Post high intensity pull-over semi-tethered swimming potentiation in national competitive swimmers

Swimming performance, physiology, and post-activation performance enhancement following dryland transition phase warmup: A systematic review

Background

In swimming, the period between the end of the swimming warmup and the beginning of competition is critical to performance, here termed the transition phase. Several options are available during this phase, necessitating a systematic review to understand if optimal strategies exist.

Objectives

To synthesise and critically evaluate the current literature investigating land-based warmup interventions on subsequent performance in competitive swimmers.

Methods

A search of three electronic databases (PubMed, EBSCO SPORTDiscus and Web of Science) was conducted to identify original studies until February 2022. Selection criteria dictated that (i) a control condition was used, (ii) participants were ≥ 15 years of age, (iii) a pool-based warmup was done prior to the land-based warmup. A total of 25 articles met the selection criteria.

Results

Reducing the transition phase duration by at least half led to consistently faster time-trial times of between 1.1–1.5% for all included studies. Passive warmups using clothing interventions resulted in mostly faster time-trial’s of 0.4–0.8% with increases in skin temperature frequent, though little change occurred in core temperature. The methodology of passive respiratory warmups were vastly different with positive time-trial’s effects ranging between 0.9–1.1% for two studies, though one reported no meaningful difference. Active warmups led to consistently faster time-trial’s between 0.7–0.9%, though the unpinning factors are not clear. Warmups which combined passive and active options frequently led to faster time-trial’s between 0.8–3%. Upper and combined limb post-activation performance enhancement led to mostly unfavourable time-trial changes. Lower limb exclusive protocols results were inconsistent, with limited beneficial effects on time-trial or start performance reported following plyometric protocols. However, there does appear merit in heavier loaded lower limb protocols.

Conclusion

Each of a reduced transition phase length, and passive, active or combination warmup have demonstrated improvements in swimming performance. Conversely, PAPE protocols should be used with caution, especially when including the upper limbs.

Quantification of swimmers' ability to apply force in the water: the potential role of two new variables during tethered swimming

This study aimed 1) to examine variables that may quantify the ability to apply force in the water and 2) to test their relationship with free swimming performance. Sixteen regional-level swimmers participated in this study. Average (Favg) and maximum (Fmax) forces were measured for 30 s arm stroke tethered swimming in a flume at zero and 1.389 m/s water flow speeds. The maximum and average force's relative changes (ΔFmax and ΔFavg, respectively) were calculated between tethered swimming at zero and 1.389 m/s water flow speeds. Free swimming speeds were obtained from 25, 50, and 100 m front crawl trials, and were correlated with ΔFmax and ΔFavg. A negative correlation was found between ΔFmax and 25, 50 and 100 m speeds (r =  -0.84, r = -0.74, r = -0.55; p < 0.05, respectively) and ΔFavg correlated negatively with 25 and 50 m speeds (r = -0.63, r = -0.54; p < 0.05, respectively), but it did not correlate with 100 m swimming speed. The relative change in force could be used to quantify the ability to apply force in the water. This could aid coaches to understand if changes in swimmers' ability to apply force in the water contribute to improvements in performance.

Upper-Body Post-activation Performance Enhancement for Athletic Performance: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis and Recommendations for Future Research

BACKGROUND

Research on post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) is dominated by lower-body conditioning activities/performance test complexes. Despite the contribution of the upper body to many sporting actions, no review on upper-body PAPE currently exists.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to provide a synthesis of the available research on the inclusion of upper-body PAPE conditioning activities to improve athletic performance.

METHODS

A review of the literature was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analyses guidelines, including a literature search of EBSCOhost, SPORTDiscus, PubMed and Google Scholar databases. A total of 127 studies were identified through database searches, and were assessed against the following criteria: (1) randomised controlled trial or pre-and-post study design; (2) studies explored the effects of prior voluntary muscle activity, and not electrically induced contractions, (3) evidence, or lack thereof, of PAPE was quantified by the monitoring of individual performance to commonly applied physical tests or sport-specific tasks; (4) conditioning activities and performance tests were primarily upper-body; (5) detailed description of a standardised warm-up; and (6) full-text versions of studies could be accessed in English language peer-reviewed journals. Studies were quality assessed for methodological quality via the PEDro scale and ranked accordingly.

