Prevalence and impacts of genetically engineered feedstuffs on livestock populations

Modernizing and harmonizing regulatory data requirements for genetically modified crops-perspectives from a workshop

Genetically modified (GM) crops that have been engineered to express transgenes have been in commercial use since 1995 and are annually grown on 200 million hectares globally. These crops have provided documented benefits to food security, rural economies, and the environment, with no substantiated case of food, feed, or environmental harm attributable to cultivation or consumption. Despite this extensive history of advantages and safety, the level of regulatory scrutiny has continually increased, placing undue burdens on regulators, developers, and society, while reinforcing consumer distrust of the technology. CropLife International held a workshop at the 16th International Society of Biosafety Research (ISBR) Symposium to examine the scientific basis for modernizing global regulatory frameworks for GM crops. Participants represented a spectrum of global stakeholders, including academic researchers, GM crop developers, regulatory consultants, and regulators. Concurrently examining the considerations of food and feed safety, along with environmental safety, for GM crops, the workshop presented recommendations for a core set of data that should always be considered, and supplementary (i.e., conditional) data that would be warranted only on a case-by-case basis to address specific plausible hypotheses of harm. Then, using a case-study involving a hypothetical GM maize event expressing two familiar traits (insect protection and herbicide tolerance), participants were asked to consider these recommendations and discuss if any additional data might be warranted to support a science-based risk assessment or for regulatory decision-making. The discussions during the workshop highlighted that the set of data to address the food, feed, and environmental safety of the hypothetical GM maize, in relation to a conventional comparator, could be modernized compared to current global regulatory requirements. If these scientific approaches to modernize data packages for GM crop regulation were adopted globally, GM crops could be commercialized in a more timely manner, thereby enabling development of more diverse GM traits to benefit growers, consumers, and the environment.

Mechanism of action, benefits, and research gap in fermented soybean meal utilization as a high-quality protein source for livestock and poultry

Animal nutritionists have incessantly worked towards providing livestock with high-quality plant protein feed resources. Soybean meal (SBM) has been an essential and predominantly adopted vegetable protein source in livestock feeding for a long time; however, several SBM antinutrients could potentially impair the animal's performance and growth, limiting its use. Several processing methods have been employed to remove SBM antinutrients, including fermentation with fungal or bacterial microorganisms. According to the literature, fermentation, a traditional food processing method, could improve SBM's nutritional and functional properties, making it more suitable and beneficial to livestock. The current interest in health-promoting functional feed, which can enhance the growth of animals, improve their immune system, and promote physiological benefits more than conventional feed, coupled with the ban on the use of antimicrobial growth promoters, has caused a renewed interest in the use of fermented SBM (FSBM) in livestock diets. This review details the mechanism of SBM fermentation and its impacts on animal health and discusses the recent trend in the application and emerging advantages to livestock while shedding light on the research gap that needs to be critically addressed in future studies. FSBM appears to be a multifunctional high-quality plant protein source for animals. Besides removing soybean antinutrients, beneficial bioactive peptides and digestive enzymes are produced during fermentation, providing probiotics, antioxidants, and immunomodulatory effects. Critical aspects regarding FSBM feeding to animals remain uncharted, such as the duration of fermentation, the influence of feeding on digestive tissue development, choice of microbial strain, and possible environmental impact.

Processes for regulating genetically modified and gene edited plants

Innovation in agriculture has been essential in improving productivity of crops and forages to support a growing population, improving living standards while contributing toward maintaining environment integrity, human health, and wellbeing through provision of more nutritious, varied, and abundant food sources. A crucial part of that innovation has involved a range of techniques for both expanding and exploiting the genetic potential of plants. However, some techniques used for generating new variation for plant breeders to exploit are deemed higher risk than others despite end products of both processes at times being for all intents and purposes identical for the benefits they provide. As a result, public concerns often triggered by poor communication from innovators, resulting in mistrust and suspicion has, in turn, caused the development of a range of regulatory systems. The logic and motivations for modes of regulation used are reviewed and how the benefits from use of these technologies can be delivered more efficiently and effectively is discussed.

Isolation and identification of protease-producing Bacillus amyloliquefaciens LX-6 and its application in the solid fermentation of soybean meal

Soybean meal (SM) is considered an ideal substitute for fish meal; however, its application is mainly limited because of its antigen proteins, glycinin and β-conglycinin. To improve the value of SM in the aquaculture industry, we employed an aerobic bacterial strain (LX-6) with protease activity of 1,390.6 ± 12.5 U/mL. This strain was isolated from soil samples and identified as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens based on morphological and physiological biochemical characteristics and 16S rDNA gene sequence analyses. Subsequently, we quantified the extent of glycinin and β-conglycinin degradation and the total protein and water-soluble protein content after SM fermentation with B. amyloliquefaciens LX-6. At 24 h of fermentation, the macromolecular antigen proteins of SM were almost completely degraded; the maximum degradation rates of glycinin and β-conglycinin reached 77.9% and 57.1%, respectively. Accordingly, not only did the concentration of water-soluble proteins increase from 5.74% to 44.45% after 48 h of fermentation but so did the concentrations of total protein and amino acids compared to those of unfermented SM. Field emission scanning electron microscopy revealed that the LX-6 strain gradually disrupted the surface structure of SM during the fermentation process. In addition, B. amyloliquefaciens LX-6 exhibited broad-spectrum antagonistic activity and a wide pH tolerance, suggesting its application in SM fermentation for fish meal replacement.

