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Hellenbrand DJ, Quinn CM, Piper ZJ, Elder RT, Mishra RR, Marti TL, Omuro PM, Roddick RM, Lee JS, Murphy WL, Hanna AS. The secondary injury cascade after spinal cord injury: an analysis of local cytokine/chemokine regulation. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:1308-1317. [PMID: 37905880 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.385849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
JOURNAL/nrgr/04.03/01300535-202406000-00035/inline-graphic1/v/2023-10-30T152229Z/r/image-tiff
After spinal cord injury, there is an extensive infiltration of immune cells, which exacerbates the injury and leads to further neural degeneration. Therefore, a major aim of current research involves targeting the immune response as a treatment for spinal cord injury. Although much research has been performed analyzing the complex inflammatory process following spinal cord injury, there remain major discrepancies within previous literature regarding the timeline of local cytokine regulation. The objectives of this study were to establish an overview of the timeline of cytokine regulation for 2 weeks after spinal cord injury, identify sexual dimorphisms in terms of cytokine levels, and determine local cytokines that significantly change based on the severity of spinal cord injury. Rats were inflicted with either a mild contusion, moderate contusion, severe contusion, or complete transection, 7 mm of spinal cord centered on the injury was harvested at varying times post-injury, and tissue homogenates were analyzed with a Cytokine/Chemokine 27-Plex assay. Results demonstrated pro-inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6 were all upregulated after spinal cord injury, but returned to uninjured levels within approximately 24 hours post-injury, while chemokines including monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 remained upregulated for days post-injury. In contrast, several anti-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors including interleukin-10 and vascular endothelial growth factor were downregulated by 7 days post-injury. After spinal cord injury, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1, which specifically affects astrocytes involved in glial scar development, increased more than all other cytokines tested, reaching 26.9-fold higher than uninjured rats. After a mild injury, 11 cytokines demonstrated sexual dimorphisms; however, after a severe contusion only leptin levels were different between female and male rats. In conclusion, pro-inflammatory cytokines initiate the inflammatory process and return to baseline within hours post-injury, chemokines continue to recruit immune cells for days post-injury, while anti-inflammatory cytokines are downregulated by a week post-injury, and sexual dimorphisms observed after mild injury subsided with more severe injuries. Results from this work define critical chemokines that influence immune cell infiltration and important cytokines involved in glial scar development after spinal cord injury, which are essential for researchers developing treatments targeting secondary damage after spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Hellenbrand
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Charles M Quinn
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Zachariah J Piper
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Ryan T Elder
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Raveena R Mishra
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Taylor L Marti
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Phoebe M Omuro
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Rylie M Roddick
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Jae Sung Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - William L Murphy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Forward BIO Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Amgad S Hanna
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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2
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Han X, Zhang M, Yan L, Fu Y, Kou H, Shang C, Wang J, Liu H, Jiang C, Wang J, Cheng T. Role of dendritic cells in spinal cord injury. CNS Neurosci Ther 2024; 30:e14593. [PMID: 38528832 PMCID: PMC10964036 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/27/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammation can worsen spinal cord injury (SCI), with dendritic cells (DCs) playing a crucial role in the inflammatory response. They mediate T lymphocyte differentiation, activate microglia, and release cytokines like NT-3. Moreover, DCs can promote neural stem cell survival and guide them toward neuron differentiation, positively impacting SCI outcomes. OBJECTIVE This review aims to summarize the role of DCs in SCI-related inflammation and identify potential therapeutic targets for treating SCI. METHODS Literature in PubMed and Web of Science was reviewed using critical terms related to DCs and SCI. RESULTS The study indicates that DCs can activate microglia and astrocytes, promote T-cell differentiation, increase neurotrophin release at the injury site, and subsequently reduce secondary brain injury and enhance functional recovery in the spinal cord. CONCLUSIONS This review highlights the repair mechanisms of DCs and their potential therapeutic potential for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaonan Han
- Department of OrthopaedicsThe First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouHenanChina
| | - Mingkang Zhang
- Department of OrthopaedicsThe First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouHenanChina
| | - Liyan Yan
- Department of OrthopaedicsThe First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouHenanChina
| | - Yikun Fu
- Department of OrthopaedicsThe First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouHenanChina
| | - Hongwei Kou
- Department of OrthopaedicsThe First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouHenanChina
| | - Chunfeng Shang
- Department of OrthopaedicsThe First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouHenanChina
| | - Junmin Wang
- Department of Anatomy, School of Basic Medical SciencesZhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouHenanChina
| | - Hongjian Liu
- Department of OrthopaedicsThe First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouHenanChina
| | - Chao Jiang
- Department of NeurologyThe Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouHenanChina
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of Anatomy, School of Basic Medical SciencesZhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouHenanChina
| | - Tian Cheng
- Department of OrthopaedicsThe First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouHenanChina
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Wu C, Pan Y, Wang L, Liu M, Tu P, Chen S, Shi L, Yan D, Ma Y, Guo Y. Inhibition of HDAC6 promotes microvascular endothelial cells to phagocytize myelin debris and reduces inflammatory response to accelerate the repair of spinal cord injury. CNS Neurosci Ther 2024; 30:e14439. [PMID: 37641882 PMCID: PMC10916453 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS To identify an effective strategy for promoting microvascular endothelial cells (MECs) to phagocytize myelin debris and reduce secretion of inflammatory factors following spinal cord injury (SCI). METHODS We established a coculture model of myelin debris and vascular-like structures. The efficiency with which MECs phagocytize myelin debris under different conditions was examined via ELISA, flow cytometry, and immunofluorescence. Tubastatin-A was used to interfere with the coculture model. The anti-inflammatory effects of Tubastatin-A were observed by HE staining, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, and ELISA. RESULTS MECs phagocytized myelin debris via IgM opsonization, and phagocytosis promoted the secretion of inflammatory factors, whereas IgG-opsonized myelin debris had no effect on inflammatory factors. Application of the HDAC6 inhibitor Tubastatin-A increased the IgG levels and decreased the IgM levels by regulating the proliferation and differentiation of B cells. Tubastatin-A exerted a regulatory effect on the HDAC6-mediated autophagy-lysosome pathway, promoting MECs to phagocytize myelin debris, reducing the secretion of inflammatory factors, and accelerating the repair of SCI. CONCLUSIONS Inhibition of HDAC6 to regulate the immune-inflammatory response and promote MECs to phagocytize myelin debris may represent a novel strategy in the treatment of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengjie Wu
- Department of Traumatology and OrthopedicsAffiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
- Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction, Institute of Traumatology & OrthopedicsNanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
| | - Yalan Pan
- Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Nursing Intervention for Chronic DiseasesNanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
| | - Lining Wang
- School of Chinese Medicine, School of Integrated Chinese and Western MedicineNanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
| | - Mengmin Liu
- School of Chinese Medicine, School of Integrated Chinese and Western MedicineNanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
| | - Pengcheng Tu
- Department of Traumatology and OrthopedicsAffiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
- Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction, Institute of Traumatology & OrthopedicsNanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
| | - Sixian Chen
- School of Chinese Medicine, School of Integrated Chinese and Western MedicineNanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
| | - Lei Shi
- School of Chinese Medicine, School of Integrated Chinese and Western MedicineNanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
| | - Danqing Yan
- Department of Traumatology and OrthopedicsAffiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
- Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction, Institute of Traumatology & OrthopedicsNanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
| | - Yong Ma
- Department of Traumatology and OrthopedicsAffiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
- Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction, Institute of Traumatology & OrthopedicsNanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
- School of Chinese Medicine, School of Integrated Chinese and Western MedicineNanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
| | - Yang Guo
- Department of Traumatology and OrthopedicsAffiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
- Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction, Institute of Traumatology & OrthopedicsNanjing University of Chinese MedicineNanjingChina
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Hailstock T, Dai C, Aquino J, Walker KE, Chick S, Manirarora JN, Suresh R, Patil V, Renukaradhya GJ, Sullivan YB, LaBresh J, Lunney JK. Production and characterization of anti-porcine CXCL10 monoclonal antibodies. Cytokine 2024; 174:156449. [PMID: 38141459 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2023.156449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/25/2023]
Abstract
Research on C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) has been widely reported for humans and select animal species, yet immune reagents are limited for pig chemokines. Our goal is to provide veterinary immunologists and the biomedical community with new commercial immune reagents and standardized assays. Recombinant porcine CXCL10 (rPoCXCL10) protein was produced by yeast expression and used to generate a panel of α CXCL10 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). All mAbs were assessed for cross-inhibition and reactivity to orthologous yeast expressed CXCL10 proteins. Characterization of a panel of nine α PoCXCL10 mAbs identified six distinct antigenic determinants. A sensitive quantitative sandwich ELISA was developed with anti-PoCXCL10-1.6 and -1.9 mAb; reactivity was verified with both rPoCXCL10 and native PoCXCL10, detected in supernatants of peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated with rPoIFNγ or PMA/Ionomycin. Immunostaining of in vitro rPoIFNγ stimulated pig spleen and blood cells verified CXCL10 + cells as CD3-CD4-CD172+, with occasional CD3-CD4 + CD172 + subsets. Comparison studies determined that α PoCXCL10-1.4 mAb was the ideal mAb clone for intracellular staining, whereas with α PoCXCL10-1.1 and -1.2 mAbs were best for immunohistochemistry analyses. These techniques and tools will be useful for evaluating swine immune development, responses to infectious diseases and vaccines, as well as for improving utility of pigs as an important biomedical model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor Hailstock
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC, ARS, USDA, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Chaohui Dai
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC, ARS, USDA, Beltsville, MD, USA; Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jovan Aquino
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC, ARS, USDA, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Kristen E Walker
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC, ARS, USDA, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Shannon Chick
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC, ARS, USDA, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Jean N Manirarora
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC, ARS, USDA, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Raksha Suresh
- Center for Food Animal Health, Department of Animal Sciences, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, USA
| | - Veerupaxagouda Patil
- Center for Food Animal Health, Department of Animal Sciences, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, USA
| | - Gourapura J Renukaradhya
- Center for Food Animal Health, Department of Animal Sciences, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, USA
| | | | | | - Joan K Lunney
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, BARC, ARS, USDA, Beltsville, MD, USA.
