A synthesis of giant panda habitat selection

Coexistence patterns of sympatric giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) in Changqing National Nature Reserve, China

Similar species may co-occur in sympatry because of the partitioning of habitat use and resources at different spatial and temporal scales. Understanding coexistence patterns of species may contribute to further uncovering the underlying coexistence mechanisms, and ultimately benefit the conservation of threatened species. In this study, camera trapping was used to investigate spatial and temporal activity patterns of sympatric giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) in Changqing National Nature Reserve in Qinling Mountains, China. Our study obtained 281 independent detections of giant pandas and 185 of Asiatic black bears during 93,606 camera-trap days from April 2014 to October 2017. We performed occupancy modeling and temporal overlap analyses to examine the spatial-temporal relationships between pandas and bears, and results showed that: (1) giant pandas had higher detection probabilities than Asiatic black bears, while having lower occupancy probabilities; (2) Elevation positively predicted giant panda and negatively predicted Asiatic black bear occupancy, understory vegetation type negatively predicted giant panda occupancy, and distance to nearest settlement positively predicted Asiatic black bear occupancy; (3) giant pandas were more active in spring and winter, while Asiatic black bears were more active in summer, and the two species had low spatial overlap with one another throughout the year; (4) both giant pandas and Asiatic black bears showed mainly diurnal activity patterns, and had high temporal overlap with one another in spring and moderate temporal overlap with one another in autumn. Our results provide detailed information of the spatial and temporal ecology of sympatric giant pandas and Asiatic black bears in the Qinling Mountains of China, which could act as a guide to construct conservation priorities as well as design efficient management programs.

A review of the habitat restoration of giant pandas from 2012 to 2021: Research topics and advances

The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a flagship species in nature conservation. Habitat degradation and fragmentation threaten the sustainable survival of giant pandas, and thus degraded habitats need to be restored and fragmented habitats require connection. In the past ten years, some new studies have emerged on the habitat restoration of giant pandas, yet no specialized reviews of this topic have been published. This paper reviews the habitat restoration of giant pandas based on related articles published between 2012 and 2021. Three principal research topics are identified and summarized: restoration effect, restoration requirements, and restoration considerations. The review demonstrates that some measures, such as protection projects and policies, controlling human disturbances and impacts, and natural recovery, contribute to the habitat restoration of giant pandas. Many issues related to artificial forests need to be addressed to clarify their role in habitat restoration. Many habitats with clear locations and types need restoration, especially those that are disturbed or threatened by human activities and some that are disturbed by natural disturbances such as earthquakes. To integrate consideration factors, a reference habitat should be established and well described. In addition, social and economic factors should not be ignored. More targeted studies of the habitat restoration of giant pandas are urgently needed, including theoretical, cross-scale, interdisciplinary, multi-factor, and long-term monitoring studies. This review provides a reference for future research work and a source of information for future restoration of giant panda habitat.

Landscape-scale giant panda conservation based on metapopulations within China's national park system

Historically, giant panda conservation in China has been compromised by disparate management of protected areas. It is thus crucial to address how giant panda populations can be managed cohesively on a landscape scale, an opportunity offered by China's newly established Giant Panda National Park. Here, we evaluated giant panda populations in a metapopulation context, based on range-wide data from the Fourth National Giant Panda Survey. We delineated metapopulations by geographic range, relative abundance, and relative density and assessed the extent of human disturbance each metapopulation faced. We found density-dependent and disturbance-influenced effects on habitat selection across metapopulations. We determined the main effects faced by each metapopulation regarding area sensitivity, population size, intraspecific competition, and disturbance. To enhance the landscape-scale conservation of giant pandas and various other wildlife across China's national park system, we propose that metapopulation management incorporates population status along with density-dependent and disturbance-related effects on habitat selection.

Testing the efficacy of camera-trap sampling designs for monitoring giant pandas in a heterogeneous landscape

The use of camera traps is prevalent in the ecological study of giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The reliability of camera-trap surveying results greatly depends on sampling designs that significantly influence the detection probability of the target species. Few studies have tested the efficacy of sampling designs on camera-trap surveys for monitoring giant pandas in a heterogeneous landscape. In this study, we conducted camera trapping of giant pandas based on two different sampling schemes in Changqing National Nature Reserve of China, and evaluated their outcomes based on three aspects: occupancy analysis, photographic rate, and activity pattern. The results demonstrated that both climate heterogeneity and distance to the nearest road had a strong positive influence on site occupancy, and slope and forest cover had a significant negative impact on site occupancy. Significant differences in the direction or magnitude of variables' influences indicated that there were apparently spatial-temporal dynamics of giant panda distribution between two sampling schemes. The low detection probabilities indicated that both sampling schemes were not robust to accurately monitor giant pandas in the whole study area. We recommended that more suitable sampling designs with local covariates be developed for camera-trap surveys monitoring giant pandas to account for temporal variability and small-scale variation in heterogeneous landscapes.