Horizontal gene transfer from genetically modified plants - Regulatory considerations

Gene technology regulators receive applications seeking permission for the environmental release of genetically modified (GM) plants, many of which possess beneficial traits such as improved production, enhanced nutrition and resistance to drought, pests and diseases. The regulators must assess the risks to human and animal health and to the environment from releasing these GM plants. One such consideration, of many, is the likelihood and potential consequence of the introduced or modified DNA being transferred to other organisms, including people. While such gene transfer is most likely to occur to sexually compatible relatives (vertical gene transfer), horizontal gene transfer (HGT), which is the acquisition of genetic material that has not been inherited from a parent, is also a possibility considered during these assessments. Advances in HGT detection, aided by next generation sequencing, have demonstrated that HGT occurrence may have been previously underestimated. In this review, we provide updated evidence on the likelihood, factors and the barriers for the introduced or modified DNA in GM plants to be horizontally transferred into a variety of recipients. We present the legislation and frameworks the Australian Gene Technology Regulator adheres to with respect to the consideration of risks posed by HGT. Such a perspective may generally be applicable to regulators in other jurisdictions as well as to commercial and research organisations who develop GM plants.

Contributions of Genome Editing Technologies Towards Improved Nutrition, Environmental Sustainability and Poverty Reduction

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were launched in 2015, with the top three goals being poverty eradication, improved food security and increased human health. All 17 SDGs have a target achievement date of 2030. These are ambitious and inspirational goals that require substantial innovation and technology adoption for successful achievement. Innovations in plant breeding have substantially contributed to transforming the efficiency of food production since the mid 20th century, with innovations emerging in the current millennium demonstrating enhanced potential to improve crop yields, the nutritional values of food crops and environmental impacts. These outcomes underpin several SDGs, but in particular the first three. As climate change is expected to become increasingly variable, with greater impacts on agriculture, the ability to ensure increased food production is going to be increasingly important, as higher yields directly contribute to reducing poverty. This article reviews recent reports of potential contributions from genome editing technologies in terms of increased yield, enhanced nutrition and greater sustainability, highlighting their importance for achieving the leading three SDGs.

Removing politics from innovations that improve food security

Genetically modified (GM) organisms and crops have been a feature of food production for over 30 years. Despite extensive science-based risk assessment, the public and many politicians remain concerned with the genetic manipulation of crops, particularly food crops. Many governments have addressed public concern through biosafety legislation and regulatory frameworks that identify and regulate risks to ensure human health and environmental safety. These domestic regulatory frameworks align to international scientific risk assessment methodologies on a case-by-case basis. Regulatory agencies in 70 countries around the world have conducted in excess of 4400 risk assessments, all reaching the same conclusion: GM crops and foods that have been assessed provide no greater risk to human health or the environment than non-GM crops and foods. Yet, while the science regarding the safety of GM crops and food appears conclusive and societal benefits have been globally demonstrated, the use of innovative products have only contributed minimal improvements to global food security. Regrettably, politically-motivated regulatory barriers are currently being implemented with the next genomic innovation, genome editing, the implications of which are also discussed in this article. A decade of reduced global food insecurity was witnessed from 2005 to 2015, but regrettably, the figure has subsequently risen. Why is this the case? Reasons have been attributed to climate variability, biotic and abiotic stresses, lack of access to innovative technologies and political interference in decision making processes. This commentary highlights how political interference in the regulatory approval process of GM crops is adversely affecting the adoption of innovative, yield enhancing crop varieties, thereby limiting food security opportunities in food insecure economies.

Investigating the status of transgenic crops in Iran in terms of cultivation, consumption, laws and rights in comparison with the world

Recently, there has been a development in transgenic technologies in many countries to meet nutritional needs of increasing worlds҆ population. However, there are some concerns about possible risks in the field of growing genetically modified (GM) food, such as threats of biodiversity and food allergies making their use a challenge. Therefore, the present study was conducted to investigate the economic effects and political scopes of GM foods in production sector and policies made by different countries in the world and Iran. Moreover, essential (practical and legal) solutions and guidelines were provided for production and consumption of GM foods, which are useful for governmental entities, Iranian politicians, and consumers' rights. The latest situation of transgenic crops in the countries with which Iran has the highest exchange of agricultural products (including Turkey, Pakistan, and the European Union (EU)) was also studied. Although, Iran has been one of leading Asian countries not only in the field of transfer of technical knowledge of genetic engineering, but also in development of the specialized knowledge of biosafety, and despite production of several transgenic plant lines by Iranian researchers, unfortunately no GM crop has obtained release and cultivation license except for GM rice that its growing process was banned after change of government. According to findings of this study, in Iran, growing and production process of GM crops does not follow the global trend owing to scientific and legal infrastructures.

Bacillus velezensis DP-2 isolated from Douchi and its application in soybean meal fermentation

BACKGROUND

Soybean meal (SBM) is the most common protein source used in the poultry and livestock industries. It has high-quality protein, an excellent amino acid (AA) profile, and positive isoflavone properties. However, the antigen proteins in SBM are unsuitable for young animals. The objective of this study was to identify a Bacillus strain that can degrade soybean antigen proteins, and to evaluate the feasibility of its application in SBM fermentation.

RESULTS

Bacillus velezensis DP-2 was isolated from Douchi, a fermented Chinese food. It degraded 96.14% and 66.51% of glycinin and β-conglycinin, and increased the trichloroacetic acid-soluble protein (TCAN) content by 5.46 times in the SBM medium. DP-2 could secrete alkaline protease and neutral protease, with productivities of 5.85 and 5.99 U mL-1 . It had broad-spectrum, antibacterial activities against Rhizopus nigricans HR, Fusarium oxysporum ACCC37404, Penicillium digitatum SQ2, Aspergillus flavus C1, Aspergillus niger ACCC30005, Trichoderma viride YZ1, Candida tropicalis CICC1630, and Salmonella sp. ZY. For SBM fermentation, the optimal inoculum rate, temperature, and fermentation time of DP-2 were 2.21 × 107 CFU g-1 , 37 °C, and 48 h, respectively. The fermented soybean meal (FSBM) was cream-colored and glutinous. Its crude protein (CP), soluble protein, and TCA-N content were improved by 13.45%, 12.53%, and 6.37 times, respectively. The glycinin and β-conglycinin content were reduced by 78.00% and 43.07%, respectively, compared with raw SBM.