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5
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Zhang Z, Zhu Z, Zuo X, Wang X, Ju C, Liang Z, Li K, Zhang J, Luo L, Ma Y, Song Z, Li X, Li P, Quan H, Huang P, Yao Z, Yang N, Zhou J, Kou Z, Chen B, Ding T, Wang Z, Hu X. Photobiomodulation reduces neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury by downregulating CXCL10 expression. CNS Neurosci Ther 2023; 29:3995-4017. [PMID: 37475184 PMCID: PMC10651991 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many studies have recently highlighted the role of photobiomodulation (PBM) in neuropathic pain (NP) relief after spinal cord injury (SCI), suggesting that it may be an effective way to relieve NP after SCI. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to determine the potential mechanisms of PBM in NP relief after SCI. METHODS We performed systematic observations and investigated the mechanism of PBM intervention in NP in rats after SCI. Using transcriptome sequencing, we screened CXCL10 as a possible target molecule for PBM intervention and validated the results in rat tissues using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. Using immunofluorescence co-labeling, astrocytes and microglia were identified as the cells responsible for CXCL10 expression. The involvement of the NF-κB pathway in CXCL10 expression was verified using inhibitor pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) and agonist phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA), which were further validated by an in vivo injection experiment. RESULTS Here, we demonstrated that PBM therapy led to an improvement in NP relative behaviors post-SCI, inhibited the activation of microglia and astrocytes, and decreased the expression level of CXCL10 in glial cells, which was accompanied by mediation of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Photobiomodulation inhibit the activation of the NF-κB pathway and reduce downstream CXCL10 expression. The NF-κB pathway inhibitor PDTC had the same effect as PBM on improving pain in animals with SCI, and the NF-κB pathway promoter PMA could reverse the beneficial effect of PBM. CONCLUSIONS Our results provide new insights into the mechanisms by which PBM alleviates NP after SCI. We demonstrated that PBM significantly inhibited the activation of microglia and astrocytes and decreased the expression level of CXCL10. These effects appear to be related to the NF-κB signaling pathway. Taken together, our study provides evidence that PBM could be a potentially effective therapy for NP after SCI, CXCL10 and NF-kB signaling pathways might be critical factors in pain relief mediated by PBM after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihao Zhang
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Zhijie Zhu
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Xiaoshuang Zuo
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Xuankang Wang
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Cheng Ju
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Zhuowen Liang
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Kun Li
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Jiawei Zhang
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Liang Luo
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Yangguang Ma
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Zhiwen Song
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Xin Li
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
- 967 Hospital of People's Liberation Army Joint Logistic Support ForceDalianLiaoningChina
| | - Penghui Li
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Huilin Quan
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Peipei Huang
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Zhou Yao
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Ning Yang
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Jie Zhou
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Zhenzhen Kou
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic MedicineAir Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Beiyu Chen
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Tan Ding
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Zhe Wang
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
| | - Xueyu Hu
- Department of OrthopedicsXijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical UniversityXi'anShaanxiChina
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Lee CY, Chooi WH, Ng S, Chew SY. Modulating neuroinflammation through molecular, cellular and biomaterial-based approaches to treat spinal cord injury. Bioeng Transl Med 2023; 8:e10389. [PMID: 36925680 PMCID: PMC10013833 DOI: 10.1002/btm2.10389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The neuroinflammatory response that is elicited after spinal cord injury contributes to both tissue damage and reparative processes. The complex and dynamic cellular and molecular changes within the spinal cord microenvironment result in a functional imbalance of immune cells and their modulatory factors. To facilitate wound healing and repair, it is necessary to manipulate the immunological pathways during neuroinflammation to achieve successful therapeutic interventions. In this review, recent advancements and fresh perspectives on the consequences of neuroinflammation after SCI and modulation of the inflammatory responses through the use of molecular-, cellular-, and biomaterial-based therapies to promote tissue regeneration and functional recovery will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl Yi‐Pin Lee
- Institute of Molecular and Cell BiologyA*STAR Research EntitiesSingaporeSingapore
| | - Wai Hon Chooi
- Institute of Molecular and Cell BiologyA*STAR Research EntitiesSingaporeSingapore
| | - Shi‐Yan Ng
- Institute of Molecular and Cell BiologyA*STAR Research EntitiesSingaporeSingapore
| | - Sing Yian Chew
- School of Chemical and Biomedical EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingaporeSingapore
- Lee Kong Chian School of MedicineNanyang Technological UniversitySingaporeSingapore
- School of Materials Science and EngineeringNanyang Technological UniversitySingaporeSingapore
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Sterner RC, Sterner RM. Immune response following traumatic spinal cord injury: Pathophysiology and therapies. Front Immunol 2023; 13:1084101. [PMID: 36685598 PMCID: PMC9853461 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1084101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating condition that is often associated with significant loss of function and/or permanent disability. The pathophysiology of SCI is complex and occurs in two phases. First, the mechanical damage from the trauma causes immediate acute cell dysfunction and cell death. Then, secondary mechanisms of injury further propagate the cell dysfunction and cell death over the course of days, weeks, or even months. Among the secondary injury mechanisms, inflammation has been shown to be a key determinant of the secondary injury severity and significantly worsens cell death and functional outcomes. Thus, in addition to surgical management of SCI, selectively targeting the immune response following SCI could substantially decrease the progression of secondary injury and improve patient outcomes. In order to develop such therapies, a detailed molecular understanding of the timing of the immune response following SCI is necessary. Recently, several studies have mapped the cytokine/chemokine and cell proliferation patterns following SCI. In this review, we examine the immune response underlying the pathophysiology of SCI and assess both current and future therapies including pharmaceutical therapies, stem cell therapy, and the exciting potential of extracellular vesicle therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert C. Sterner
- School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Rosalie M. Sterner
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States,*Correspondence: Rosalie M. Sterner,
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Rosas Almanza J, Stehlik KE, Page JJ, Xiong SH, Tabor EG, Aperi B, Patel K, Kodali R, Kurpad S, Budde MD, Tarima S, Swartz K, Kroner A. IL-12p40 promotes secondary damage and functional impairment after spinal cord contusional injury. J Neurosci Res 2022; 100:2213-2231. [PMID: 36089917 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Secondary damage obstructs functional recovery for individuals who have sustained a spinal cord injury (SCI). Two processes significantly contributing to tissue damage after trauma are spinal cord hemorrhage and inflammation: more specifically, the recruitment and activation of immune cells, frequently driven by pro-inflammatory factors. Cytokines are inflammatory mediators capable of modulating the immune response. While cytokines are necessary to elicit inflammation for proper healing, excessive inflammation can result in destructive processes. The pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-12 and IL-23 are pathogenic in multiple autoimmune diseases. The cytokine subunit IL-12p40 is necessary to form bioactive IL-12 and IL-23. In this study, we examined the relationship between spinal cord hemorrhage and IL-12-related factors, as well as the impact of IL-12p40 (IL-12/IL-23) on secondary damage and functional recovery after SCI. Using in vivo magnetic resonance imaging and protein tissue analyses, we demonstrated a positive correlation between IL-12 and tissue hemorrhage. Receptor and ligand subunits of IL-12 were significantly upregulated after injury and colocalized with astrocytes, demonstrating a myriad of opportunities for IL-12 to induce an inflammatory response. IL-12p40-/- mice demonstrated significantly improved functional recovery and reduced lesion sizes compared to wild-type mice. Targeted gene array analysis in wild-type and IL-12p40-/- female mice after SCI revealed an upregulation of genes associated with worsened recovery after SCI. Taken together, our data reveal a pathogenic role of IL-12p40 in the secondary damage after SCI, hindering functional recovery. IL-12p40 (IL-12/IL-23) is thus an enticing neuroinflammatory target for further study as a potential therapeutic target to benefit recovery in acute SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Rosas Almanza
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Kyle E Stehlik
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Justin J Page
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Shuana H Xiong
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Emma G Tabor
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Brandy Aperi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Kishan Patel
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Rajiv Kodali
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Shekar Kurpad
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Matthew D Budde
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Sergey Tarima
- Department of Biostatistics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Karin Swartz
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Antje Kroner
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
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9
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Li J, Liu X, Wu H, Guo P, Li B, Wang J, Tian W, Chen D, Gao M, Zhou Z, Liu S. Identification of hub genes related to the innate immune response activated during spinal cord injury. FEBS Open Bio 2022; 12:1839-1856. [PMID: 36047918 PMCID: PMC9527585 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.13472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) often leads to sensory and motor dysfunction. Two major factors that hinder spinal cord repair are local inflammation and glial scar formation after SCI, and thus appropriate immunotherapy may alleviate damage. To characterize changes in gene expression that occur during SCI and thereby identify putative targets for immunotherapy, here we analyzed the dataset GSE5296 (containing one control group and six SCI groups at different timepoints) to identify differentially-expressed genes. Functional enrichment analysis was performed and a protein-protein interaction network was created to identify possible hub genes. Finally, we performed quantitative PCR to verify changes in gene expression. The CIBERSORT algorithm was used to analyze innate immune cell infiltration patterns. The dataset GSE162610 (containing one control group and three SCI groups at different timepoints) was analyzed to evaluate innate immune cell infiltration at the single-cell level. The dataset GSE151371 (containing one control group [n = 10] and an SCI group [n = 38]) was used to detect the expression of hub genes in the blood from SCI patients. Differentially-expressed innate immune-related genes at each timepoint were identified, and the functions and related signaling pathways of these genes were examined. Six hub genes were identified and verified. We then analyzed the expression characteristics of these hub genes and characteristics of innate immune infiltration in SCI; finally, we examined ligand expression in the context of the CCL signaling pathway and COMPLEMENT signaling pathway networks. This study reveals the characteristics of innate immune cell infiltration and temporal expression patterns of hub genes, and may aid in the development of immunotherapies for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianfeng Li