Identifying core habitats and corridors for giant pandas by combining multiscale random forest and connectivity analysis

Habitat loss and fragmentation are widely acknowledged as the main driver of the decline of giant panda populations. The Chinese government has made great efforts to protect this charming species and has made remarkable achievements, such as population growth and habitat expansion. However, habitat fragmentation has not been reversed. Protecting giant pandas in a large spatial extent needs to identify core habitat patches and corridors connecting them. This study used an equal-sampling multiscale random forest habitat model to predict a habitat suitability map for the giant panda. Then, we applied the resistant kernel method and factorial least-cost path analysis to identify core habitats connected by panda dispersal and corridors among panda occurrences, respectively. Finally, we evaluated the effectiveness of current protected areas in representing core habitats and corridors. Our results showed high scale dependence of giant panda habitat selection. Giant pandas strongly respond to bamboo percentage and elevation at a relatively fine scale (1 km), whereas they respond to anthropogenic factors at a coarse scale (≥2 km). Dispersal ability has significant effects on core habitats extent and population fragmentation evaluation. Under medium and high dispersal ability scenarios (12,000 and 20,000 cost units), most giant panda habitats in the Qionglai mountain are predicted to be well connected by dispersal. The proportion of core habitats covered by protected areas varied between 38% and 43% under different dispersal ability scenarios, highlighting significant gaps in the protected area network. Similarly, only 43% of corridors that connect giant panda occurrences were protected. Our results can provide crucial information for conservation managers to develop wise strategies to safeguard the long-term viability of the giant panda population.

Understanding Species–Habitat Associations: A Case Study with the World’s Bears

Habitat modeling is one of the most common practices in ecology today, aimed at understanding complex associations between species and an array of environmental, bioclimatic, and anthropogenic factors. This review of studies of seven species of terrestrial bears (Ursidae) occupying four continents examines how habitat models have been employed, and the functionality of their predictions for management and conservation. Bear occurrence data have been obtained at the population level, as presence points (e.g., sign surveys or camera trapping), or as locations of individual radio-collared animals. Radio-collars provide greater insights into how bears interact with their environment and variability within populations; they are more commonly used in North America and Europe than in South America and Asia. Salient problematic issues apparent from this review included: biases in presence data; predictor variables being poor surrogates of actual behavioral drivers; predictor variables applied at a biologically inappropriate scale; and over-use of data repositories that tend to detach investigators from the species. In several cases, multiple models in the same area yielded different predictions; new presence data occurred outside the range of predicted suitable habitat; and future range projections, based on where bears presently exist, underestimated their adaptability. Findings here are likely relevant to other taxa.

Integrating Livestock Grazing and Sympatric Takin to Evaluate the Habitat Suitability of Giant Panda in the Wanglang Nature Reserve

Simple Summary

Giant pandas are facing the threat of habitat degradation. Both grazing livestock and sympatric animals have certain impacts on the giant panda habitat. This study evaluated the habitat suitability of giant panda in Wanglang Nature Reserve by simultaneously investigating livestock grazing and sympatric takin. Results for the giant panda habitat in Wanglang are not optimistic, and the extensive overlap of suitable habitats for livestock, takin and panda makes the situation worse.

Abstract

Habitat suitability provides essential information for the management of protected species. However, studies that jointly consider the impacts of human disturbance and sympatric animals in habitat suitability assessments of giant panda are limited, which may overestimate the habitat status. To address this issue, we evaluated the habitat suitability of giant panda in Wanglang Nature Reserve by simultaneously investigating livestock grazing and sympatric takin via MAXENT, a new attempt at the assessment of the habitat suitability of giant panda. We focused on describing the habitat suitability of giant panda and determining the habitat overlap between livestock, takin, and panda to evaluate the impacts of livestock grazing and sympatric takin on the suitable giant panda habitat. Results revealed that only 16.33% of the area in Wanglang was suitable giant panda habitat, of which 67.66% was shared by livestock, and 97.99% of the remaining suitable panda habitat not shared by livestock was revealed to be shared by takin. The results indicate an unfavorable habitat status of giant panda in Wanglang, with the potential extensive habitat overlap between livestock, takin and panda exerting further pressure. Thus, to effectively protect giant pandas and their habitats, grazing activity should be controlled. Furthermore, to accurately protect sympatric animals, the monitoring of panda and takin activities in the overlapping areas must be maintained.