CONCLUSIONS

Bacillus velezensis DP-2 has potential as a starter culture for SBM fermentation. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Modulation of cecal microbiota in laying hens via intake of genetically modified corn with the maroACC or mCry1Ac genes

BACKGROUND

The present study investigated the chronic effect on the composition and proportions of the cecal microbiota of laying hens for 12 weeks after consuming two genetically modified (GM) corns containing the maroACC gene from the Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain (CC) and the mCry1Ac gene from the Bacillus thuringiensis strain (BT) in comparison with the isogenic corn (CT).

RESULTS

In total, 72 hens were randomly assigned to the CT corn-based diet, CC corn-based diet and BT corn-based diet. The absolute weights of abdominal fat, breast, thigh meat and organ weight were not affected by the dietary treatment. High-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed a few differences in the composition of cecal microbiota among the treatments. The only difference with respect to bacterial family was that the cecal abundance of Porphyromonadaceae (3.46 versus 2.11%; P = 0.073) tended to be higher for birds consuming the CC diet than those birds consuming the CT diet. Birds fed the BT diet tended to have a higher abundance of Barnesiella (0.62 versus 0.13%; P = 0.057) and a lower abundance of unclassified Ruminococcaceae (0.64 versus 1.19%; P = 0.097) than those fed the CT diet. Considering beneficial intestinal Barnesiella, this decreases and ultimately clears the colonization of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus. The unclassified Ruminococcaceae was a low-frequency and low-abundance bacterial taxa and was not associated with intestinal pathology.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate a similar modulation of cecal microbiota in laying hens by long-term feeding among transgenic CC corn, BT corn and non-transgenic corn and provide data for biosafety evaluation of the transgenic corn. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Glyphosate-based herbicide formulations and reproductive toxicity in animals

The adoption of genetically engineered (GE) crops in agriculture has increased dramatically over the last few decades. Among the transgenic plants, those tolerant to the herbicide glyphosate are among the most common. Weed resistance to glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) has been on the rise, leading to increased herbicide applications. This, in turn, has led to increased glyphosate residues in feed. Although glyphosate has been considered to be generally safe to animal health, recent studies have shown that GBHs have potential to cause adverse effects in animal reproduction, including disruption of key regulatory enzymes in androgen synthesis, alteration of serum levels of estrogen and testosterone, damage to reproductive tissues and impairment of gametogenesis. This review emphasizes known effects of GBHs on reproductive health as well as the potential risk GBH residues pose to animal agriculture.

Evaluation of the use of untargeted metabolomics in the safety assessment of genetically modified crops

BACKGROUND

The safety assessment of foods and feeds from genetically modified (GM) crops includes the comparison of key characteristics, such as crop composition, agronomic phenotype and observations from animal feeding studies compared to conventional counterpart varieties that have a history of safe consumption, often including a near isogenic variety. The comparative compositional analysis of GM crops has been based on targeted, validated, quantitative analytical methods for the key food and feed nutrients and antinutrients for each crop, as identified by Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development (OCED). As technologies for untargeted metabolomic methods have evolved, proposals have emerged for their use to complement or replace targeted compositional analytical methods in regulatory risk assessments of GM crops to increase the number of analyzed metabolites.

AIM OF REVIEW

The technical opportunities, challenges and strategies of including untargeted metabolomics analysis in the comparative safety assessment of GM crops are reviewed. The results from metabolomics studies of GM and conventional crops published over the last eight years provide context to enable the discussion of whether metabolomics can materially improve the risk assessment of food and feed from GM crops beyond that possible by the Codex-defined practices used worldwide for more than 25 years.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

Published studies to date show that environmental and genetic factors affect plant metabolomics profiles. In contrast, the plant biotechnology process used to make GM crops has little, if any consequence, unless the inserted GM trait is intended to alter food or feed composition. The nutritional value and safety of food and feed from GM crops is well informed by the quantitative, validated compositional methods for list of key analytes defined by crop-specific OECD consensus documents. Untargeted metabolic profiling has yet to provide data that better informs the safety assessment of GM crops than the already rigorous Codex-defined quantitative comparative assessment. Furthermore, technical challenges limit the implementation of untargeted metabolomics for regulatory purposes: no single extraction method or analytical technique captures the complete plant metabolome; a large percentage of metabolites features are unknown, requiring additional research to understand if differences for such unknowns affect food/feed safety; and standardized methods are needed to provide reproducible data over time and laboratories.

DP-2Ø2216-6 maize does not adversely affect rats in a 90-day feeding study

Maize plants containing event DP-2Ø2216-6 (DP202216), which confers herbicide tolerance through expression of phosphinothricin acetyltransferase and enhanced grain yield potential via temporal modulation of the native ZMM28 protein, were developed for commercialization. To address current regulatory expectations, a mandatory 90-day rodent feeding study was conducted to support the safety assessment. Diets containing 50% by weight of ground maize grain from DP202216, non-transgenic control, and 3 non-transgenic reference varieties, were fully characterized, along with the grain, and diets were fed to Crl:CD®(SD) rats for at least 90 days. As anticipated, no biologically-relevant effects or toxicologically-significant differences were observed on survival, body weight/gain, food consumption/efficiency, clinical and neurobehavioral evaluations, ophthalmology, clinical pathology (hematology, coagulation, clinical chemistry, urinalysis), organ weights, or gross and microscopic pathology parameters in rats fed a diet containing up to 50% DP202216 maize grain when compared with rats fed diets containing control or reference maize grains. The results of this study support the conclusion that maize grain from plants containing event DP-2Ø2216-6 is as safe and nutritious as maize grain not containing the event and add to the significant existing database of rodent subchronic studies demonstrating the absence of hazards from consumption of edible fractions of genetically modified plants.

