Understanding and managing oral bioavailability: physiological concepts and patents

Sub-chronic oral toxicity of a water-soluble extract of Centella asiatica (Centell-S) in Wistar rats

BACKGROUND

Centell-S, a water-soluble extract from Centella asiatica, is predominantly composed of madecassoside and asiaticoside, exceeding 80% w/w. Pursuing its development as an herbal medicinal product, Centell-S underwent sub-chronic toxicity assessment adhering to OECD GLP 408 standards.

METHODS

In a study involving 100 Wistar rats, varying doses of Centell-S (50, 200, or 800 mg/kg/day) or a vehicle control were administered orally over 90 days. To evaluate Centell-S's safety profile, assessments included clinical observations, health examinations, clinical biochemistry analyses, and detailed anatomical pathology evaluations were conducted.

RESULTS

Over the 90 days of treatment, the administration of Centell-S did not lead to any fatalities in the test animals. Clinical observations did not reveal any signs indicative of toxic effects. Notably, an increase in total white blood cell and lymphocyte counts was observed in both sexes, yet these levels returned to normal following a two-week discontinuation period post-treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Under the specific conditions of the OECD GLP 408, Repeated Dose 90-day Oral Toxicity Study in Rodents, the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of Centell-S was 800 mg/kg/day. These findings are promising for the continued development of Centell-S as a phytopharmaceutical for clinical applications.

Therapeutic effects of Siegesbeckia orientalis L. and its active compound luteolin in rheumatoid arthritis: network pharmacology, molecular docking and experimental validation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common difficult disease with a high disability rate. Siegesbeckia orientalis L. (SO), a Chinese medicinal herb that is commonly used for treating RA in clinical practice. While, the anti-RA effect and the mechanisms of action of SO, as well as its active compound(s) have not been elucidated clearly.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We aim to explore the molecular mechanism of SO against RA by using network pharmacology analysis, as well as the in vitro and in vivo experimental validations, and to explore the potential bioactive compound(s) in SO.

METHODS

Network pharmacology is an advanced technology that provides us an efficient way to study the therapeutic actions of herbs with the underlying mechanisms of action delineated. Here, we used this approach to explore the anti-RA effects of SO, and then the molecular biological approaches were used to verify the prediction. We first established a drug-ingredient-target-disease network and a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of SO-related RA targets, followed by the Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses. Further, we used lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages and vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGFA)-induced human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) models, as well as adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) rat model to validate the anti-RA effects of SO. The chemical profile of SO was also determined by using the UHPLC-TOF-MS/MS analysis.

RESULTS

Network pharmacology analysis highlighted inflammatory- and angiogenesis-related signaling pathways as promising pathways that mediate the anti-RA effects of SO. Further, in both in vivo and in vitro models, we found that the anti-RA effect of SO is at least partially due to the inhibition of toll like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling. Molecular docking analysis revealed that luteolin, an active compound in SO, shows the highest degree of connections in compound-target network; moreover, it has a direct binding to the TLR4/MD-2 complex, which is confirmed in cell models. Besides, more than forty compounds including luteolin, darutoside and kaempferol corresponding to their individual peaks were identified tentatively via matching with the empirical molecular formulae and their mass fragments.

CONCLUSION

We found that SO and its active compound luteolin exhibit anti-RA activities and potently inhibit TLR4 signaling both in vitro and in vivo. These findings not only indicate the advantage of network pharmacology in the discovery of herb-based therapeutics for treating diseases, but also suggest that SO and its active compound(s) could be developed as potential anti-RA therapeutic drugs.

Rhizoma Atractylodis Macrocephalae-Assessing the influence of herbal processing methods and improved effects on functional dyspepsia