Free-roaming dogs limit habitat use of giant pandas in nature reserves

Giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) were historically hunted using dogs and are currently threatened by free-roaming dogs and their associated diseases. To better understand the spatial magnitude of this threat, we used a GIS approach to investigate edge effects of dogs on giant panda habitat. We first examined two nature reserves with contrasting free-roaming dog populations: Liziping, with many dogs (~0.44/km²), and Daxiangling, with few dogs (~0.14/km²). Spatial analysis indicated that giant pandas at Liziping (but not Daxiangling) showed a shift in habitat use away from populated areas consistent with a risk response to the foray distance of free-roaming dogs (10.9 km path-distance). Most giant panda locations (86%) from the 2014 census in Liziping were clustered around remote “dog-free zones.” Expanding this analysis across the entire giant panda range revealed that 40% of panda habitat is within the foray distance of dogs. Our assessment will inform dog control programs including monitoring, education, veterinary care, and other measures. We recommend that reserves designated for the release of translocated pandas receive priority consideration for dog control efforts. Only by understanding and managing complex interactions between humans, domestic animals, and wild animals can we sustain natural systems in a world increasingly dominated by humans.

Evaluating the effects of roads on giant panda habitat at two scales in a typical nature reserve

Little is known about how roads affect the habitats of giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), this study aimed to provide a scientific basis to better understand this question, and to formulate targeted measures to reduce the adverse effects of roads. To evaluate the effects of roads on giant panda habitat, a field survey was carried out in the Wanglang Nature Reserve at two scales, 400 m² and 100 m², in July and August of every year from 2015 to 2019. We compared the community characteristics of roadside habitats, giant panda habitats and the local environment by using difference tests and multiple comparison methods. The results showed that, at the 400 m² scale, the significant differences in number of bamboo clumps and regeneration size among different habitats were related to roads. At the 100 m² scale, the significant difference in number of bamboo clumps was also related to roads. Roads may affect the number of bamboo clumps and regeneration size, which alters important characteristics of giant panda habitat. The roadside habitat had fewer bamboo clumps and smaller regeneration sizes than the giant panda habitat, and this lack of food may be why giant pandas seldom use the roadside habitat. To improve the suitability of the roadside habitats, more bamboo should be planted and protective measures should be taken to ensure the normal growth of bamboo and regeneration species. This study provides reference methods for future studies on the effects of roads in other regions.

Interactive spatial scale effects on species distribution modeling: The case of the giant panda

Research has shown that varying spatial scale through the selection of the total extent of investigation and the grain size of environmental predictor variables has effects on species distribution model (SDM) results and accuracy, but there has been minimal investigation into the interactive effects of extent and grain. To do this, we used a consistently sampled range-wide dataset of giant panda occurrence across southwest China and modeled their habitat and distribution at 4 extents and 7 grain sizes. We found that increasing grain size reduced model accuracy at the smallest extent, but that increasing extent negated this effect. Increasing extent also generally increased model accuracy, but the models built at the second-largest (mountain range) extent were more accurate than those built at the largest, geographic range-wide extent. When predicting habitat suitability in the smallest nested extents (50 km2), we found that the models built at the next-largest extent (500 km2) were more accurate than the smallest-extent models but that further increases in extent resulted in large decreases in accuracy. Overall, this study highlights the impacts of the selection of spatial scale when evaluating species' habitat and distributions, and we suggest more explicit investigations of scale effects in future modeling efforts.

