however, large inter individual differences.

Nanomedicine: evolutionary and revolutionary developments in the treatment of certain inflammatory diseases

Nanomedicine, although in a nascent stage of development at present, is already a reality. Several pharmaceutical products using this modern technology are already on the market. Nanotechnology offers many potential benefits to medical research. Nanoparticle-based drug carriers can increase the efficacy and safety of drugs by enhancing capacity, improving solubility, combining multiple drugs, protecting against metabolism, and controlling release. Nanoparticles can also form the basis of multifunctional drug delivery vehicles by combining targeting, imaging, and therapeutic moieties. Multifunctional nanoparticles have tremendous potential to treat human diseases. The use of non-viral carriers (nanoparticles) can also improve the cellular/nuclear uptake of corresponding nucleotides. Preclinical characterization of nanoparticles intended for medical applications is complicated-due to the variety of materials used, their unique surface properties, and multifunctional nature. It is hard to predict what precise course nanomedicine will take in years to come. It is, however, very likely that this relatively young research area will become a driving force behind a vast revolution in medical treatment.

Carbon nanostructures for orthopedic medical applications

Carbon nanostructures (including carbon nanofibers, nanostructured diamond, fullerene materials and so forth) possess extraordinary physiochemical, mechanical and electrical properties attractive to bioengineers and medical researchers. In the past decade, numerous developments towards the fabrication and biological studies of carbon nanostructures have provided opportunities to improve orthopedic applications. Therefore, the aim of this article is to provide an up-to-date review on carbon nanostructure advances in orthopedic research. Orthopedic medical device applications of carbon nanotubes/carbon nanofibers and nanostructured diamond (including particulate nanodiamond and nanocrystalline diamond coatings) are emphasized here along with other carbon nanostructures that have promising potential. In addition, widely used fabrication techniques for producing carbon nanostructures in both the laboratory and in industry are briefly introduced. In conclusion, carbon nanostructures have demonstrated tremendous promise for orthopedic medical device applications to date, and although some safety, reliability and durability issues related to the manufacturing and implantation of carbon nanomaterials remain, their future is bright.

Cell delivery of therapeutic nanoparticles

Nanomedicine seeks to manufacture drugs and other biologically relevant molecules that are packaged into nanoscale systems for improved delivery. This includes known drugs, proteins, enzymes, and antibodies that have limited clinical efficacy based on delivery, circulating half-lives, or toxicity profiles. The <100 nm nanoscale physical properties afford them a unique biologic potential for biomedical applications. Hence they are attractive systems for treatment of cancer, heart and lung, blood, inflammatory, and infectious diseases. Proposed clinical applications include tissue regeneration, cochlear and retinal implants, cartilage and joint repair, skin regeneration, antimicrobial therapy, correction of metabolic disorders, and targeted drug delivery to diseased sites including the central nervous system. The potential for cell and immune side effects has necessitated new methods for determining formulation toxicities. To realize the potential of nanomedicine from the bench to the patient bedside, our laboratories have embarked on developing cell-based carriage of drug nanoparticles to improve clinical outcomes in infectious and degenerative diseases. The past half decade has seen the development and use of cells of mononuclear phagocyte lineage, including dendritic cells, monocytes, and macrophages, as Trojan horses for carriage of anti-inflammatory and anti-infective medicines. The promise of this new technology and the perils in translating it for clinical use are developed and discussed in this chapter.