Safety evaluation of E12, W8, X17, and Y9 potatoes: Nutritional evaluation and 90-day subchronic feeding study in rats

The nutritional and health effects of four biotech potato events, E12, W8, X17, and Y9, were evaluated in a subchronic rodent feeding study. E12 contains pSIM1278 insert DNA derived from potato and designed to down regulate potato genes through RNAi. These changes result in reduced black spot and reduced acrylamide. W8, X17, and Y9 contain the DNA inserts from pSIM1278 and pSIM1678 to further reduce acrylamide and express a gene from wild potato that protects against late blight. Rats were fed diets containing 20% cooked, dried potatoes from these four events and three conventional potato varieties. Compositional analyses of the processed potatoes and the rodent diets demonstrated comparability between the four events and their respective conventional varieties. Rats consumed the diets for 90 days and were evaluated for body weight, dietary intake, clinical signs, ophthalmology, neurobehavioral parameters, clinical pathology, organ weights, gross pathology, and histopathology. No adverse effects were observed as a result of test diet consumption. These results support the conclusion that foods containing E12, W8, X17, or Y9 potatoes are as safe, wholesome and nutritious as foods from conventional potato varieties.

Regulation of genome edited technologies in India

In India, genetically modified organisms and products thereof are regulated under the "Rules for the manufacture, use, import, export and storage of hazardous microorganisms, genetically engineered organisms or cells, 1989" (referred to as Rules, 1989) notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. These Rules are implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Department of Biotechnology and State Governments though six competent authorities. The Rules, 1989 are supported by series of guidelines on contained research, biologics, confined field trials, food safety assessment, environmental risk assessment etc. The definition of genetic engineering in the Rules, 1989 implies that new genome engineering technologies including gene editing technologies like CRISPR/Cas9 and gene drives may be covered under the rules. The regulatory authorities if required, may also review the experiences of other countries in dealing with such new and emerging technologies.

Safety Assessment of Genetically Modified Feed: Is There Any Difference From Food?

Food security is one of major concerns for the growing global population. Modern agricultural biotechnologies, such as genetic modification, are a possible solution through enabling an increase of production, more efficient use of natural resources, and reduced environmental impacts. However, new crop varieties with altered genetic materials may be subjected to safety assessments to fulfil the regulatory requirements, prior to marketing. The aim of the assessment is to evaluate the impact of products from the new crop variety on human, animal, and the environmental health. Although, many studies on the risk assessment of genetically modified (GM) food have been published, little consideration to GM feedstuff has been given, despite that between 70 to 90% of all GM crops and their biomass are used as animal feed. In addition, in some GM plants such as forages that are only used for animal feeds, the assessment of the genetic modification may be of relevance only to livestock feeding. In this article, the regulatory framework of GM crops intended for animal feed is reviewed using the available information on GM food as the baseline. Although, the majority of techniques used for the safety assessment of GM food can be used in GM feed, many plant parts used for livestock feeding are inedible to humans. Therefore, the concentration of novel proteins in different plant tissues and level of exposure to GM feedstuff in the diet of target animals should be considered. A further development of specific methodologies for the assessment of GM crops intended for animal consumption is required, in order to provide a more accurate and standardized assessment to the GM feed safety.

HMEJ-mediated efficient site-specific gene integration in chicken cells

BACKGROUND

The production of transgenic chicken cells holds great promise for several diverse areas, including developmental biology and biomedical research. To this end, site-specific gene integration has been an attractive strategy for generating transgenic chicken cell lines and has been successfully adopted for inserting desired genes and regulating specific gene expression patterns. However, optimization of this method is essential for improving the efficiency of genome modification in this species.

RESULTS

Here we compare gene knock-in methods based on homology-independent targeted integration (HITI), homology-directed repair (HDR) and homology mediated end joining (HMEJ) coupled with a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) gene editing system in chicken DF-1 cells and primordial germ cells (PGCs). HMEJ was found to be a robust and efficient method for gene knock-in in chicken PGCs. Using this method, we successfully labeled the germ cell specific gene DAZL and the pluripotency-related gene Pou5f3 in chicken PGCs through the insertion of a fluorescent protein in the frame at the 3' end of the gene, allowing us to track cell migration in the embryonic gonad. HMEJ strategy was also successfully used in Ovalbumin, which accounts for more than 60% of proteins in chicken eggs, suggested its good promise for the mass production of protein with pharmaceutical importance using the chicken oviduct system.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, these results demonstrate that HMEJ efficiently mediates site-specific gene integration in chicken PGCs, which holds great potential for the biopharmaceutical engineering of chicken cells.

Assessing the fate of recombinant plant DNA in rabbit's tissues fed genetically modified cotton

Various feeding studies have been conducted with the different species of animals to evaluate the possible transfer of transgenic DNA (tDNA) from genetically modified (GM) feed into the animal tissues. However, the conclusions drawn from most of such studies are sometimes controversial. Thus, in the present study, an attempt has been made to evaluate the fate of tDNA in rabbits raised on GM cotton-based diet through PCR analysis of the DNA extracted specifically from blood, liver, kidney, heart and intestine (jejunum). A total of 48 rabbits were fed a mixed diet consisting variable proportions of transgenic cottonseeds meal (i.e. 0% w/w, 20% w/w, 30% w/w and 40% w/w) for 180 days. The presence of transgenic DNA fragments (Cry1Ac, Cry2A and CP4 EPSPS) or plant endogenous gene (Sad1) was traced in those specific tissues and organs. The presence of β-actin (ACTB) was also monitored as an internal control. Neither the transgenic fragments (459 bp of Cry1Ac gene, 167 bp of Cry2A gene and111 bp of CP4 EPSPS gene) nor cotton endogenous reference gene (155 bp of Sad1) could be detected in any of the DNA samples extracted from the rabbit's tissues in both control and transgenic groups. However, 155 bp fragment of the rabbit's reference gene (ACTB) was recovered in all the DNA samples extracted from rabbit tissues. The results obtained from this study revealed that both plant endogenous and transgenic DNA fragments have same fate in rabbit's tissues and were efficiently degraded in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT).