Red panda fine-scale habitat selection along a Central Himalayan longitudinal gradient

Red panda Ailurus fulgens, an endangered habitat specialist, inhabits a narrow distribution range in bamboo abundance forests along mountain slopes in the Himalaya and Hengduan Mountains. However, their habitat use may be different in places with different longitudinal environmental gradients, climatic regimes, and microclimate. This study aimed to determine the habitat variables affecting red panda distribution across different longitudinal gradients through a multivariate analysis. We studied habitat selection patterns along the longitudinal gradient in Nepal's Himalaya which is grouped into the eastern, central, and western complexes. We collected data on red panda presence and habitat variables (e.g., tree richness, canopy cover, bamboo abundance, water availability, tree diameter, tree height) by surveys along transects throughout the species' potential range. We used a multimodal inference approach with a generalized linear model to test the relative importance of environmental variables. Although the study showed that bamboo abundance had a major influence, habitat selection was different across longitudinal zones. Both canopy cover and species richness were unimportant in eastern Nepal, but their influence increased progressively toward the west. Conversely, tree height showed a decreasing influence on habitat selection from Eastern to Western Nepal. Red panda's habitat selection revealed in this study corresponds to the uneven distribution of vegetation assemblages and the dry climatic gradient along the eastern-western Himalayas which could be related to a need to conserve energy and thermoregulate. This study has further highlighted the need of importance of bamboo conservation and site-specific conservation planning to ensure long-term red panda conservation.

Should the Endangered Status of the Giant Panda Really Be Reduced? The Case of Giant Panda Conservation in Sichuan, China

Simple Summary

This study evaluates the effect of local, regional, and global factors on the recovery of giant panda populations and their habitat, questioning the recent downgrading in the conservation status of this iconic species. We highlight the actions taken over the last decade, which were primarily local scale changes and efforts for protecting pandas. Broader regional development and global climate change are expected to negatively affect current population trends in the long-term; this phenomenon has been documented in other wildlife populations also showing a recent recovery. Thus, we call for a revision of the assessments stipulated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature to incorporate broader potential impacts in predicting the future survival of threatened populations, thereby, ensuring that appropriate and objective protection measures are implemented well in advance.

Abstract

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reduced the threat status of the giant panda from “endangered” to “vulnerable” in September 2016. In this study, we analyzed current practices for giant panda conservation at regional and local environmental scales, based on recent reports of giant panda protection efforts in Sichuan Province, China, combined with the survey results from 927 households within and adjacent to the giant panda reserves in this area. The results showed that household attitudes were very positive regarding giant panda protection efforts. Over the last 10 years, farmers’ dependence on the natural resources provided by giant panda reserves significantly decreased. However, socio-economic development increased resource consumption, and led to climate change, habitat fragmentation, environmental pollution, and other issues that placed increased pressure on giant panda populations. This difference between local and regional scales must be considered when evaluating the IUCN status of giant pandas. While the status of this species has improved in the short-term due to positive local attitudes, large-scale socio-economic development pressure could have long-term negative impacts. Consequently, the IUCN assessment leading to the classification of giant panda as “vulnerable” instead of “endangered”, should not affect its conservation intensity and effort, as such actions could negatively impact population recovery efforts, leading to the extinction of this charismatic species.

An ecophysiological perspective on likely giant panda habitat responses to climate change

Threatened and endangered species are more vulnerable to climate change due to small population and specific geographical distribution. Therefore, identifying and incorporating the biological processes underlying a species' adaptation to its environment are important for determining whether they can persist in situ. Correlative models are widely used to predict species' distribution changes, but generally fail to capture the buffering capacity of organisms. Giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) live in topographically complex mountains and are known to avoid heat stress. Although many studies have found that climate change will lead to severe habitat loss and threaten previous conservation efforts, the mechanisms underlying panda's responses to climate change have not been explored. Here, we present a case study in Daxiangling Mountains, one of the six Mountain Systems that giant panda distributes. We used a mechanistic model, Niche Mapper, to explore what are likely panda habitat response to climate change taking physiological, behavioral and ecological responses into account, through which we map panda's climatic suitable activity area (SAA) for the first time. We combined SAA with bamboo forest distribution to yield highly suitable habitat (HSH) and seasonal suitable habitat (SSH), and their temporal dynamics under climate change were predicted. In general, SAA in the hottest month (July) would reduce 11.7%-52.2% by 2070, which is more moderate than predicted bamboo habitat loss (45.6%-86.9%). Limited by the availability of bamboo and forest, panda's suitable habitat loss increases, and only 15.5%-68.8% of current HSH would remain in 2070. Our method of mechanistic modeling can help to distinguish whether habitat loss is caused by thermal environmental deterioration or food loss under climate change. Furthermore, mechanistic models can produce robust predictions by incorporating ecophysiological feedbacks and minimizing extrapolation into novel environments. We suggest that a mechanistic approach should be incorporated into distribution predictions and conservation planning.

Resting site use of giant pandas in Wanglang Nature Reserve

Little is known about the resting sites used by the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), which restricts our understanding of their resting habits and limits conservation efforts. To enhance our understanding of resting site requirements and factors affecting the resting time of giant pandas, we investigated the characteristics of resting sites in the Wanglang Nature Reserve, Sichuan Province, China. The results indicated that the resting sites of giant pandas were characterised by a mean slope of 21°, mean nearest tree size of 53.75 cm, mean nearest shrub size of 2.82 cm, and mean nearest bamboo number of 56. We found that the resting sites were closer to bamboo than to trees and shrubs, suggesting that the resting site use of giant pandas is closely related to the presence of bamboo. Considering that giant pandas typically rest near a large-sized tree, protection of large trees in the forests is of considerable importance for the conservation of this species. Furthermore, slope was found to be an important factor affecting the resting time of giant pandas, as they tended to rest for a relatively longer time in sites with a smaller degree of slope.

Habitat Use and Selection by Giant Pandas

Animals make choices about where to spend their time in complex and dynamic landscapes, choices that reveal information about their biology that in turn can be used to guide their conservation. Using GPS collars, we conducted a novel individual-based analysis of habitat use and selection by the elusive and endangered giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). We constructed spatial autoregressive resource utilization functions (RUF) to model the relationship between the pandas' utilization distributions and various habitat characteristics over a continuous space across seasons. Results reveal several new insights, including use of a broader range of habitat characteristics than previously understood for the species, particularly steep slopes and non-forest areas. We also used compositional analysis to analyze habitat selection (use with respect to availability of habitat types) at two selection levels. Pandas selected against low terrain position and against the highest clumped forest at the at-home range level, but no significant factors were identified at the within-home range level. Our results have implications for modeling and managing the habitat of this endangered species by illustrating how individual pandas relate to habitat and make choices that differ from assumptions made in broad scale models. Our study also highlights the value of using a spatial autoregressive RUF approach on animal species for which a complete picture of individual-level habitat use and selection across space is otherwise lacking.

Telemetry research on elusive wildlife: A synthesis of studies on giant pandas

Telemetry studies that track animals through space and time can lead to advances in scientific understanding that are vital in conservation efforts. For example, telemetry studies of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) have shed light on many aspects of panda biology, but small sample sizes in each separate study make it difficult to draw broad conclusions. To overcome this problem we conducted the first synthesis of all 5 panda telemetry studies conducted to date. Using these data we investigated patterns in 6 main topics: home range, space-use interactions, core areas, movement patterns, seasonal migration and natal dispersal. We found that panda home range sizes do not vary between 2 main mountain ranges (Qionglai and Qinling), as was previously believed. Our results also suggest that female pandas increase their movement in the mating season: a behavior typically attributed only to males. We found and summarized telemetry and genetic evidence for female natal dispersal in the giant panda. Our synthesis highlights the need for additional research relating panda behavior to human disturbance factors, and can aid future studies on giant pandas as well as other species.

Comparison of microhabitats and foraging strategies between the captive-born Zhangxiang and wild giant pandas: implications for future reintroduction

The female giant panda Zhangxiang (pedigree number 826) was born on August 20, 2011 in Wolong Nature Reserve, China. On November 6, 2013, Zhangxiang was transported into the acclimatization enclosure in the Liziping Nature Reserve. Before Zhangxiang left the enclosure into the wild, we conducted the first study to compare microhabitats and foraging strategies between Zhangxiang in the enclosure and giant pandas in the wild. Compared with the latter, microhabitats of Zhangxiang in the enclosure are characteristic of gentler slope, more trees, higher canopy, smaller tree DBH, and lower density of living bamboos. Diet composition and foraging behaviors significantly differed between Zhangxiang and wild giant pandas, perhaps reflecting the combined consequence of environmental conditions (e.g., bamboo species) and individual status (e.g., age, mastication ability, etc.). The difference in microhabitats and foraging strategies between Zhangxiang and wild giant pandas implied that after being released into the natural habitat in the reserve, Zhangxiang will have to adapt to the environmental conditions once again. For future reintroduction, the enclosure can be extended to the Bashania spanostachya forest in the reserve, and captive giant pandas for release can thus normally transit into the wild without human intervention during acclimatization period. For other acclimatization enclosures to be constructed in the future, ecological environment inside, including topography, forests, and bamboos as well, should as possible as can match the habitat that the giant panda to-be-reinforced populations inhabit.