Background: The unique pharmaceutical methods for the processing of botanical drugs according to the theory of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) affect clinical syndrome differentiation and treatment. The objective of this study was to comprehensively elucidate the principles and mechanisms of an herbal processing method by investigating the alterations in the metabolites of Rhizoma Atractylodis Macrocephalae (AMR) processed by Aurantii Fructus Immaturus (AFI) decoction and to determine how these changes enhance the efficacy of aqueous extracts in treating functional dyspepsia (FD). Methods: A qualitative analysis of AMR before and after processing was conducted using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS, and HPLC was employed for quantitative analysis. A predictive analysis was then conducted using a network analysis strategy to establish a botanical drug-metabolite-target-disease (BMTD) network and a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, and the predictions were validated using an FD rat model. Results: A total of 127 metabolites were identified in the processed AMR (PAMR), and substantial changes were observed in 8 metabolites of PAMR after processing, as revealed by the quantitative analysis. The enhanced aqueous extracts of processed AMR (PAMR) demonstrate improved efficacy in treating FD, which indicates that this processing method enhances the anti-inflammatory properties and promotes gastric motility by modulating DRD2, SCF, and c-kit. However, this enhancement comes at the cost of attenuating the regulation of motilin (MTL), gastrin (GAS), acetylcholine (Ach), and acetylcholinesterase (AchE). Conclusion: Through this series of investigations, we aimed to unravel the factors influencing the efficacy of this herbal formulation in improving FD in clinical settings.

Bioenhancing effects of piperine and curcumin on triterpenoid pharmacokinetics and neurodegenerative metabolomes from Centella asiatica extract in beagle dogs

Centell-S is a water-soluble extract of Centella asiatica containing more than 80% w/w triterpenoid glycosides. Madecassoside and asiaticoside are two major components of the extract and can be converted into active metabolites, triterpenic acids in large mammal species. In this study, the pharmacokinetic profiles and metabolomic changes generated by the bioactive triterpenoids of Centell-S alone, and in combination with the bioenhancers piperine and curcumin, were investigated in beagle dogs. The test substances were orally administered over multiple doses for 7 consecutive days. At day 1 and 7 after receiving the test compounds, the level of major bioactive triterpenoids and related metabolites were measured using triple quadrupole and high-resolution accurate mass orbitrap models of LCMS to determine pharmacokinetic and metabolomic profiles, respectively. Centell-S was well tolerated, alone and in all combination groups. The combination of Centell-S and piperine significantly increased (p < 0.05) the systemic exposure of madecassoside on day 1 and asiatic acid on day 7, by approximately 1.5 to 3.0-fold of C_max and AUC values as compared to the Centell-S alone, while the addition of curcumin did not provide a significant improvement. Several metabolomic changes were observed from pre-dose to 4 h post-dose, with some biomarkers of neurodegenerative diseases including L-glutamine, lysophosphatidylcholine (17:0), taurochenodeoxycholic acid, uric acid, stearic acid, palmitic acid, and lactic acid showing good correlation with the systemic exposure of the bioactive triterpenoids (asiatic acid). Thus, the combining of piperine to Centell-S exhibits the improvement of bioactive triterpenoids which are related to the biomarkers of neurodegenerative diseases. These promising results might be useful for the development of this standardised extract to become a more effective phytomedicine for neurodegenerative diseases.

Exploring the Potential Mechanism of Chuanxiong Rhizoma Treatment for Migraine Based on Systems Pharmacology

Migraine is a disease whose aetiology and mechanism are not yet clear. Chuanxiong Rhizoma (CR) is employed in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to treat various disorders. CR is effective for migraine, but its active compounds, drug targets, and exact molecular mechanism remain unclear. In this study, we used the method of systems pharmacology to address the above issues. We first established the drug-compound-target-disease (D-C-T-D) network and protein-protein interaction (PPI) network related to the treatment of migraine with CR and then established gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses. The results suggest that the treatment process may be related to the regulation of inflammation and neural activity. The docking results also revealed that PTGS2 and TRPV1 could directly bind to the active compounds that could regulate them. In addition, we found that CR affected 11 targets that were more highly expressed in the liver or heart but were the lowest in the whole brain. It also expounds the description of CR channel tropism in TCM theory from these angles. These findings not only indicate that CR can be developed as a potential effective drug for the treatment of migraine but also demonstrate the application of systems pharmacology in the discovery of herbal-based disease therapies.