RESULTS

Thirty-one studies met the inclusion criteria. Studies were classified into different conditioning activity modes: bench press variations, sport-specific (modified implement throws, swing-specific, cable pulley, elastic resistance, combination) and bodyweight activity. Acute performance enhancement in several movement-specific combinations was found. A meta-analysis revealed that bench press at  ≥ 80% one repetition maximum significantly (p = 0.03; ES = 0.31) improves subsequent power output in the ballistic bench throw at 30-40% one repetition maximum, following 8-12 min recovery. Additionally, sport-specific overweight implement throws improved subsequent throwing distance at competition weight by ~ 1.7-8.5%; ES = 0.14-0.33, following 3 min recovery. Sport-specific lighter weighted bat swings and swing-specific isometrics resulted in improved subsequent competition weight bat swing velocities, ranging from ~ 1.3-4.9%; ES = 0.16-0.57.

CONCLUSIONS

This review presents several upper-body movement-specific conditioning activities that could be considered by coaches and practitioners as part of complex or contrast training, or used in pre-competition warm-ups to acutely enhance performance.

Are Strength Indicators and Skin Temperature Affected by the Type of Warm-Up in Paralympic Powerlifting Athletes?

(1) Background: the present study aimed to evaluate the effect of different types of warm-ups on the strength and skin temperature of Paralympic powerlifting athletes. (2) Methods: the participants were 15 male Paralympic powerlifting athletes. The effects of three different types of warm-up (without warm-up (WW), traditional warm-up (TW), or stretching warm-up (SW)) were analyzed on static and dynamic strength tests as well as in the skin temperature, which was monitored by thermal imaging. (3) Results: no differences in the dynamic and static indicators of the force were shown in relation to the different types of warm-ups. No significant differences were found in relation to peak torque (p = 0.055, F = 4.560, η2p = 0.246 medium effect), and one-repetition maximum (p = 0.139, F = 3.191, η2p = 0.186, medium effect) between the different types of warm-ups. In the thermographic analysis, there was a significant difference only in the pectoral muscle clavicular portion between the TW (33.04 ± 0.71 °C) and the WW (32.51 ± 0.74 °C) (p = 0.038). The TW method also presented slightly higher values than the SW and WW in the pectoral muscles sternal portion and the deltoid anterior portion, but with p-value > 0.05. (4) Conclusions: the types of warm-ups studied do not seem to interfere with the performance of Paralympic Powerlifting athletes. However, the thermal images showed that traditional warm-up best meets the objectives expected for this preparation phase.

Post-Eccentric Flywheel Underwater Undulatory Swimming Potentiation in Competitive Swimmers

Underwater undulatory swimming (UUS) influences overall swimming performance, therefore swimmers should try to maximize it. This research aimed to: 1) assess the effects of an activation protocol based on post-activation performance enhancements upon UUS; and 2) evaluate the differences between males and females. Seventeen competitive swimmers (male = 10; female = 7) participated in a cross-sectional study designed to test performance in UUS at 10 m after a traditional swimming warm-up (TRA) and after adding to the TRA 4 maximal half-squat repetitions on an inertial flywheel device (PAPE). A speedometer and an electronic timing system were used to obtain kinematic variables such as time, frequency and velocity at 10-m, which were processed with MATLAB®. A paired sample t test was applied to determine the differences of the kinematic variables between the TRA and PAPE. An independent sample t test was used to determine the effects of the PAPE in males and females. Participants reduced the time to cover 10 m after PAPE compared to the TRA (males: 5.77 ± 0.44 to 5.64 ± 0.46; females 6.34 ± 0.80 to 6.09 ± 0.66; p < 0.05). In addition, trends towards improvements in UUS velocity were obtained for males and females. However, push-off velocity and frequency showed a different tendency between genders (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the warm-up including repetitions on the flywheel device improved UUS performance. Some differences were obtained between genders after PAPE. Further research should confirm if the benefits obtained after the eccentric overload would depend either on gender or on other components such as fiber type composition.