- Innovation Platform of Regeneration and Repair of Spinal Cord and Nerve Injury, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityShenzhenChina,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Orthopedic Research Institute/Department of Spinal SurgeryThe First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Xizhe Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Orthopedic Research Institute/Department of Spinal SurgeryThe First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Huachuan Wu
- Innovation Platform of Regeneration and Repair of Spinal Cord and Nerve Injury, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityShenzhenChina,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Orthopedic Research Institute/Department of Spinal SurgeryThe First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Peng Guo
- Innovation Platform of Regeneration and Repair of Spinal Cord and Nerve Injury, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityShenzhenChina
| | - Baoliang Li
- Innovation Platform of Regeneration and Repair of Spinal Cord and Nerve Injury, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityShenzhenChina
| | - Jianmin Wang
- Innovation Platform of Regeneration and Repair of Spinal Cord and Nerve Injury, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityShenzhenChina
| | - Wei Tian
- Laboratory of Bone Tissue Engineering, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing Research Institute of Orthopedics and TraumatologyBeijing Jishuitan HospitalChina
| | - Dafu Chen
- Laboratory of Bone Tissue Engineering, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing Research Institute of Orthopedics and TraumatologyBeijing Jishuitan HospitalChina
| | - Manman Gao
- Department of Sport Medicine, Institute of Translational MedicineThe First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's HospitalChina,Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical EngineeringShenzhen University Health Science CenterChina
| | - Zhiyu Zhou
- Innovation Platform of Regeneration and Repair of Spinal Cord and Nerve Injury, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityShenzhenChina,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Orthopedic Research Institute/Department of Spinal SurgeryThe First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Shaoyu Liu
- Innovation Platform of Regeneration and Repair of Spinal Cord and Nerve Injury, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityShenzhenChina,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Orthopedic Research Institute/Department of Spinal SurgeryThe First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
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10
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Wang Q, Liu L, Cao J, Abula M, Yimingjiang Y, Feng S. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis reveals that CXCL10, IRF7, MX1, RSAD2, and STAT1 are related to the chronic stage of spinal cord injury. ANNALS OF TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE 2021; 9:1248. [PMID: 34532385 PMCID: PMC8421925 DOI: 10.21037/atm-21-3586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Background The process of spinal cord injury involves acute, subacute, and chronic stages; however, the specific pathological mechanism remains unclear. In this study, weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was used to clarify specific modules and hub genes that associated with SCI. Methods The gene expression profiles GEO Series (GSE)45006 and GEO Series (GSE)2599 were downloaded, and the co-expression network modules were identified by the WGCNA package. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and Venn diagram were constructed to identify hub genes. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (QRT-PCR) was used to quantify the degree of the top five candidate genes. Correlation analysis was also carried out between hub genes and immune infiltration. Results In total, 14,402 genes and seven modules were identified. The brown module was considered to be the most critical module for the chronic stage of SCI, which contained 775 genes that were primarily associated with various biological processes, including extracellular structure organization, lysosome, isoprenoid biosynthesis, response to nutrients, response to wounding, sulfur compound metabolic process, cofactor metabolic process, and ossification. Furthermore, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10), myxovirus (influenza virus) resistance 1 (MX1), signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1), interferon regulatory factor 7 (IRF7) and radical S-adenosyl methionine domain containing 2 (RSAD2) were identified as the hub genes in the PPI and Venn diagram network, and verified by qRT-PCR. Immune infiltration analysis revealed that CD8+ T cells, macrophages, neutrophils, plasmacytoid dendritic cells, helper T cells, Th2 cells, and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes may be involved in the SCI process. Conclusions There were significant differences among the five hub genes (CXCL10, IRF7, MX1, RSAD2, and STAT1) of the brown module, which may be potential diagnostic and prognostic markers of SCI, and immune cell infiltration may play an important role in the chronic stage of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Liang Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Jiangang Cao
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Muhetidier Abula
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Yasen Yimingjiang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Shiqing Feng
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.,International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
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11
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Gisslen M, Keating SM, Spudich S, Arechiga V, Stephenson S, Zetterberg H, Di Germanio C, Blennow K, Fuchs D, Hagberg L, Norris PJ, Peterson J, Shacklett BL, Yiannoutsos CT, Price RW. Compartmentalization of cerebrospinal fluid inflammation across the spectrum of untreated HIV-1 infection, central nervous system injury and viral suppression. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0250987. [PMID: 33983973 PMCID: PMC8118251 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0250987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To characterize the evolution of central nervous system (CNS) inflammation in HIV-1 infection applying a panel of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) inflammatory biomarkers to grouped subjects representing a broad spectrum of systemic HIV-1 immune suppression, CNS injury and viral control. METHODS This is a cross-sectional analysis of archived CSF and blood samples, assessing concentrations of 10 functionally diverse soluble inflammatory biomarkers by immunoassays in 143 HIV-1-infected subjects divided into 8 groups: untreated primary HIV-1 infection (PHI); four untreated groups defined by their blood CD4+ T lymphocyte counts; untreated patients presenting with subacute HIV-associated dementia (HAD); antiretroviral-treated subjects with ≥1 years of plasma viral suppression; and untreated elite controllers. Twenty HIV-1-uninfected controls were included for comparison. Background biomarkers included blood CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes, CSF and blood HIV-1 RNA, CSF white blood cell (WBC) count, CSF/blood albumin ratio, CSF neurofilament light chain (NfL), and CSF t-tau. FINDINGS HIV-1 infection was associated with a broad compartmentalized CSF inflammatory response that developed early in its course and changed with systemic disease progression, development of neurological injury, and viral suppression. CSF inflammation in untreated individuals without overt HAD exhibited at least two overall patterns of inflammation as blood CD4+ T lymphocytes decreased: one that peaked at 200-350 blood CD4+ T cells/μL and associated with lymphocytic CSF inflammation and HIV-1 RNA concentrations; and a second that steadily increased through the full range of CD4+ T cell decline and associated with macrophage responses and increasing CNS injury. Subacute HAD was distinguished by a third inflammatory profile with increased blood-brain barrier permeability and robust combined lymphocytic and macrophage CSF inflammation. Suppression of CSF and blood HIV-1 infections by antiretroviral treatment and elite viral control were associated with reduced CSF inflammation, though not fully to levels found in HIV-1 seronegative controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magnus Gisslen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Sheila M. Keating
- Vitalant Research Institute (formerly Blood Systems Research Institute), San Francisco, CA, United States of America
| | - Serena Spudich
- Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Victor Arechiga
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
| | - Sophie Stephenson
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | - Clara Di Germanio
- Vitalant Research Institute (formerly Blood Systems Research Institute), San Francisco, CA, United States of America
| | - Kaj Blennow
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Dietmar Fuchs
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Lars Hagberg
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Philip J. Norris
- Vitalant Research Institute (formerly Blood Systems Research Institute), San Francisco, CA, United States of America
| | - Julia Peterson
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
| | - Barbara L. Shacklett
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, Davis CA, United States of America
| | - Constantin T. Yiannoutsos
- Department of Biostatistics, Indiana University R.M. Fairbanks School of Public Health, Indianapolis, IN, United States of America
| | - Richard W. Price
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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12
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Krupa P, Stepankova K, Kwok JCF, Fawcett JW, Cimermanova V, Jendelova P, Machova Urdzikova L. New Model of Ventral Spinal Cord Lesion Induced by Balloon Compression in Rats. Biomedicines 2020; 8:biomedicines8110477. [PMID: 33167447 PMCID: PMC7694490 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8110477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Revised: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the variety of experimental models of spinal cord injury (SCI) currently used, the model of the ventral compression cord injury, which is commonly seen in humans, is very limited. Ventral balloon compression injury reflects the common anatomical mechanism of a human lesion and has the advantage of grading the injury severity by controlling the inflated volume of the balloon. In this study, ventral compression of the SCI was performed by the anterior epidural placement of the balloon of a 2F Fogarty's catheter, via laminectomy, at the level of T10. The balloon was rapidly inflated with 10 or 15 μL of saline and rested in situ for 5 min. The severity of the lesion was assessed by behavioral and immunohistochemical tests. Compression with the volume of 15 μL resulted in severe motor and sensory deficits represented by the complete inability to move across a horizontal ladder, a final Basso, Beattie and Bresnahan (BBB) score of 7.4 and a decreased withdrawal time in the plantar test (11.6 s). Histology and immunohistochemistry revealed a significant loss of white and gray matter with a loss of motoneuron, and an increased size of astrogliosis. An inflation volume of 10 μL resulted in a mild transient deficit. There are no other balloon compression models of ventral spinal cord injury. This study provided and validated a novel, easily replicable model of the ventral compression SCI, introduced by an inflated balloon of Fogarty´s catheter. For a severe incomplete deficit, an inflated volume should be maintained at 15 μL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Krupa
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083 Prague, Czech Republic; (P.K.); (K.S.); (J.C.K.); (J.W.F.); (V.C.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charles University, Medical Faculty and University Hospital Hradec Králové, Sokolska 581, 50005 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Katerina Stepankova
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083 Prague, Czech Republic; (P.K.); (K.S.); (J.C.K.); (J.W.F.); (V.C.)