Exploring the Mechanism of Action of Herbal Medicine (Gan-Mai-Da-Zao Decoction) for Poststroke Depression Based on Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking

BACKGROUND

Poststroke depression (PSD) is the most common and serious neuropsychiatric complication occurring after cerebrovascular accidents, seriously endangering human health while also imposing a heavy burden on society. Nevertheless, it is difficult to control disease progression. Gan-Mai-Da-Zao Decoction (GMDZD) is effective for PSD, but its mechanism of action in PSD is unknown. In this study, we explored the mechanism of action of GMDZD in PSD treatment using network pharmacology and molecular docking. Material and methods. We obtained the active components of all drugs and their targets from the public database TCMSP and published articles. Then, we collected PSD-related targets from the GeneCards and OMIM databases. Cytoscape 3.8.2 was applied to construct PPI and composite target disease networks. In parallel, the DAVID database was used to perform GO and KEGG enrichment analyses to determine the biological processes enriched in the treatment-related drugs in vivo. Finally, molecular docking was used to verify the association between the main active ingredients and their targets.

RESULTS

The network pharmacological analysis of GMDZD in PSD revealed 107 active ingredients with important biological effects, including quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, naringenin, and isorhamnetin. In total, 203 potential targets for the treatment of this disease were screened, including STAT3, JUN, TNF, TPT53, AKT1, and EGFR. These drugs are widely enriched in a series of signaling pathways, such as TNF, HIF-1, and toll-like receptor. Moreover, molecular docking analysis showed that the core active components were tightly bound to their core targets, further confirming their anti-PSD effects.

CONCLUSION

This prospective study was based on the integrated analysis of large data using network pharmacology technology to explore the feasibility of GMDZD for PSD treatment that was successfully validated by molecular docking. It reflects the multicomponent and multitarget characteristics of Chinese medicine and, more importantly, brings hope for the clinical treatment of PSD.

Study on the Potential Mechanism of Fructus Tribuli in the Treatment of Hypertensive Vascular Remodeling Based on Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking

Background

Hypertensive vascular remodeling (HVR) is the pathophysiological basis of hypertension, which is also an important cause of vascular disease and target organ damage. Treatment with Fructus Tribuli (FT), a traditional Chinese medicine, has a positive effect on HVR. However, the pharmacological mechanisms of FT are still unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to reveal the potential mechanisms involved in the effects of FT on HVR based on network pharmacology and molecular docking.

Materials and Methods

We selected the active compounds and targets of FT according to the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform (TCMSP) and the Swiss Target Prediction database, and the targets of HVR were collected from the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM), GeneCards, and DrugBank databases. The protein-protein interaction network (PPI) was established using the STRING database. Moreover, Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses and network analysis were performed to further explore the potential mechanisms. Finally, molecular docking methods were used to evaluate the affinity between the active compounds and the main target.

Results

Seventeen active compounds of FT  and 164 potential targets for the treatment of HVR were identified. Component-target and PPI networks were constructed, and 12 main active components and 33 main targets were identified by analyzing the topological parameters. Additionally, GO analysis indicated that the potential targets were enriched in 483 biological processes, 52 cellular components, and 110 molecular functions. KEGG analysis revealed that the potential targets were correlated with 122 pathways, such as the HIF-1 signaling pathway, ErbB signaling pathway, and VEGF signaling pathway. Finally, molecular docking showed that the 12 main active components had a good affinity for the top five main targets.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated the multiple compounds, targets, and pathway characteristics of FT in the treatment of HVR. The network pharmacology method provided a novel research approach to analyze potential mechanisms.

Network Pharmacology-Based Strategy for the Investigation of the Anti-Obesity Effects of an Ethanolic Extract of Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim

Network pharmacology is considered as the next paradigm in drug discovery. In an era when obesity has become global epidemic, network pharmacology becomes an ideal tool to discover novel herbal-based therapeutics with effective anti-obesity effects. Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim (ZBM) is a medicinal herb. The mature pericarp of ZBM is used for disease treatments and as spice for cooking. Here, we used the network pharmacology approach to investigate whether ZBM possesses anti-obesity effects and reveal the underlying mechanism of action. We first built up drug–ingredient–gene symbol–disease network and protein–protein interaction network of the ZBM-related obesity targets, followed by Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analyses. The results highlight apoptosis as a promising signaling pathway that mediates the anti-obesity effects of ZBM. Molecular docking also reveals quercetin, a compound in ZBM has the highest degree of connections in the compound-target network and has direct bindings with the apoptotic markers. Furthermore, the apoptotic effects of ZBM are further validated in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and in the high-fat diet–induced obesity mouse model. These findings not only suggest ZBM can be developed as potential anti-obesity therapeutics but also demonstrate the application of network pharmacology for the discovery of herbal-based therapeutics for disease treatments.