Glyphosate in livestock: feed residues and animal health1

Glyphosate is a nonselective systemic herbicide used in agriculture since 1974. It inhibits 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate (EPSP) synthase, an enzyme in the shikimate pathway present in cells of plants and some microorganisms but not human or other animal cells. Glyphosate-tolerant crops have been commercialized for more than 20 yr using a transgene from a resistant bacterial EPSP synthase that renders the crops insensitive to glyphosate. Much of the forage or grain from these crops are consumed by farm animals. Glyphosate protects crop yields, lowers the cost of feed production, and reduces CO2 emissions attributable to agriculture by reducing tillage and fuel usage. Despite these benefits and even though global regulatory agencies continue to reaffirm its safety, the public hears conflicting information about glyphosate's safety. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency determines for every agricultural chemical a maximum daily allowable human exposure (called the reference dose, RfD). The RfD is based on amounts that are 1/100th (for sensitive populations) to 1/1,000th (for children) the no observed adverse effects level (NOAEL) identified through a comprehensive battery of animal toxicology studies. Recent surveys for residues have indicated that amounts of glyphosate in food/feed are at or below established tolerances and actual intakes for humans or livestock are much lower than these conservative exposure limits. While the EPSP synthase of some bacteria is sensitive to glyphosate, in vivo or in vitro dynamic culture systems with mixed bacteria and media that resembles rumen digesta have not demonstrated an impact on microbial function from adding glyphosate. Moreover, one chemical characteristic of glyphosate cited as a reason for concern is that it is a tridentate chelating ligand for divalent and trivalent metals; however, other more potent chelators are ubiquitous in livestock diets, such as certain amino acids. Regulatory testing identifies potential hazards, but risks of these hazards need to be evaluated in the context of realistic exposures and conditions. Conclusions about safety should be based on empirical results within the limitations of model systems or experimental design. This review summarizes how pesticide residues, particularly glyphosate, in food and feed are quantified, and how their safety is determined by regulatory agencies to establish safe use levels.

Weight of the evidence: independent research projects confirm industry conclusions on the safety of insect-protected maize MON 810

The cumulative weight of the evidence demonstrates the safety and equivalence of genetically engineered (GE) crops compared to the conventional varieties from which they have been derived. Confirmatory toxicology and animal nutrition studies have nevertheless become an expected/mandated component of GE crop safety assessments, despite the lack of additional value these studies provide for product safety assessment. Characterization and safety data (e.g. trait protein safety; molecular, compositional, and agronomic/phenotypic assessments), and animal feeding studies form a weight of the evidence supporting the safety of insect-protected maize MON 810. Independent animal testing has recently confirmed the lack of MON 810 toxicity in subchronic and chronic toxicity studies. These results could have been predicted from the available safety data. Animal testing of GE crops should be supported by testable scientific hypotheses and testing should be consistent with ethical obligations to reduce, refine, and replace (3Rs) animal testing when possible.

Feasibility study on direct fermentation of soybean meal by Bacillus stearothermophilus under non-sterile conditions

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the feasibility of high-temperature solid-state fermentation (SSF) using soybean meal (SBM) during the non-sterile process, Bacillus stearothermophilus was employed to assess the nutritional quality and bioactivity of SBM after fermentation.

RESULTS

The fermented SBM (FSBM) without autoclaving showed significant improvements in nutritional quality and bioactivity. The contents of peptides and crude and soluble proteins increased by 131.21%, 5.3% and 15.52%, respectively. Meanwhile, DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) scavenging ability, reducing ability and hydroxyl free radical-scavenging activity rose by 57.07%, 238.92% and 368.26%, respectively. The inhibitory activity of angiotensin I-converting enzyme increased from 1.43 ± 0.83% to 26.89 ± 1.03%, while the trypsin inhibitor activity decreased by 74.05%. The contents of neutral and alkaline proteases and the growth of microorganisms in FSBM without autoclaving were higher and better than in steam-treated FSBM. After steam treatment, the water-holding capacity of SBM decreased, and a high crosslink density was observed on the surface of SBM particles.

CONCLUSIONS

It is feasible to ferment SBM by high-temperature SSF using B. stearothermophilus under non-sterile conditions. Adverse effects of SSF using sterile SBM might be owing to the low water-holding capacity caused by autoclaving. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Chronic Effect of Transgenic Maize Line with mCry1Ac or maroACC Gene on Ileal Microbiota Using a Hen Model

The experiment was to determine the chronic effects of two transgenic maize lines that contained the mCry1Ac gene from the Bacillus thuringiensis strain (BT) and the maroACC gene from Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain (CC), respectively, on ileal microbiota of laying hens. Seventy-two laying hens were randomly assigned to one of the three dietary treatments for 12 weeks, as follows: (1) nontransgenic near-isoline maize-based diet (CT diet), (2) BT maize-based diet (BT diet), and (3) CC maize-based diet (CC diet). Ileum histological examination did not indicate a chronic effect of two transgenic maize diets. Few differences were observed in any bacterial taxa among the treatments that used high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The only differences that were observed for bacterial genera were that Bifidobacterium belong within the Bifidobacteriaceae family tended to be greater (p = 0.114) abundant in hens fed the transgenic maize-based diet than in hens fed the CT diet. Birds that consumed the CC maize diet tended to have less abundance (p = 0.135) of Enterobacteriaceae family in the ileum than those that consumed the CT maize diet. These results indicate the lack of adverse effects of the BT maize and the CC maize lines on the ileal microbiota of hens for long term and provide important data regarding biosafety assessment of the transgenic maize lines.