- Department of Neuroscience, Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine, 15006 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jessica CF. Kwok
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083 Prague, Czech Republic; (P.K.); (K.S.); (J.C.K.); (J.W.F.); (V.C.)
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - James W. Fawcett
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083 Prague, Czech Republic; (P.K.); (K.S.); (J.C.K.); (J.W.F.); (V.C.)
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Dept. Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0PY, UK
| | - Veronika Cimermanova
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083 Prague, Czech Republic; (P.K.); (K.S.); (J.C.K.); (J.W.F.); (V.C.)
| | - Pavla Jendelova
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083 Prague, Czech Republic; (P.K.); (K.S.); (J.C.K.); (J.W.F.); (V.C.)
- Department of Neuroscience, Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine, 15006 Prague, Czech Republic
- Correspondence: (P.J.); (L.M.U.); Tel.: (+420-2)-4106-2828 (P.J.); (+420-2)-4106-2619 (L.M.U.); Fax: (+420-2)-4106-2706 (P.J. & L.M.U.)
| | - Lucia Machova Urdzikova
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083 Prague, Czech Republic; (P.K.); (K.S.); (J.C.K.); (J.W.F.); (V.C.)
- Department of Neuroscience, Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine, 15006 Prague, Czech Republic
- Correspondence: (P.J.); (L.M.U.); Tel.: (+420-2)-4106-2828 (P.J.); (+420-2)-4106-2619 (L.M.U.); Fax: (+420-2)-4106-2706 (P.J. & L.M.U.)
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13
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Wang P, Qi X, Xu G, Liu J, Guo J, Li X, Ma X, Sun H. CCL28 promotes locomotor recovery after spinal cord injury via recruiting regulatory T cells. Aging (Albany NY) 2019; 11:7402-7415. [PMID: 31557129 PMCID: PMC6781990 DOI: 10.18632/aging.102239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Background: Chemokines play a key role in post-traumatic inflammation and secondary injury after spinal cord injury (SCI). CCL28, the chemokine CC-chemokine ligand 28, is involved in the epithelial and mucosal immunity. However, whether CCL28 participates in the physiopathologic processes after SCI remains unclear. Results: CCL28 is upregulated in the spinal cord after SCI. In addition, neutralizing antibodies against IL-1β or TNF-α, or treatment of ML120B, a selective inhibitor of IKK-β, remarkably decrease CCL28 upregulation, suggesting that CCL28 upregulation relies on NF-κB pathway activated by IL-1β and TNF-α after SCI. Moreover, CD4+CD25+FOXP3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells that express CCR10, a receptor of CCL28, are enriched in the spinal cord after SCI. We further demonstrate that the spinal cord recruits Treg cells through CCL28-CCR10 axis, which in turn function to suppress immune response and promote locomotor recovery after SCI. In contrast, neutralizing CCL28 or CCR10 reduces Treg cell recruitment and delays locomotor recovery. Methods: The neutralizing antibodies and recombinant CCL28 were injected intraspinally into the mice prior to SCI, which was established via hemitransection. RT-qPCR analysis was performed to determine transcript level, and Western blot analysis and ELISA assay were used to detect protein expression. Immune cells were analyzed by flow cytometry and visualized by immunofluorescence. The chemotaxis was assessed by in vitro transwell migration assay. The mouse locomotor activity was assessed via the Basso Mouse Scale (BMS) system. Conclusions: These results indicate that NF-κB pathway-regulated CCL28 production plays a protective role after SCI through recruiting CCR10-expressing and immunosuppressive Treg cells, and suggest that interfering CCL28-CCR10 axis might be of potential clinical benefit in improving SCI recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Third Hospital, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
| | - Xiangbei Qi
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Third Hospital, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
| | - Guohui Xu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Third Hospital, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
| | - Jianning Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Third Hospital, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
| | - Jichao Guo
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Third Hospital, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
| | - Xu Li
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Third Hospital, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
| | - Xinzhe Ma
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Third Hospital, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
| | - Hui Sun
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Third Hospital, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
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14
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Shin SD, Shin A, Mayagoitia K, Wilson CG, Bellinger DL, Soriano S. Interferon downstream signaling is activated early in pre-symptomatic Niemann-Pick disease type C. Neurosci Lett 2019; 706:43-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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15
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Kataria H, Alizadeh A, Karimi-Abdolrezaee S. Neuregulin-1/ErbB network: An emerging modulator of nervous system injury and repair. Prog Neurobiol 2019; 180:101643. [PMID: 31229498 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2019.101643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2019] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Neuregulin-1 (Nrg-1) is a member of the Neuregulin family of growth factors with essential roles in the developing and adult nervous system. Six different types of Nrg-1 (Nrg-1 type I-VI) and over 30 isoforms have been discovered; however, their specific roles are not fully determined. Nrg-1 signals through a complex network of protein-tyrosine kinase receptors, ErbB2, ErbB3, ErbB4 and multiple intracellular pathways. Genetic and pharmacological studies of Nrg-1 and ErbB receptors have identified a critical role for Nrg-1/ErbB network in neurodevelopment including neuronal migration, neural differentiation, myelination as well as formation of synapses and neuromuscular junctions. Nrg-1 signaling is best known for its characterized role in development and repair of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) due to its essential role in Schwann cell development, survival and myelination. However, our knowledge of the impact of Nrg-1/ErbB on the central nervous system (CNS) has emerged in recent years. Ongoing efforts have uncovered a multi-faceted role for Nrg-1 in regulating CNS injury and repair processes. In this review, we provide a timely overview of the most recent updates on Nrg-1 signaling and its role in nervous system injury and diseases. We will specifically highlight the emerging role of Nrg-1 in modulating the glial and immune responses and its capacity to foster neuroprotection and remyelination in CNS injury. Nrg-1/ErbB network is a key regulatory pathway in the developing nervous system; therefore, unraveling its role in neuropathology and repair can aid in development of new therapeutic approaches for nervous system injuries and associated disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hardeep Kataria
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Regenerative Medicine Program, Spinal Cord Research Centre, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Arsalan Alizadeh
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Regenerative Medicine Program, Spinal Cord Research Centre, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Soheila Karimi-Abdolrezaee
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Regenerative Medicine Program, Spinal Cord Research Centre, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
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16
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Ren H, Chen X, Tian M, Zhou J, Ouyang H, Zhang Z. Regulation of Inflammatory Cytokines for Spinal Cord Injury Repair Through Local Delivery of Therapeutic Agents. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2018; 5:1800529. [PMID: 30479916 PMCID: PMC6247077 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201800529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Revised: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The balance of inflammation is critical to the repair of spinal cord injury (SCI), which is one of the most devastating traumas in human beings. Inflammatory cytokines, the direct mediators of local inflammation, have differential influences on the repair of the injured spinal cord. Some inflammatory cytokines are demonstrated beneficial to spinal cord repair in SCI models, while some detrimental. Various animal researches have revealed that local delivery of therapeutic agents efficiently regulates inflammatory cytokines and promotes repair from SCI. Quite a few clinical studies have also shown the promotion of repair from SCI through regulation of inflammatory cytokines. However, local delivery of a single agent affects only a part of the inflammatory cytokines that need to be regulated. Meanwhile, different individuals have differential profiles of inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, future studies may aim to develop personalized strategies of locally delivered therapeutic agent cocktails for effective and precise regulation of inflammation, and substantial functional recovery from SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Ren
- The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical UniversityNo. 63 Duobao RoadGuangzhou510150P. R. China
| | - Xuri Chen
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative MedicineSchool of Basic Medical ScienceZhejiang UniversityNo. 866 Yuhangtang RoadHangzhou310058P. R. China
| | - Mengya Tian
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative MedicineSchool of Basic Medical ScienceZhejiang UniversityNo. 866 Yuhangtang RoadHangzhou310058P. R. China
| | - Jing Zhou
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative MedicineSchool of Basic Medical ScienceZhejiang UniversityNo. 866 Yuhangtang RoadHangzhou310058P. R. China
| | - Hongwei Ouyang
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative MedicineSchool of Basic Medical ScienceZhejiang UniversityNo. 866 Yuhangtang RoadHangzhou310058P. R. China
| | - Zhiyong Zhang
- Translational Research Center for Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing TechnologiesGuangzhou Medical UniversityNo. 63 Duobao RoadGuangzhou510150P. R. China
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Casha S, Rice T, Stirling DP, Silva C, Gnanapavan S, Giovannoni G, Hurlbert RJ, Yong VW. Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers in Human Spinal Cord Injury from a Phase II Minocycline Trial. J Neurotrauma 2018; 35:1918-1928. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2018.5899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Steve Casha
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and the Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Tiffany Rice
- Department of Anesthesia, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - David P. Stirling
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and the Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- KY Spinal Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky
| | - Claudia Silva
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and the Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Sharmilee Gnanapavan
- Department of Neuroscience and Trauma, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gavin Giovannoni
- Department of Neuroscience and Trauma, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - R. John Hurlbert
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and the Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Division of Neurosurgery, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
| | - V. Wee Yong
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and the Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Level-Specific Differences in Systemic Expression of Pro- and Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines and Chemokines after Spinal Cord Injury. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19082167. [PMID: 30044384 PMCID: PMC6122077 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19082167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
While over half of all spinal cord injuries (SCIs) occur in the cervical region, the majority of preclinical studies have focused on models of thoracic injury. However, these two levels are anatomically distinct—with the cervical region possessing a greater vascular supply, grey-white matter ratio and sympathetic outflow relative to the thoracic region. As such, there exists a significant knowledge gap in the secondary pathology at these levels following SCI. In this study, we characterized the systemic plasma markers of inflammation over time (1, 3, 7, 14, 56 days post-SCI) after moderate-severe, clip-compression cervical and thoracic SCI in a rat model. Using high-throughput ELISA panels, we observed a clear level-specific difference in plasma levels of VEGF, leptin, IP10, IL18, GCSF, and fractalkine. Overall, cervical SCI had reduced expression of both pro- and anti-inflammatory proteins relative to thoracic SCI, likely due to sympathetic dysregulation associated with higher level SCIs. However, contrary to the literature, we did not observe level-dependent splenic atrophy with our incomplete SCI model. This is the first study to compare the systemic plasma-level changes following cervical and thoracic SCI using level-matched and time-matched controls. The results of this study provide the first evidence in support of level-targeted intervention and also challenge the phenomenon of high SCI-induced splenic atrophy in incomplete SCI models.