Exploring active ingredients and function mechanisms of Ephedra-bitter almond for prevention and treatment of Corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) based on network pharmacology

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 has caused a global pandemic, and there is no wonder drug for epidemic control at present. However, many clinical practices have shown that traditional Chinese medicine has played an important role in treating the outbreak. Among them, ephedra-bitter almond is a common couplet medicine in anti-COVID-19 prescriptions. This study aims to conduct an exploration of key components and mechanisms of ephedra-bitter almond anti-COVID-19 based on network pharmacology.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We collected and screened potential active components of ephedra-bitter almond based on the TCMSP Database, and we predicted targets of the components. Meanwhile, we collected relevant targets of COVID-19 through the GeneCards and CTD databases. Then, the potential targets of ephedra-bitter almond against COVID-19 were screened out. The key components, targets, biological processes, and pathways of ephedra-bitter almond anti-COVID-19 were predicted by constructing the relationship network of herb-component-target (H-C-T), protein-protein interaction (PPI), and functional enrichment. Finally, the key components and targets were docked by AutoDock Vina to explore their binding mode.

RESULTS

Ephedra-bitter almond played an overall regulatory role in anti-COVID-19 via the patterns of multi-component-target-pathway. In addition, some key components of ephedra-bitter almond, such as β-sitosterol, estrone, and stigmasterol, had high binding activity to 3CL and ACE2 by molecular docking simulation, which provided new molecular structures for new drug development of COVID-19.

CONCLUSION

Ephedra-bitter almonds were used to prevent and treat COVID-19 through directly inhibiting the virus, regulating immune responses, and promoting body repair. However, this work is a prospective study based on data mining, and the findings need to be interpreted with caution.

Integrated Phytochemical Analysis Based on UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS, Network Pharmacology, and Experiment Verification to Explore the Potential Mechanism of Platycodon grandiflorum for Chronic Bronchitis

Background and Aim

Platycodon grandiflorum (PG) has been widely used for treating chronic bronchitis (CB). However, the material basis and underlying mechanism of action of PG against CB have not yet been elucidated.

Methods

To analyze the ingredients in PG, ultraperformance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight tandem mass (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) technology was performed. Subsequently, using data mining and network pharmacology methodology, combined with Discovery Studio 2016 (DS), Cytoscape v3.7.1, and other software, active ingredients, drug-disease targets, and key pathways of PG in the treatment of CB were evaluated. Finally, the reliability of the core targets was evaluated using molecular docking technology and in vitro studies.

Results

A total of 36 compounds were identified in PG. According to the basic properties of the compounds, 10 major active ingredients, including platycodin D, were obtained. Based on the data mining approach, the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database, and the Analysis Platform (TCMSP), GeneCards, and other databases were used to obtain targets related to the active ingredients of PG and CB. Network analysis was performed on 144 overlapping gene symbols, and twenty core targets, including interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which indicated that the potential signaling pathway that was most relevant to the treatment of CB was the IL-17 signaling pathway.

Conclusion

In this study, ingredient analysis, network pharmacology analysis, and experiment verification were combined, and revealed that PG can be used to treat CB by reducing inflammation. Our findings provide novel insight into the mechanism of action of Chinese medicine. Furthermore, our data are of value for the research and development of novel drugs and the application thereof.

Study on Mechanism of Iridoid Glycosides Derivatives from Fructus Gardeniae in Jiangxi Province by Network Pharmacology

Objective

To investigate the pharmacological mechanism of the iridoid glycosides from Fructus Gardeniae in Jiangxi province by network pharmacology. To provide a valuable research strategy for the rational use and in-depth research and development of Fructus Gardeniae from Jiangxi.