Risk-Only Assessment of Genetically Engineered Crops Is Risky

The risks of not considering benefits in risk assessment are often overlooked. Risks are also often evaluated without consideration of the broader context. We discuss these two concepts in relation to genetically engineered (GE) crops. The health, environmental, and economic risks and benefits of GE crops are exemplified and presented in the context of modern agriculture. Misattribution of unique risks to GE crops are discussed. It is concluded that the scale of modern agriculture is its distinguishing characteristic and that the greater knowledge around GE crops allows for a more thorough characterization of risk. By considering the benefits and risks in the context of modern agriculture, society will be better served and benefits will be less likely to be forgone.

Addressing concerns over the fate of DNA derived from genetically modified food in the human body: A review

Global commercialization of GM food and feed has stimulated much debate over the fate of GM food-derived DNA in the body of the consumer and as to whether it poses any health risks. We reviewed the fate of DNA derived from GM food in the human body. During mechanical/chemical processing, integrity of DNA is compromised. Food-DNA can survive harsh processing and digestive conditions with fragments up to a few hundred bp detectable in the gastrointestinal tract. Compelling evidence supported the presence of food (also GM food) derived DNA in the blood and tissues of human/animal. There is limited evidence of food-born DNA integrating into the genome of the consumer and of horizontal transfer of GM crop DNA into gut-bacteria. We find no evidence that transgenes in GM crop-derived foods have a greater propensity for uptake and integration than the host DNA of the plant-food. We found no evidence of plant-food DNA function/expression following transfer to either the gut-bacteria or somatic cells. Strong evidence suggested that plant-food-miRNAs can survive digestion, enter the body and affect gene expression patterns. We envisage that this multi-dimensional review will address questions regarding the fate of GM food-derived DNA and gene-regulatory-RNA in the human body.

Molecular improvement of alfalfa for enhanced productivity and adaptability in a changing environment

Due to an expanding world population and increased buying power, the demand for ruminant products such as meat and milk is expected to grow substantially in coming years, and high levels of forage crop production will therefore be a necessity. Unfortunately, urbanization of agricultural land, intensive agricultural practices, and climate change are all predicted to limit crop production in the future, which means that the development of forage cultivars with improved productivity and adaptability will be essential. Because alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is one of the most widely cultivated perennial forage crops, it has been the target of much research in this field. In this review, we discuss progress that has been made towards the improvement of productivity, abiotic stress tolerance, and nutrient-use efficiency, as well as disease and pest resistance, in alfalfa using biotechnological techniques. Furthermore, we consider possible future priorities and avenues for attaining further enhancements in this crop as a means of contributing to the realization of food security in a changing environment.

Food and feed safety of DAS-444Ø6-6 herbicide-tolerant soybean

DAS-444Ø6-6 soybean was genetically engineered (GE) to withstand applications of three different herbicides. Tolerance to glufosinate and glyphosate is achieved through expression of the phosphinothricin acetyltransferase (PAT) and double-mutated maize 5-enolpyruvyl shikimate-3-phosphate synthase (2mEPSPS) enzymes, respectively. These proteins are expressed in currently commercialized crops and represent no novel risk. Tolerance to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is achieved through expression of the aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase 12 (AAD-12) enzyme, which is novel in crops. The safety of the AAD-12 protein and DAS-444Ø6-6 event was assessed for food and feed safety based on the weight of evidence and found to be as safe as non-GE soybean.

Transcriptomic Analysis of Intestinal Tissues from Two 90-Day Feeding Studies in Rats Using Genetically Modified MON810 Maize Varieties

Background: Global as well as specific expression profiles of selected rat tissues were characterized to assess the safety of genetically modified (GM) maize MON810 containing the insecticidal protein Cry1Ab. Gene expression was evaluated by use of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) as well as RT-qPCR within rat intestinal tissues based on mandatory 90-day rodent feeding studies. In parallel to two 90-day feeding studies, the transcriptional response of rat tissues was assessed as another endpoint to enhance the mechanistic interpretation of GM feeding studies and/or to facilitate the generation of a targeted hypothesis. Rats received diets containing 33% GM maize (MON810) or near-isogenic control maize. As a site of massive exposure to ingested feed the transcriptomic response of ileal and colonic tissue was profiled via RT-qPCR arrays targeting apoptosis, DNA-damage/repair, unfolded protein response (UPR). For global RNA profiling of rat ileal tissue, we applied NGS.

Results: No biological response to the GM-diet was observed in male and in female rat tissues. Transcriptome wide analysis of gene expression by RNA-seq confirmed these findings. Nevertheless, gene ontology (GO) analysis clearly associated a set of distinctly regulated transcripts with circadian rhythms. We confirmed differential expression of circadian clock genes using RT-qPCR and immunoassays for selected factors, thereby indicating physiological effects caused by the time point of sampling.

Conclusion: Prediction of potential unintended effects of GM-food/feed by transcriptome based profiling of intestinal tissue presents a novel approach to complement classical toxicological testing procedures. Including the detection of alterations in signaling pathways in toxicity testing procedures may enhance the confidence in outcomes of toxicological trials. In this study, no significant GM-related changes in intestinal expression profiles were found in rats fed GM-maize MON810. Relevant alterations of selected cellular pathways (apoptosis, DNA damage and repair, UPR) pointing toward intestinal toxicity of the diets were not observed. Transcriptomic profiles did not reveal perturbations of pathways associated with toxicity, underlining the study results revealed by classical OECD endpoints.