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Putatunda R, Bethea JR, Hu WH. Potential immunotherapies for traumatic brain and spinal cord injury. Chin J Traumatol 2018; 21:125-136. [PMID: 29759918 PMCID: PMC6033730 DOI: 10.1016/j.cjtee.2018.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic injury of the central nervous system (CNS) including brain and spinal cord remains a leading cause of morbidity and disability in the world. Delineating the mechanisms underlying the secondary and persistent injury versus the primary and transient injury has been drawing extensive attention for study during the past few decades. The sterile neuroinflammation during the secondary phase of injury has been frequently identified substrate underlying CNS injury, but as of now, no conclusive studies have determined whether this is a beneficial or detrimental role in the context of repair. Recent pioneering studies have demonstrated the key roles for the innate and adaptive immune responses in regulating sterile neuroinflammation and CNS repair. Some promising immunotherapeutic strategies have been recently developed for the treatment of CNS injury. This review updates the recent progress on elucidating the roles of the innate and adaptive immune responses in the context of CNS injury, the development and characterization of potential immunotherapeutics, as well as outstanding questions in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raj Putatunda
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, 3500 N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - John R. Bethea
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Wen-Hui Hu
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, 3500 N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Corresponding author.
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Evaluating the effect of three newly approved overactive bladder syndrome treating agents on parotid and submandibular salivary glands: Modulation of CXCL10 expression. Acta Histochem 2018; 120:269-281. [PMID: 29496263 DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2018.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 01/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite enormous progresses in understanding pathophysiology of the lower urinary tract, antimuscarinics remain the chief clinically well-established approach for improving symptoms of overactive bladder (OAB). Dry mouth on the other hand remains one of the most untolerated systemic side effects of these drugs that limits their uses and results in high discontinuation rate. Three novel drugs have been recently approved by US Food and Drug Administration for treatment of OAB: trospium, darifenacin, and solifenacin. AIMS This study has been conducted to provide clear head to head comparative studying of histological and ultrastructural effect of those newly emerging drugs on parotid and submandibular salivary glands and to demonstrate the differential expression of CXCL10 to make a cogent structural and molecular assessment of the relative tolerability of these drugs and the potential mechanisms of occurrence of dry mouth. METHODS Fifty male Sprague Dawley rats were equally divided into five groups: Group I (control), Group II (oxybutynin-treated), Group III (trospium-treated), Group IV (darifenacin-treated) and Group V (solifenacin-treated). Histological and ultrastructural studies were performed on parotid and submandibular glands. Measurement of salivary flow, PCR analysis and immunohistochemical assessment of CXCL10 expression have been carried-out. RESULTS Muscarinic receptor antagonists led to various histological, morphometric and ultrastructural changes together with diminished salivary secretion and up-regulation of CXCL10 expression with the mildest alterations observed with solifenacin. CONCLUSIONS Solifenacin has shown the least adverse effects to salivary glands. CXCL10 is involved in degenerative changes of salivary glands induced by muscarinic antagonists.
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Alizadeh A, Santhosh KT, Kataria H, Gounni AS, Karimi-Abdolrezaee S. Neuregulin-1 elicits a regulatory immune response following traumatic spinal cord injury. J Neuroinflammation 2018; 15:53. [PMID: 29467001 PMCID: PMC5822667 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-018-1093-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Spinal cord injury (SCI) triggers a robust neuroinflammatory response that governs secondary injury mechanisms with both degenerative and pro-regenerative effects. Identifying new immunomodulatory therapies to promote the supportive aspect of immune response is critically needed for the treatment of SCI. We previously demonstrated that SCI results in acute and permanent depletion of the neuronally derived Neuregulin-1 (Nrg-1) in the spinal cord. Increasing the dysregulated level of Nrg-1 through acute intrathecal Nrg-1 treatment enhanced endogenous cell replacement and promoted white matter preservation and functional recovery in rat SCI. Moreover, we identified a neuroprotective role for Nrg-1 in moderating the activity of resident astrocytes and microglia following injury. To date, the impact of Nrg-1 on immune response in SCI has not yet been investigated. In this study, we elucidated the effect of systemic Nrg-1 therapy on the recruitment and function of macrophages, T cells, and B cells, three major leukocyte populations involved in neuroinflammatory processes following SCI. Methods We utilized a clinically relevant model of moderately severe compressive SCI in female Sprague-Dawley rats. Nrg-1 (2 μg/day) or saline was delivered subcutaneously through osmotic mini-pumps starting 30 min after SCI. We conducted flow cytometry, quantitative real-time PCR, and immunohistochemistry at acute, subacute, and chronic stages of SCI to investigate the effects of Nrg-1 treatment on systemic and spinal cord immune response as well as cytokine, chemokine, and antibody production. Results We provide novel evidence that Nrg-1 promotes a pro-regenerative immune response after SCI. Bioavailability of Nrg-1 stimulated a regulatory phenotype in T and B cells and augmented the population of M2 macrophages in the spinal cord and blood during the acute and chronic stages of SCI. Importantly, Nrg-1 fostered a more balanced microenvironment in the injured spinal cord by attenuating antibody deposition and expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines while upregulating pro-regenerative mediators. Conclusion We provide the first evidence of a significant regulatory role for Nrg-1 in neuroinflammation after SCI. Importantly, the present study establishes the promise of systemic Nrg-1 treatment as a candidate immunotherapy for traumatic SCI and other CNS neuroinflammatory conditions. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12974-018-1093-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arsalan Alizadeh
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, Spinal Cord Research Centre, University of Manitoba, 629-Basic Medical Sciences Building, 745 Bannatyne Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3E 0J9, Canada
| | - Kallivalappil T Santhosh
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, Spinal Cord Research Centre, University of Manitoba, 629-Basic Medical Sciences Building, 745 Bannatyne Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3E 0J9, Canada
| | - Hardeep Kataria
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, Spinal Cord Research Centre, University of Manitoba, 629-Basic Medical Sciences Building, 745 Bannatyne Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3E 0J9, Canada
| | - Abdelilah S Gounni
- Department of Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Soheila Karimi-Abdolrezaee
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, Spinal Cord Research Centre, University of Manitoba, 629-Basic Medical Sciences Building, 745 Bannatyne Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3E 0J9, Canada.
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Krishnan S, Karg PE, Boninger ML, Vodovotz Y, Constantine G, Sowa GA, Brienza DM. Early Detection of Pressure Ulcer Development Following Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury Using Inflammatory Mediators. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2016; 97:1656-62. [PMID: 26820323 DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2016.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2015] [Revised: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/01/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify changes in concentrations of inflammatory mediators in plasma and urine after traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) and before the occurrence of a first pressure ulcer. DESIGN Retrospective; secondary analysis of existing data. SETTING Acute hospitalization and inpatient rehabilitation sites at a university medical center. PARTICIPANTS Individuals with a pressure ulcer and plasma samples (n=17) and individuals with a pressure ulcer and urine samples (n=15) were matched by age and plasma/urine sample days to individuals with SCI and no pressure ulcer (N=35). INTERVENTIONS Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Plasma and urine samples were assayed in patients with SCI, capturing samples within 4 days after the SCI to a week before the formation of the first pressure ulcer. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was performed to identify changes in the inflammatory mediators between the 2 time points. RESULTS An increase in concentration of the chemokine interferon-γ-induced protein of 10kd/CXCL10 in plasma (P<.01) and a decrease in concentration of the cytokine interferon-α in urine (P=.01) were observed before occurrence of a first pressure ulcer (∼4d) compared with matched controls. CONCLUSIONS Altered levels of inflammatory mediators in plasma and urine may be associated with pressure ulcer development after traumatic SCI. These inflammatory mediators should be explored as possible biomarkers for identifying individuals at risk for pressure ulcer formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilpa Krishnan
- Department of Rehabilitation Science and Technology, School of Health and Rehabilitation Science, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA.