Method

Previous research results of our group show that the contents of iridoid glycosides in Fructus Gardeniae from Jiangxi province have a significant difference compared with other regions (P < 0.05). Based on our previous experimental results, this study selected six characteristic high-content bioactive iridoid glycosides components of Fructus Gardeniae from Jiangxi province as candidate components. TCMSP database was used to obtain the process parameters of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of candidate components. PubChem and SWISS online database were used to predict the related targets. Cytoscape software was used to the construct compound-target-disease (C-T-D) network of the Fructus Gardeniae iridoid glycosides ingredients. Furthermore, the GO biological process analysis and the pathway enrichment analysis were carried out using the CTD online analysis platform; then, an illustrated network that contains the main “chemicals-targets-pathway (C-T-P)” was constructed to analyze main biological pathways for obtaining the deep mechanism of Fructus Gardeniae in Jiangxi.

Results

6 iridoid glycosides, namely geniposide, gardenoside, geniposidic acid, genipin 1-gentiobioside, gardoside, and shanzhiside, from Fructus Gardeniae in Jiangxi province were obtained as candidate components through previous work and network pharmacology screening. 36 corresponding targets were acted, such as BCL2, MAPT, F2, BCL2L1, PRKCD, PRKCB, HIF1A, and PRKCA. These targets could joint in pathways, such as signaling by GPCR, neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, inflammatory mediator regulation of TRP channels, and ion channel transport. Interestingly, these pathways were highly associated with liver diseases, neurological diseases, hypertension, neoplasms, hyperalgesia, and inflammation. Remarkably, we boldly speculate that the Fructus Gardeniae from Jiangxi province can play a pharmacological role in hepatic encephalopathy through regulating multiple signaling pathways in an integrated manner.

Conclusion

The method based on system pharmacology could help to find the key targets of characteristic high-content chemical constituents of herb from different producing areas, the signaling pathway and disease network of TCM, and provide useful information and data support for giving a further study on traditional Chinese medicine resources in different regions of China.

Network Pharmacology-Based Identification of the Mechanisms of Shen-Qi Compound Formula in Treating Diabetes Mellitus

Aim

The purpose of this research is to identify the mechanisms of Shen-Qi compound formula (SQC), a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), for treating diabetes mellitus (DM) using system pharmacology.

Methods

The active components and therapeutic targets were identified, and these targets were analyzed using gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis, and protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis. Finally, an integrated pathway was constructed to show the mechanisms of SQC.

Results

A total of 282 active components and 195 targets were identified through a database search. The component-target network was constructed, and the key components were screened out according to their degree. Through the GO, PPI, and KEGG analyses, the mechanism network of SQC treating DM was constructed.

Conclusions

This study shows that the mechanisms of SQC treating DM are related to various pathways and targets. This study provides a good foundation and basis for further in-depth verification and clinical application.

Uncovering the mechanism of the effects of Paeoniae Radix Alba on iron-deficiency anaemia through a network pharmacology-based strategy

BACKGROUND

Paeoniae Radix Alba, the root of the plant Paeonia lactiflora Pall, is a common blood-enriching drug in traditional Chinese medicine. Its effectiveness in the clinical treatment of anaemia is remarkable, but its potential pharmacologic mechanism has not been clarified.

METHODS

In this study, the potential pharmacologic mechanism of Paeoniae Radix Alba in the treatment of iron-deficiency anaemia was preliminarily elucidated through systematic and comprehensive network pharmacology.

RESULTS

Specifically, we obtained 15 candidate active ingredients from among 146 chemical components in Paeoniae Radix Alba. The ingredients were predicted to target 77 genes associated with iron-deficiency anaemia. In-depth analyses of these targets revealed that they were mostly associated with energy metabolism, cell proliferation, and stress responses, suggesting that Paeoniae Radix Alba helps alleviate iron-deficiency anaemia by affecting these processes. In addition, we conducted a core target analysis and a cluster analysis of protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks. The results showed that four pathways, the p53 signalling pathway, the IL-17 signalling pathway, the TNF signalling pathway and the AGE-RAGE signalling pathway in diabetic complications, may be major pathways associated with the ameliorative effects of Paeoniae Radix Alba on iron-deficiency anaemia. Moreover, molecular docking verified the credibility of the network for molecular target prediction.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, this study predicted the functional ingredients in Paeoniae Radix Alba and their targets and uncovered the mechanism of action of this drug, providing new insights for advanced research on Paeoniae Radix Alba and other traditional Chinese medicines.