Characterization of scientific studies usually cited as evidence of adverse effects of GM food/feed

GM crops are the most studied crops in history. Approximately 5% of the safety studies on them show adverse effects that are a cause for concern and tend to be featured in media reports. Although these reports are based on just a handful of GM events, they are used to cast doubt on all GM crops. Furthermore, they tend to come from just a few laboratories and are published in less important journals. Importantly, a close examination of these reports invariably shows methodological flaws that invalidate any conclusions of adverse effects. Twenty years after commercial cultivation of GM crops began, a bona fide report of an adverse health effect due to a commercialized modification in a crop has yet to be reported.

Single-Event Transgene Product Levels Predict Levels in Genetically Modified Breeding Stacks

The concentration of transgene products (proteins and double-stranded RNA) in genetically modified (GM) crop tissues is measured to support food, feed, and environmental risk assessments. Measurement of transgene product concentrations in breeding stacks of previously assessed and approved GM events is required by many regulatory authorities to evaluate unexpected transgene interactions that might affect expression. Research was conducted to determine how well concentrations of transgene products in single GM events predict levels in breeding stacks composed of these events. The concentrations of transgene products were compared between GM maize, soybean, and cotton breeding stacks (MON-87427 × MON-89034 × DAS-Ø15Ø7-1 × MON-87411 × DAS-59122-7 × DAS-40278-9 corn, DAS-81419-2 × DAS-44406-6 soybean, and DAS-21023-5 × DAS-24236-5 × SYN-IR102-7 × MON-88913-8 × DAS-81910-7 cotton) and their component single events (MON-87427, MON-89034, DAS-Ø15Ø7-1, MON-87411, DAS-59122-7, and DAS-40278-9 corn, DAS-81419-2, and DAS-44406-6 soybean, and DAS-21023-5, DAS-24236-5, SYN-IR102-7, MON-88913-8, and DAS-81910-7 cotton). Comparisons were made within a crop and transgene product across plant tissue types and were also made across transgene products in each breeding stack for grain/seed. Scatter plots were generated comparing expression in the stacks to their component events, and the percent of variability accounted for by the line of identity (y = x) was calculated (coefficient of identity, I2). Results support transgene concentrations in single events predicting similar concentrations in breeding stacks containing the single events. Therefore, food, feed, and environmental risk assessments based on concentrations of transgene products in single GM events are generally applicable to breeding stacks composed of these events.

Microbial and genetically engineered oils as replacements for fish oil in aquaculture feeds

As the global population grows more of our fish and seafood are being farmed. Fish are the main dietary source of the omega-3 (n-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids, but these cannot be produced in sufficient quantities as are now required for human health. Farmed fish have traditionally been fed a diet consisting of fishmeal and fish oil, rich in n-3 LC-PUFA. However, the increase in global aquaculture production has resulted in these finite and limited marine ingredients being replaced with sustainable alternatives of terrestrial origin that are devoid of n-3 LC-PUFA. Consequently, the nutritional value of the final product has been partially compromised with EPA and DHA levels both falling. Recent calls from the salmon industry for new sources of n-3 LC-PUFA have received significant commercial interest. Thus, this review explores the technologies being applied to produce de novo n-3 LC-PUFA sources, namely microalgae and genetically engineered oilseed crops, and how they may be used in aquafeeds to ensure that farmed fish remain a healthy component of the human diet.

Detection of dietary DNA, protein, and glyphosate in meat, milk, and eggs

Products such as meat, milk, and eggs from animals that have consumed genetically engineered (GE) feed are not currently subject to mandatory GE labeling requirements. Some voluntary "non-genetically modified organism" labeling has been associated with such products, indicating that the animals were not fed GE crops, as there are no commercialized GE food animals. This review summarizes the available scientific literature on the detection of dietary DNA and protein in animal products and briefly discusses the implications of mandatory GE labeling for products from animals that have consumed GE feed. Because glyphosate is used on some GE crops, the available studies on glyphosate residues in animal products are also reviewed. In GE crops, recombinant DNA (rDNA) makes up a small percentage of the plant's total DNA. The final amount of DNA in food/feed depends on many factors including the variable number and density of cells in the edible parts, the DNA-containing matrix, environmental conditions, and the specific transgenic event. Processing treatments and animals' digestive systems degrade DNA into small fragments. Available reports conclude that endogenous DNA and rDNA are processed in exactly the same way in the gastrointestinal tract and that they account for a very small proportion of food intake by weight. Small pieces of high copy number endogenous plant genes have occasionally been detected in meat and milk. Similarly sized pieces of rDNA have also been identified in meat, primarily fish, although detection is inconsistent. Dietary rDNA fragments have not been detected in chicken or quail eggs or in fresh milk from cows or goats. Collectively, studies have failed to identify full-length endogenous or rDNA transcripts or recombinant proteins in meat, milk, or eggs. Similarly, because mammals do not bioaccumulate glyphosate and it is rapidly excreted, negligible levels of glyphosate in cattle, pig and poultry meat, milk, and eggs have been reported. Despite consumer concern about the presence of trace concentrations of glyphosate that might have been applied to feed crops and/or the presence of rDNA or recombinant proteins in meat, milk, and eggs, the available data do not provide evidence to suggest that products from animals that have consumed approved GE feed crops differ in any distinguishable way from those derived from animals fed conventional feed or that products from animals fed GE feedstuffs pose novel health risks.

How scary! An analysis of visual communication concerning genetically modified organisms in Italy

Several studies provide evidence of the role of written communication in influencing public perception towards genetically modified organisms, whereas visual communication has been sparsely investigated. This article aims to evaluate the exposure of the Italian population to scary genetically modified organism-related images. A set of 517 images collected through Google are classified considering fearful attributes, and an index that accounts for the scary impact of these images is built. Then, through an ordinary least-squares regression, we estimate the relationship between the Scary Impact Index and a set of variables that describes the context in which the images appear. The results reveal that the first (and most viewed) Google result images contain the most frightful contents. In addition, the agri-food sector in Italy is strongly oriented towards offering a negative representation of genetically modified organisms. Exposure to scary images could be a factor that affects the negative perception of genetically modified organisms in Italy.