| | - Patricia E Karg
- Department of Rehabilitation Science and Technology, School of Health and Rehabilitation Science, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Michael L Boninger
- Department of Rehabilitation Science and Technology, School of Health and Rehabilitation Science, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA; Human Engineering Research Laboratories, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, PA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Yoram Vodovotz
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Greg Constantine
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; Department of Mathematics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Gwendolyn A Sowa
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA; Ferguson Laboratory for Orthopaedic Research, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - David M Brienza
- Department of Rehabilitation Science and Technology, School of Health and Rehabilitation Science, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; Human Engineering Research Laboratories, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, PA; Department of Mathematics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
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Gadani SP, Walsh JT, Lukens JR, Kipnis J. Dealing with Danger in the CNS: The Response of the Immune System to Injury. Neuron 2015; 87:47-62. [PMID: 26139369 PMCID: PMC4491143 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Fighting pathogens and maintaining tissue homeostasis are prerequisites for survival. Both of these functions are upheld by the immune system, though the latter is often overlooked in the context of the CNS. The mere presence of immune cells in the CNS was long considered a hallmark of pathology, but this view has been recently challenged by studies demonstrating that immunological signaling can confer pivotal neuroprotective effects on the injured CNS. In this review, we describe the temporal sequence of immunological events that follow CNS injury. Beginning with immediate changes at the injury site, including death of neural cells and release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and progressing through innate and adaptive immune responses, we describe the cascade of inflammatory mediators and the implications of their post-injury effects. We conclude by proposing a revised interpretation of immune privilege in the brain, which takes beneficial neuro-immune communications into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachin P Gadani
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - James T Walsh
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - John R Lukens
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
| | - Jonathan Kipnis
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
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24
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Bowes AL, Yip PK. Modulating inflammatory cell responses to spinal cord injury: all in good time. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31:1753-66. [PMID: 24934600 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury can have a range of debilitating effects, permanently impacting a patient's quality of life. Initially thought to be an immune privileged site, the spinal cord is able to mount a timely and well organized inflammatory response to injury. Intricate immune cell interactions are triggered, typically consisting of a staggered multiphasic immune cell response, which can become deregulated if left unchecked. Although several immunomodulatory compounds have yielded success in experimental rodent spinal cord injury models, their translation to human clinical studies needs further consideration. Because temporal differences between rodent and human inflammatory responses to spinal cord injury do exist, drug delivery timing will be a crucial component in recovery from spinal cord injury. Given too early, immunomodulatory therapies may impede beneficial inflammatory reactions to the injured spinal cord or even miss the opportunity to dampen delayed harmful autoimmune processes. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the temporal inflammatory response to spinal cord injury, as well as detailing specific immune cell functions. By clearly defining the chronological order of inflammatory events after trauma, immunomodulatory drug delivery timing can be better optimized. Further, we compare spinal cord injury-induced inflammatory responses in rodent and human studies, enabling clinicians to consider these differences when initiating clinical trials. Improved understanding of the cellular immune response after spinal cord injury would enhance the efficacy of immunomodulatory agents, enabling combined therapies to be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L Bowes
- Centre for Neuroscience and Trauma, Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London , London, United Kingdom
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25
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Li XQ, Cao XZ, Wang J, Fang B, Tan WF, Ma H. Sevoflurane preconditioning ameliorates neuronal deficits by inhibiting microglial MMP-9 expression after spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion in rats. Mol Brain 2014; 7:69. [PMID: 25186151 PMCID: PMC4161899 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-014-0069-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Microglia are the primary immune cells of the spinal cord that are activated in response to ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury and release various neurotrophic and/or neurotoxic factors to determine neuronal survival. Among them, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), which cleaves various components of the extracellular matrix in the basal lamina and functions as part of the blood spinal cord barrier (BSCB), is considered important for regulating inflammatory responses and microenvironmental homeostasis of the BSCB in the pathology of ischemia. Sevoflurane has been reported to protect against neuronal apoptosis during cerebral IR. However, the effects of sevoflurane preconditioning on spinal cord IR injury remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the role of sevoflurane on potential genetic roles of microglial MMP-9 in tight junction protein breakdown, opening of the BSCB, and subsequent recruitment of microglia to apoptotic spinal cord neurons. Results The results showed significant upregulation of MMP-9 in rats with IR-induced inflammation of the BSCB compared to that of the sham group, manifested as dysfunctional BSCB with increased Evans blue extravasation and reduced expression of occludin protein. Increased MMP-9 expression was also observed to facilitate invasion and migration of activated microglia, imaging as high Iba-1 expression, clustered to neurons in the injured spinal cord, as shown by double immunofluorescence, and increased proinflammatory chemokine production (CXCL10, CCL2). Further, sevoflurane preconditioning markedly improved motor function by ameliorating neuronal apoptosis, as shown by reduced TUNEL-positive cell counts and expression of cleaved caspase-3. These protective effects were probably responsible for downregulation of MMP-9 and maintenance of normal expression of occludin protein indicating BSCB integrity from inflammatory damage, which was confirmed by decreased protein levels of Iba-1 and MMP-9, as well as reduced production of proinflammatory chemokines (CXCL10, CCL2) and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β). Intrathecal injection of specific siRNAs targeting MMP-9 had similar protective effects to those of sevoflurane preconditioning. Conclusions Preconditioning with 2.4% sevoflurane attenuated spinal cord IR injury by inhibiting recruitment of microglia and secretion of MMP-9; thus inhibiting downstream effects on inflammatory damage to BSCB integrity and neuronal apoptosis. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13041-014-0069-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Hong Ma
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, Liaoning, China.
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26
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David BT, Sampath S, Dong W, Heiman A, Rella CE, Elkabes S, Heary RF. A toll-like receptor 9 antagonist improves bladder function and white matter sparing in spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31:1800-6. [PMID: 24936867 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) affects motor, sensory, and autonomic functions. As current therapies do not adequately alleviate functional deficits, the development of new and more effective approaches is of critical importance. Our earlier investigations indicated that intrathecal administration of a toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) antagonist, cytidine-phosphate-guanosine oligodeoxynucleotide 2088 (CpG ODN 2088), to mice sustaining a severe, mid-thoracic contusion injury diminished neuropathic pain but did not alter locomotor deficits. These changes were paralleled by a decrease in the pro-inflammatory response at the injury epicenter. Using the same SCI paradigm and treatment regimen, the current studies investigated the effects of the TLR9 antagonist on bladder function. We report that the TLR9 antagonist decreases SCI-elicited urinary retention and ameliorates bladder morphopathology without affecting kidney function. A significant improvement in white matter sparing was also observed, most likely due to alterations in the inflammatory milieu. These findings indicate that the TLR9 antagonist has beneficial effects not only in reducing sensory deficits, but also on bladder dysfunction and tissue preservation. Thus, modulation of innate immune receptor signaling in the spinal cord can impact the effects of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian T David
- 1 Department of Neurological Surgery, The Spine Center of New Jersey, The Reynolds Family Spine Laboratory, The State University of New Jersey , Newark, New Jersey
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Temporal expression profile of CXC chemokines in serum of patients with spinal cord injury. Neurochem Int 2013; 63:363-7. [PMID: 23927862 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2013.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2013] [Revised: 07/01/2013] [Accepted: 07/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines, a subclass of cytokine superfamily have both pro-inflammatory and migratory role and serve as chemoattractant of immune cells during the inflammatory responses ensuing spinal cord injury (SCI). The chemokines, especially CXCL-1, CXCL-9, CXCL-10 and CXCL-12 contribute significant part in the inflammatory secondary damage of SCI. Inhibiting chemokine's activity and thereby the secondary damage cascades has been suggested as a chemokine-targeted therapeutic approach to SCI. To optimize the inhibition of secondary injury through targeted chemokine therapy, accurate knowledge about the temporal profile of these cytokines following SCI is required. Hence, the present study was planned to determine the serum levels of CXCL-1, CXCL-9, CXCL-10 and CXCL-12 at 3-6h, 7 and 28days and 3m after SCI in male and female SCI patients (n=78) and compare with age- and sex-matched patients with non-spinal cord injuries (NSCI, n=70) and healthy volunteers (n=100). ANOVA with Tukey post hoc analysis was used to determine the differences between the groups. The data from the present study show that the serum level of CXCL-1, CXCL-9 and CXCL-10 peaked on day 7 post-SCI and then declined to the control level. In contrast, significantly elevated level of CXCL-12 persisted for 28 days post SCI. In addition, post-SCI expression of CXCL-12 was found to be sex-dependent. Male SCI patients expressed significantly higher CXCL-12 when compared to control and SCI female. We did not observe any change in chemokines level of NSCI. Further, the age of the patients did not influence chemokines expression after SCI. These observations along with SCI-induced CSF-chemokine level should contribute to the identification of selective and temporal chemokine targeted therapy after SCI.