Experimental Evaluation of Anticancer Efficiency and Acute Toxicity of Anthrafuran for Oral Administration

The new antitumor agent anthrafuran has demonstrated a consistent effect in murine tumor models when administered parenterally due to the simultaneous inhibition of multiple cellular targets such as topoisomerases I/II and protein kinases. In this study, we assessed the anticancer efficiency and acute toxicity of anthrafuran administered orally. The action of anthrafuran was studied on transplanted tumor models which included P388 leukemia, Ca755 mammary adenocarcinoma, LLC lung carcinoma, and T47D human breast cancer xenografts on Balb/c nude mice. A significant antitumor efficacy of oral anthrafuran was revealed for all tested tumor models as follows: T/C_max = 219% for P388, TGI_max = 91% for Ca755, TGI_max = 84% with CR_max = 54% for LLC, and T/C = 38% for T47D. The optimal treatment schedule of orally administered anthrafuran was 70–100 mg/kg given daily for five days. The LD₅₀ value of orally administered anthrafuran (306.7 mg/kg) in mice was six times higher than that for i.p. administration (52.5 mg/kg). The rates of antitumor efficacy and acute toxicity indicate the high potential for further research on anthrafuran as a new original oral anticancer multitarget agent with an expected satisfactory tolerability and bioavailability.

Systems Pharmacology-Based Strategy to Investigate Pharmacological Mechanisms of Radix Puerariae for Treatment of Hypertension

Hypertension is a clinical cardiovascular syndrome characterized by elevated systemic arterial pressure with or without multiple cardiovascular risk factors. Radix Pueraria (RP) has the effects of anti-myocardial ischemia, anti-arrhythmia, vasodilatation, blood pressure reduction, anti-inflammation, and attenuating insulin resistance. Although RP can be effective for the treatment of hypertension, its active compounds, drug targets, and exact molecular mechanism are still unclear. In this study, systems pharmacology was used to analyze the active compounds, drug target genes, and key pathways of RP in the treatment of hypertension. Thirteen active compounds and related information on RP were obtained from the TCMSP database, and 140 overlapping genes related to hypertension and drugs were obtained from the GeneCards and OMIM databases. A PPI network and a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) comprehensive network (Drug-Compounds-Genes-Disease network) were constructed, and 2,246 GO terms and 157 pathways were obtained by GO enrichment analysis and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis. Some important active compounds and targets were evaluated by in vitro experiments. This study shows that RP probably acts by influencing the proliferation module, apoptosis module, inflammation module, and others when treating hypertension. This study provides novel insights for researchers to systematically explore the mechanism of action of TCM.

Network Pharmacology-Based Strategy to Investigate the Pharmacologic Mechanisms of Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. for the Treatment of Chronic Gastritis

Chronic gastritis (CG) is an inflammatory disease. Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (AMK) is employed in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to treat various disorders. AMK can be efficacious against CG, but the active ingredients, drug targets, and its exact molecular mechanism are not known. We employed network pharmacology to analyze the active ingredients, drug targets, and key pathways of AMK in CG treatment. Seventy-seven AMK candidate ingredients were selected from four databases, and 27 active ingredients were selected for CG treatment. Twenty-five overlapping gene symbols related to CG and drugs were obtained from GeneCards and OMIM databases. A protein–protein interaction (PPI) network and TCM comprehensive network (Drug–Ingredients–Gene symbols–Disease network) were constructed, and 528 Gene Ontology (GO) terms and 26 pathways were obtained by analyses of enrichment of GO pathways and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways. We suggest that the interleukin-17 signaling pathway, C-type lectin receptor signaling pathway, tumor necrosis factor signaling pathway, and AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications might serve as the key points and principal pathways for CG treatment. We also evaluated the reliability of some important active ingredients and targets by in vitro experiments. We showed that AMK probably influences the inflammatory response, amino acid synthesis, and energy metabolism when treating CG. This study provides novel insights for researchers to explore the mechanism of action of TCM systematically.