New GMO regulations for old: Determining a new future for EU crop biotechnology

In this review, current EU GMO regulations are subjected to a point-by point analysis to determine their suitability for agriculture in modern Europe. Our analysis concerns present GMO regulations as well as suggestions for possible new regulations for genome editing and New Breeding Techniques (for which no regulations presently exist). Firstly, the present GMO regulations stem from the early days of recombinant DNA and are not adapted to current scientific understanding on this subject. Scientific understanding of GMOs has changed and these regulations are now, not only unfit for their original purpose, but, the purpose itself is now no longer scientifically valid. Indeed, they defy scientific, economic, and even common, sense. A major EU regulatory preconception is that GM crops are basically different from their parent crops. Thus, the EU regulations are "process based" regulations that discriminate against GMOs simply because they are GMOs. However current scientific evidence shows a blending of classical crops and their GMO counterparts with no clear demarcation line between them. Canada has a "product based" approach and determines the safety of each new crop variety independently of the process used to obtain it. We advise that the EC re-writes it outdated regulations and moves toward such a product based approach.  Secondly, over the last few years new genomic editing techniques (sometimes called New Breeding Techniques) have evolved. These techniques are basically mutagenesis techniques that can generate genomic diversity and have vast potential for crop improvement. They are not GMO based techniques (any more than mutagenesis is a GMO technique), since in many cases no new DNA is introduced. Thus they cannot simply be lumped together with GMOs (as many anti-GMO NGOs would prefer). The EU currently has no regulations to cover these new techniques. In this review, we make suggestions as to how these new gene edited crops may be regulated. The EU is at a turning point where the wrong decision could destroy European agricultural competitively for decades to come.

Transcriptome and metabolome analysis of liver and kidneys of rats chronically fed NK603 Roundup-tolerant genetically modified maize

BACKGROUND

A previous 2-year rat feeding trial assessing potential toxicity of NK603 Roundup-tolerant genetically modified maize revealed blood and urine biochemical changes indicative of liver and kidney pathology. In an effort to obtain deeper insight into these findings, molecular profiling of the liver and kidneys from the same animals was undertaken.

RESULTS

Transcriptomics showed no segregation of NK603 maize and control feed groups with false discovery rates ranging from 43 to 83% at a cut-off p value of 1%. Changes in gene expression were not reflective of liver and kidney toxic effects. Metabolomics identified 692 and 673 metabolites in kidney and liver, respectively. None of the statistically significant disturbances detected (12-56 for different test groups) survived a false discovery rate analysis. Differences in these metabolites between individual animals within a group were greater than the effect of test diets, which prevents a definitive conclusion on either pathology or safety.

CONCLUSIONS

Even if the biological relevance of the statistical differences presented in this study is unclear, our results are made available for scrutiny by the scientific community and for comparison in future studies investigating potential toxicological properties of the NK603 corn.

The Role of Biofuels Coproducts in Feeding the World Sustainably

One of the grand challenges facing our society today is finding solutions for feeding the world sustainably. The food-versus-fuel debate is a controversy embedded in this challenge, involving the trade-offs of using grains and oilseeds for biofuels production versus animal feed and human food. However, only 6% of total global grain produced is used to produce ethanol. Furthermore, biofuels coproducts contribute to sustainability of food production because only 1% to 2.5% of the overall energy efficiency is lost from converting crops into biofuels and animal feed, and approximately one-third of the corn used to produce ethanol is recovered as feed coproducts. Extensive research has been conducted over the past 15 years on biofuels coproducts to (a) optimize their use for improving caloric and nutritional efficiency in animal feeds, (b) identify benefits and limitations of use in various animal diets,

Long-term toxicity study on genetically modified corn with cry1Ac gene in a Wuzhishan miniature pig model

BACKGROUND

The objective of the present study was to investigate the chronic effect of transgenic maize lines by the insertion of the cry1Ac gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) on the growth performance, immune response and health using a Wuzhishan miniature pig model through a 196-day feeding study.

RESULTS

Based on the gender and weight, 72 Wuzhishan miniature pigs were randomly assigned one of the diets containing 65% non-transgenic isogenic corn or Bt corn at three stages of growth (day 0-69, 70-134 and 135-196). The potential toxicological effects of transgenic corn on pigs were explored. No difference between the diet treatments for growth performance and haematology parameters at any stages of growth. Although subtle differences in serum content of alanine aminotransferase, relative kidney weight and some immune response were observed between the Bt group and isogenic group, they were not considered as diet treatment-related.

CONCLUSION

Long-term feeding Bt corn carrying cry1Ac genes to Wuzhishan miniature pigs did not indicate adverse effects on the growth, immune response and health indicators at any stages of growth. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Development of a construct-based risk assessment framework for genetic engineered crops

Experience gained in the risk assessment (RA) of genetically engineered (GE) crops since their first experimental introductions in the early nineties, has increased the level of familiarity with these breeding methodologies and has motivated several agencies and expert groups worldwide to revisit the scientific criteria underlying the RA process. Along these lines, the need to engage in a scientific discussion for the case of GE crops transformed with similar constructs was recently identified in Argentina. In response to this need, the Argentine branch of the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI Argentina) convened a tripartite working group to discuss a science-based evaluation approach for transformation events developed with genetic constructs which are identical or similar to those used in previously evaluated or approved GE crops. This discussion considered new transformation events within the same or different species and covered both environmental and food safety aspects. A construct similarity concept was defined, considering the biological function of the introduced genes. Factors like environmental and dietary exposure, familiarity with both the crop and the trait as well as the crop biology, were identified as key to inform a construct-based RA process.