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Gao Z, Zhu Q, Zhang Y, Zhao Y, Cai L, Shields CB, Cai J. Reciprocal modulation between microglia and astrocyte in reactive gliosis following the CNS injury. Mol Neurobiol 2013; 48:690-701. [PMID: 23613214 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8460-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Reactive gliosis, also known as glial scar formation, is an inflammatory response characterized by the proliferation of microglia and astrocytes as well as astrocytic hypertrophy following injury in the central nervous system (CNS). The glial scar forms a physical and molecular barrier to isolate the injured area from adjacent normal nervous tissue for re-establishing the integrity of the CNS. It prevents the further spread of cellular damage but represents an obstacle to regrowing axons. In this review, we integrated the current findings to elucidate the tightly reciprocal modulation between activated microglia and astrocytes in reactive gliosis and proposed that modification of cellular response to the injury or cellular reprogramming in the glial scar could lead advances in axon regeneration and functional recovery after the CNS injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongwen Gao
- Department of Spine Surgery, the First Hospital of Jilin University, 71 Xinmin Street, Changchun, Jilin, 130021, China
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29
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Laliberte AM, Fehlings MG. The immunological response to spinal cord injury: helpful or harmful? Exp Neurol 2013; 247:282-5. [PMID: 23333564 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2013.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2012] [Revised: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 01/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The role of the immune response in spinal cord injury has become a frequent object of debate. Evidence exists to suggest that autoimmunity following neurotrauma can be either beneficial or detrimental to recovery. The following commentary examines the recent findings indicating that mice lacking mature B- and T-lymphocytes have improved behavioral and histological outcomes following thoracic spinal cord injury. These data, presented in the October issue of Experimental Neurology are discussed within the context of previous findings and differing viewpoints in the field of neuroimmunology. Limitations on the translation of immune modulation therapeutics, and clinical perspectives on their future potential are also examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Laliberte
- Division of Genetics and Development, Toronto Western Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
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Theophylline regulates inflammatory and neurotrophic factor signals in functional recovery after C2-hemisection in adult rats. Exp Neurol 2012; 238:79-88. [PMID: 22981449 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Revised: 08/09/2012] [Accepted: 08/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Recovery of respiratory activity in an upper cervical hemisection model (C2H) of spinal cord injury (SCI) can be induced by systemic theophylline administration 24-48 h after injury. The objectives in the present study are (1) to identify pro-inflammatory and neurotrophic factors expressed after C2H and (2) molecular signals involved in functional recovery. Four groups of adult female rats classified as (i) sham (SH) controls, (ii) subjected to a left C2 hemisection (C2H) only, (iii) C2H rats administered theophylline for 3 consecutive days 2 days after C2H (C2H-T day 5) and (iv) C2H rats treated with theophylline for 3 consecutive days 2 days after C2H and then weaned for 12 days (C2H-T day 17) prior to assessment of respiratory function and molecular analysis were employed. Corresponding sham controls, C2H untreated (vehicle only controls) and C2H treated (theophylline) rats were sacrificed, C3-C6 spinal cord segments quickly dissected and left (ipsilateral) hemi spinal cord and right (contralateral) hemi spinal cord were separately harvested 2 days post surgery. Sham operated and C2H untreated-controls corresponding to C2H-T day 5 and C2H-T day 17 rats, respectively, were prepared similarly. Messenger RNA levels for pro-inflammatory genes (TXNIP, IL-1β, TNF-α and iNOS) and neurotrophic and survival factors (BDNF, GDNF, and Bcl2) were analyzed by real time quantitative PCR. Gene expression pattern was unaltered in SH rats. TXNIP, iNOS, BDNF, GDNF and Bcl2 mRNA levels were significantly increased in the ipsilateral hemi spinal cord in C2H rats. BDNF, GDNF and Bcl2 levels remained elevated in the ipsilateral hemi spinal cord in C2H-T day 5 rats. In this same group, there was further enhancement in TXNIP and IL-1β while iNOS returned to basal levels. Theophylline increased DNA binding activity of transcription factors - cyclic AMP responsive element (CRE) binding protein (CREB) and pro-inflammatory NF-κB. Messenger RNA levels for all genes returned to basal levels in C2H-T day 17 rats. However, BDNF mRNA levels remained significantly elevated after weaning from the drug. Our results suggest that enhanced resolution of early inflammatory processes and expression of pro-survival factors may underlie theophylline-induced respiratory recovery. The results identify potential targets for gene and drug therapies.
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Tung HH, Lee SL. Neural transmembrane protease and endothelial Gs protein activation in cell contact-dependent signaling between neural stem/progenitor cells and brain endothelial cells. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:22497-508. [PMID: 22577149 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.330589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Vasculature is an important component of the neural stem cell niche in brain. It regulates neural stem/progenitor (NS/P) cell self-renewal, differentiation, and migration. In the neurogenic niches of adult brain, NS/P cells lie close to blood vessels, and proliferating NS/P cells frequently contact the vasculature. In the present study we showed that NS/P cells in co-culture with brain endothelial (bEND) cells activated endothelial G proteins and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) and stimulated cytokine/chemokine expression. These NS/P cell-induced endothelial responses took place during NS/P cell and bEND cell direct contact and were critically dependent on the expression of the type II transmembrane serine protease matriptase (MTP) by NS/P cells, because knocking down of MTP in NS/P cells impaired and re-expression of MTP restored their ability to induce endothelial cytokine/chemokine expression, p38 MAPK, or G protein activation. Cholera toxin blocked NS/P cell-induced endothelial responses, suggesting that the endothelial G protein activated by NS/P MTP is in the G(s) subfamily. The addition of p38 MAPK inhibitor impaired NS/P cell-induced endothelial cytokine/chemokine expression. The known G protein-coupled receptor substrate of MTP, protease-activated receptor 2, was not involved in this system. These results revealed a novel signaling pathway in neural stem cell vascular niches that is mediated by neural MTP and endothelial G(s) protein signaling at the cell-cell interface. This is the first report of direct cell-cell signaling between NS/P and bEND cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiu-Hui Tung
- Institute of Cellular and Systems Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan Town, Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, Republic of China
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David S, López-Vales R, Wee Yong V. Harmful and beneficial effects of inflammation after spinal cord injury: potential therapeutic implications. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2012; 109:485-502. [PMID: 23098732 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-52137-8.00030-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in immediate damage followed by a secondary phase of tissue damage that occurs over a period of several weeks. The mechanisms underlying this secondary damage are multiple and not fully understood. A number of studies suggest that the local inflammatory response in the spinal cord that occurs after SCI contributes importantly to secondary damage. This response is mediated by cells normally found in the central nervous system (CNS) as well as infiltrating leukocytes. While the inflammatory response mediated by these cells is required for efficient clearance of tissue debris, and promotes wound healing and tissue repair, they also release various factors that can be detrimental to neurons, glia, axons, and myelin. In this chapter we provide an overview of the inflammatory response at the cell and molecular level after SCI, and review the current state of knowledge about its contribution to tissue damage and repair. Additionally, we discuss how some of this work is leading to the development and testing of drugs that modulate inflammation to treat acute SCI in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel David
- McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Canada.
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Priestley JV, Michael-Titus AT, Tetzlaff W. Limiting spinal cord injury by pharmacological intervention. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2012; 109:463-484. [PMID: 23098731 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-52137-8.00029-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The direct primary mechanical trauma to neurons, glia and blood vessels that occurs with spinal cord injury (SCI) is followed by a complex cascade of biochemical and cellular changes which serve to increase the size of the injury site and the extent of cellular and axonal loss. The aim of neuroprotective strategies in SCI is to limit the extent of this secondary cell loss by inhibiting key components of the evolving injury cascade. In this review we will briefly outline the pathophysiological events that occur in SCI, and then review the wide range of neuroprotective agents that have been evaluated in preclinical SCI models. Agents will be considered under the following categories: antioxidants, erythropoietin and derivatives, lipids, riluzole, opioid antagonists, hormones, anti-inflammatory agents, statins, calpain inhibitors, hypothermia, and emerging strategies. Several clinical trials of neuroprotective agents have already taken place and have generally had disappointing results. In attempting to identify promising new treatments, we will therefore highlight agents with (1) low known risks or established clinical use, (2) behavioral data gained in clinically relevant animal models, (3) efficacy when administered after the injury, and (4) robust effects seen in more than one laboratory and/or more than one model of SCI.
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Arnold SA, Hagg T. Anti-inflammatory treatments during the chronic phase of spinal cord injury improve locomotor function in adult mice. J Neurotrauma 2011; 28:1995-2002. [PMID: 21740131 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2011.1888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Our previous data suggested that ongoing inflammation in the spinal cord 6 weeks following spinal cord injury was detrimental to locomotor function. Others have shown in the acute and sub-acute post-injury phase that microglial/macrophage activation and T regulatory cells are detrimental to recovery. Here, C57BL/6 mice with a moderately severe T9 contusion were injected intravenously daily with minocycline, which reduces microglial/macrophage activation, or with CD25 antibodies, which reduce T regulatory cell function, starting at 6 weeks after injury. Both anti-inflammatory drugs caused an improvement in hindlimb locomotor function over the 2-week treatment, as measured by the Basso Mouse Scale (BMS). The improvement was functionally important, with mice having problems with coordinated stepping (BMS ∼6) before treatment to walking essentially normally (BMS >7) at the end of the treatment. The effects diminished within 1 week after termination of the treatments, suggesting an ongoing and dynamic inflammatory process. The area of white matter or the inflammatory markers CD68 for activated microglia/macrophages and CD45 for leukocytes were not different between the groups. These data suggest that inflammation during the chronic phase following spinal cord injury reduces conduction through the epicenter, possibly by release of cytokines, and is amenable to treatment for improved neurological function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila A Arnold
- Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292, USA
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Tirotta E, Ransohoff RM, Lane TE. CXCR2 signaling protects oligodendrocyte progenitor cells from IFN-γ/CXCL10-mediated apoptosis. Glia 2011; 59:1518-28. [PMID: 21656856 DOI: 10.1002/glia.21195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2010] [Revised: 05/12/2011] [Accepted: 05/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Infiltration of activated lymphocytes into the central nervous system (CNS) is potentially harmful by damaging resident cells through release of cytokines. Among these is IFN-γ that is secreted by activated natural killer (NK) cells and T lymphocytes and can exert a cytotoxic effect on resident glial populations including oligodendrocytes. Here we show that treatment of mouse oligodendrocyte progenitor cell (OPC)-enriched cultures with IFN-γ resulted in a dose-dependent increase in apoptosis. IFN-γ-induced apoptosis is mediated, in part, through induction of the CXC chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10; IP-10) from cultured OPCs. Treatment of OPCs with CXCL10 resulted in cell death in a concentration-dependent manner and IFN-γ-treatment of CXCL10-/- OPCs resulted in >50% reduction in cell death. Further, treatment of CXCR3-/- OPC cultures with either IFN-γ or CXCL10 resulted in reduced cell death supporting an important role for CXCL10 signaling in IFN-γ-mediated OPC apoptosis. Data is also provided demonstrating that signaling through CXCR2 protects either IFN-γ or CXCL10-treated OPC cultures from apoptosis and this effect is abolished in CXCR2-/- OPCs. CXCR2-mediated protection from apoptosis is associated with impaired cleavage of caspase 3 and elevated expression of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2. These findings demonstrate a previously unappreciated role for CXCL10 in contributing to neuropathology by promoting oligodendrocyte apoptosis and emphasize the potential relevance in targeting CXCL10 in treating human demyelinating diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Tirotta
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-3900, USA
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Liu M, Guo S, Hibbert JM, Jain V, Singh N, Wilson NO, Stiles JK. CXCL10/IP-10 in infectious diseases pathogenesis and potential therapeutic implications. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2011; 22:121-30. [PMID: 21802343 PMCID: PMC3203691 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2011.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 335] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10) also known as interferon γ-induced protein 10 kDa (IP-10) or small-inducible cytokine B10 is a cytokine belonging to the CXC chemokine family. CXCL10 binds CXCR3 receptor to induce chemotaxis, apoptosis, cell growth and angiostasis. Alterations in CXCL10 expression levels have been associated with inflammatory diseases including infectious diseases, immune dysfunction and tumor development. CXCL10 is also recognized as a biomarker that predicts severity of various diseases. A review of the emerging role of CXCL10 in pathogenesis of infectious diseases revealed diverse roles of CXCL10 in disease initiation and progression. The potential utilization of CXCL10 as a therapeutic target for infectious diseases is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingli Liu
- Department of Microbiology Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Shanchun Guo
- Department of Microbiology Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jacqueline M. Hibbert
- Department of Microbiology Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Vidhan Jain
- National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Jabalpur, India
| | - Neeru Singh
- National Institute of Malaria Research (ICMR), Jabalpur, India
| | - Nana O. Wilson
- Department of Microbiology Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jonathan K. Stiles
- Department of Microbiology Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Kwon BK, Stammers AM, Belanger LM, Bernardo A, Chan D, Bishop CM, Slobogean GP, Zhang H, Umedaly H, Giffin M, Street J, Boyd MC, Paquette SJ, Fisher CG, Dvorak MF. Cerebrospinal Fluid Inflammatory Cytokines and Biomarkers of Injury Severity in Acute Human Spinal Cord Injury. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27:669-82. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2009.1080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Brian K. Kwon
- Combined Neurosurgical and Orthopaedic Spine Program (CNOSP), Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Anthea M.T. Stammers
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Lise M. Belanger
- Vancouver Spine Program, Vancouver General Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Arlene Bernardo
- Vancouver Spine Program, Vancouver General Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Donna Chan
- Vancouver Spine Program, Vancouver General Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Carole M. Bishop
- Vancouver Spine Program, Vancouver General Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Gerard P. Slobogean
- Combined Neurosurgical and Orthopaedic Spine Program (CNOSP), Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Hongbin Zhang
- Vancouver Spine Program, Vancouver General Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Hamed Umedaly
- Department of Anaesthesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Mitch Giffin
- Department of Anaesthesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - John Street
- Combined Neurosurgical and Orthopaedic Spine Program (CNOSP), Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Michael C. Boyd
- Combined Neurosurgical and Orthopaedic Spine Program (CNOSP), Department of Surgery, Division of Neurosurgery, University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Scott J. Paquette
- Combined Neurosurgical and Orthopaedic Spine Program (CNOSP), Department of Surgery, Division of Neurosurgery, University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Charles G. Fisher
- Combined Neurosurgical and Orthopaedic Spine Program (CNOSP), Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Marcel F. Dvorak
- Combined Neurosurgical and Orthopaedic Spine Program (CNOSP), Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Letellier E, Kumar S, Sancho-Martinez I, Krauth S, Funke-Kaiser A, Laudenklos S, Konecki K, Klussmann S, Corsini NS, Kleber S, Drost N, Neumann A, Lévi-Strauss M, Brors B, Gretz N, Edler L, Fischer C, Hill O, Thiemann M, Biglari B, Karray S, Martin-Villalba A. CD95-ligand on peripheral myeloid cells activates Syk kinase to trigger their recruitment to the inflammatory site. Immunity 2010; 32:240-52. [PMID: 20153221 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2010.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2009] [Revised: 10/09/2009] [Accepted: 12/10/2009] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Injury to the central nervous system initiates an uncontrolled inflammatory response that results in both tissue repair and destruction. Here, we showed that, in rodents and humans, injury to the spinal cord triggered surface expression of CD95 ligand (CD95L, FasL) on peripheral blood myeloid cells. CD95L stimulation of CD95 on these cells activated phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) via recruitment and activation of Syk kinase, ultimately leading to increased migration. Exclusive CD95L deletion in myeloid cells greatly decreased the number of neutrophils and macrophages infiltrating the injured spinal cord or the inflamed peritoneum after thioglycollate injection. Importantly, deletion of myeloid CD95L, but not of CD95 on neural cells, led to functional recovery of spinal injured animals. Our results indicate that CD95L acts on peripheral myeloid cells to induce tissue damage. Thus, neutralization of CD95L should be considered as a means to create a controlled beneficial inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Letellier
- Molecular Neurobiology Unit, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
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Fleming JC, Bao F, Chen Y, Hamilton EF, Gonzalez-Lara LE, Foster PJ, Weaver LC. Timing and duration of anti-alpha4beta1 integrin treatment after spinal cord injury: effect on therapeutic efficacy. J Neurosurg Spine 2009; 11:575-87. [PMID: 19929361 DOI: 10.3171/2009.6.spine08915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECT After spinal cord injury (SCI) leukocytes infiltrate the injured cord, causing significant damage and further impairment of functional recovery. The leukocyte integrin alpha4beta1 is crucial for their entry. The authors previously demonstrated that an anti-alpha4 monoclonal antibody (mAb) treatment attenuates leukocyte infiltration, improves motor and autonomic function, and reduces neuropathic pain when administered at 2 hours and 24 hours after SCI. METHODS The authors conducted 2 preclinical studies: the first determined effects of treatment commencing at 6 hours, a clinically relevant time after injury, and the second examined effects of long-lasting treatment (28 days) on neurological recovery after SCI, as current clinically used anti-inflammatory monoclonal antibodies have such longevity. In the first study (timing study), rats were treated with anti-alpha4 or control mAb (intravenously) at 6 hours and 48 hours after moderate (35 g) thoracic compression SCI. Effects on intraspinal inflammation and oxidative injury were assessed at 3 and 7 days after SCI; motor function and pain were examined for 6 weeks. In the second study (duration study), anti-alpha4 mAb was administered starting 2 hours after SCI and subsequently every 3 days for 4 weeks (total of 8 doses), using a schedule of decreasing doses to resemble the pharmacodynamics of long-lasting antibodies used clinically. Motor function and pain were examined for 6 weeks. Lesions were assessed for tissue sparing and inflammation at 6 weeks by histological examination and MR imaging. RESULTS Anti-alpha4 mAb treatment at 6 hours and 48 hours after SCI (timing study) significantly decreased neutrophil and monocyte/macrophage influx at 3 days by 36% and 20%, respectively, but had no effect by at 7 days after SCI. Antibody treatment significantly reduced intraspinal myeloperoxidase activity by 48% and lipid peroxidation by 27% at 3 days post-injury. The treatment did not improve locomotor function but reduced mechanical allodynia elicited from the trunk and hind paw by ~50% at 3-6 weeks after SCI. In contrast, long-term mAb treatment commencing at 2 hours after SCI (duration study) significantly improved locomotor function at 2-6 weeks after SCI, (mean BBB scores +/- SE: treated rats, 8.3 +/- 0.16; controls, 7.3 +/- 0.2 at 6 weeks). At 3-6 weeks, mAb treatment decreased mechanical allodynia elicited from the trunk and hind paw by ~55%. This recovery correlated with 30% more myelin-containing white matter in treated rats than controls at 6 weeks. The lesion cavity was smaller in the treated rats when assessed by both histological (-37%) and imaging (-50%) methods. The accumulation of ED1-immunoreactive microglia/macrophages at the lesion was similar in treated and control rats. CONCLUSIONS Although delayed treatment reduced intraspinal inflammation and pain, motor function was not improved, revealing decreased efficacy at the more clinically feasibly treatment onset. Long-term anti-alpha4 mAb treatment starting 2 hours after SCI improved neurological outcomes, with tissue sparing near the lesion and no impairment of the late immune response to injury. These findings reveal no disadvantage of long-lasting immunosuppression by the treatment but show that efficacy depends upon very early delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer C Fleming
- Spinal Cord Injury Laboratory, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
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Chemokines as Possible Targets in Modulation of the Secondary Damage After Acute Spinal Cord Injury: A Review. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2009; 29:1025-35. [DOI: 10.1007/s10571-009-9392-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2008] [Accepted: 03/10/2009] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Alexander JK, Popovich PG. Neuroinflammation in spinal cord injury: therapeutic targets for neuroprotection and regeneration. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2009; 175:125-37. [DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(09)17508-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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