A Systems Pharmacology Approach for Identifying the Multiple Mechanisms of Action of the Wei Pi Xiao Decoction for the Treatment of Gastric Precancerous Lesions

The Wei Pi Xiao (WPX) decoction, based on the theory of traditional Chinese medicine, has been widely used for the treatment of gastric precancerous lesions (GPL). Although WPX is known to be effective for the treatment of GPL, its active ingredients, cellular targets, and the precise molecular mechanism of action are not known. This study aimed to identify the multiple mechanisms of action of the WPX decoction in the treatment of GPL. The active compounds, drug targets, and the key pathways involved in the therapeutic effect of WPX in the treatment of GPL were analyzed by an integrative analysis pipeline. The information pertaining to the compounds present in WPX and their disease targets was obtained from TCMSP and GeneCards, respectively. The mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effect of WPX were investigated with gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis. A total of 82 bioactive compounds and 146 related targets were identified in this study. Following target analyses, the targets were further mapped to 26 key biological processes and 21 related pathways to construct a target-pathway network and an integrated GPL pathway. The study demonstrated that the WPX formula primarily treats the dysfunctions of GPL arising from cell proliferation, apoptosis, and mucosal inflammation, which offered a novel insight into the pathogenesis of GPL and revealed the molecular mechanism underlying the therapeutic effects of the WPX formula in GPL. This study offers a novel approach for the systematic investigation of the mechanisms of action of herbal medicines, which will provide an impetus to the GPL drug development pipeline.

Labrasol-Enriched Nanoliposomal Formulation: Novel Approach to Improve Oral Absorption of Water-Insoluble Drug, Carvedilol

The purpose of the current study was to develop a novel liposomal formulation to improve the oral bioavailability of carvedilol, a Biopharmaceutics Classification System class II with poor aqueous solubility and extensive presystemic metabolism. Conventional and various surfactant-enriched carvedilol-loaded liposomes were prepared by thin film hydration technique and physicochemical properties of liposomes (including size, encapsulation efficiency, release behavior, and morphology) were evaluated. To assess the oral bioavailability, in vivo studies were carried out in eight groups of male Wistar rats (n = 6) and the drug plasma concentration was determined. Conventional and surfactant containing liposomes showed average particle size of 76-104 nm with a narrow size distribution, high encapsulation efficiency (80%≤) and a sustained release profile in simulated intestinal fluid. Compared to the suspension, conventional and Labrasol containing liposomes significantly improved the oral bioavailability and peak plasma concentration of carvedilol. Biocompatibility studies (cell cytotoxicity and histopathological analyses) showed that the enhancing effect might be achieved without any apparent toxicity in the intestine. Decreased oral absorption of carvedilol nanovesicles by using a chylomicron flow blocker indicated contribution of lymphatic transport in nanocapsules absorption. The results reported the successful development of biocompatible Labrasol-enriched carvedilol nanoliposomal formulation with a significant oral enhancement capability. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

Effervescence Assisted Fusion Technique to Enhance the Solubility of Drugs

The solubility of five poorly soluble drugs was enhanced by using an effervescence assisted solid dispersion (EASD) technique. EASDs were prepared by using modified fusion method. Drug and hydrophilic carrier were melted, and in this molten mixture, effervescence was generated by adding effervescence couple comprising organic acid (citric acid) and carbonic base (sodium bicarbonate). Solubility of drug powders, solid dispersions, and EASDs was determined at 25°C using shake flask method. Atorvastatin calcium, cefuroxime axetil, clotrimazole, ketoconazole, and metronidazole benzoate were estimated using a spectrophotometer at 246, 280, 260, 230, and 232 nm (λ max), respectively. Solubility of atorvastatin calcium (from 100 to 345 μg/ml), cefuroxime axetil (from 441 to 1948 μg/ml), clotrimazole (from 63 to 677 μg/ml), ketoconazole (from 16 to 500 μg/ml), and metronidazole benzoate (from 112 to 208 μg/ml) in EASDs was enhanced by 3.45-, 4.4-, 10.7-, 31.2-, and 1.8-fold, respectively. Scanning electron micrographs of drug powder, solid dispersion, and EASDs were compared. Scanning electron micrographs of EASDs showed a uniform distribution of drug particles in the carrier matrix. Morphology (size and shape) of cefuroxime axetil particles was altered in solid dispersion as well as in EASD. EASDs showed better solubility enhancement than conventional solid dispersions. The present technique is better suitable for drugs having a low melting point or melt without charring. Effervescence assisted fusion technique of preparing solid dispersions can be employed for enhancing solubility, dissolution, and bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs.