1
|
Gastiazoro MP, Rossetti MF, Schumacher R, Stoker C, Durando M, Zierau O, Ramos JG, Varayoud J. Epigenetic disruption of placental genes by chronic maternal cafeteria diet in rats. J Nutr Biochem 2022; 106:109015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2022.109015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
2
|
Christians JK, Shergill HK, Albert AYK. Sex-dependent effects of prenatal food and protein restriction on offspring physiology in rats and mice: systematic review and meta-analyses. Biol Sex Differ 2021; 12:21. [PMID: 33563335 PMCID: PMC7871651 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-021-00365-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Males and females may experience different effects of early-life adversity on life-long health. One hypothesis is that male foetuses invest more in foetal growth and relatively less in placental growth, and that this makes them susceptible to poor nutrition in utero, particularly if nutrition is reduced part-way through gestation. OBJECTIVES Our objectives were to examine whether (1) food and/ or protein restriction in rats and mice has consistent sex-dependent effects, (2) sex-dependency differs between types of outcomes, and (3) males are more severely affected when restriction starts part-way through gestation. DATA SOURCES PubMed and Web of Science were searched to identify eligible studies. STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA Eligible studies described controlled experiments that restricted protein or food during gestation in rats or mice, examined physiological traits in offspring from manipulated pregnancies, and tested whether effects differed between males and females. RESULTS Our search identified 292 articles, of which the full texts of 72 were assessed, and 65 were included for further synthesis. A majority (50) used Wistar or Sprague-Dawley rats and so these were the primary focus. Among studies in which maternal diet was restricted for the duration of gestation, no type of trait was consistently more severely affected in one particular sex, although blood pressure was generally increased in both sexes. Meta-analysis found no difference between sexes in the effect of protein restriction throughout gestation on blood pressure. Among studies restricting food in the latter half of gestation only, there were again few consistent sex-dependent effects, although three studies found blood pressure was increased in males only. Meta-analysis found that food restriction in the second half of gestation increased adult blood pressure in both sexes, with a significantly greater effect in males. Birthweight was consistently reduced in both sexes, a result confirmed by meta-analysis. CONCLUSIONS We found little support for the hypotheses that males are more affected by food and protein restriction, or that effects are particularly severe if nutrition is reduced part-way through gestation. However, less than half of the studies tested for sex by maternal diet interactions to identify sex-dependent effects. As a result, many reported sex-specific effects may be false positives.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julian K Christians
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada. .,Centre for Cell Biology, Development and Disease, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada. .,British Columbia Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada. .,Women's Health Research Institute, BC Women's Hospital and Health Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
| | - Haroop K Shergill
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - Arianne Y K Albert
- Women's Health Research Institute, BC Women's Hospital and Health Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Eaton M, Davies AH, Devine J, Zhao X, Simmons DG, Maríusdóttir E, Natale DRC, Matyas JR, Bering EA, Workentine ML, Hallgrimsson B, Cross JC. Complex patterns of cell growth in the placenta in normal pregnancy and as adaptations to maternal diet restriction. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0226735. [PMID: 31917811 PMCID: PMC6952106 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0226735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The major milestones in mouse placental development are well described, but our understanding is limited to how the placenta can adapt to damage or changes in the environment. By using stereology and expression of cell cycle markers, we found that the placenta grows under normal conditions not just by hyperplasia of trophoblast cells but also through extensive polyploidy and cell hypertrophy. In response to feeding a low protein diet to mothers prior to and during pregnancy, to mimic chronic malnutrition, we found that this normal program was altered and that it was influenced by the sex of the conceptus. Male fetuses showed intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) by embryonic day (E) 18.5, just before term, whereas female fetuses showed IUGR as early as E16.5. This difference was correlated with differences in the size of the labyrinth layer of the placenta, the site of nutrient and gas exchange. Functional changes were implied based on up-regulation of nutrient transporter genes. The junctional zone was also affected, with a reduction in both glycogen trophoblast and spongiotrophoblast cells. These changes were associated with increased expression of Phlda2 and reduced expression of Egfr. Polyploidy, which results from endoreduplication, is a normal feature of trophoblast giant cells (TGC) but also spongiotrophoblast cells. Ploidy was increased in sinusoidal-TGCs and spongiotrophoblast cells, but not parietal-TGCs, in low protein placentas. These results indicate that the placenta undergoes a range of changes in development and function in response to poor maternal diet, many of which we interpret are aimed at mitigating the impacts on fetal and maternal health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Malcolm Eaton
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
| | - Alastair H. Davies
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
| | - Jay Devine
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
| | - Xiang Zhao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
| | - David G. Simmons
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
| | - Elín Maríusdóttir
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
| | - David R. C. Natale
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
| | - John R. Matyas
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
| | - Elizabeth A. Bering
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
| | | | - Benedikt Hallgrimsson
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
| | - James C. Cross
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary Alberta
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Abstract
Amino acids are not only the building blocks of proteins, an indispensable component of cells, but also play versatile roles in regulating cell metabolism, proliferation, differentiation and growth by themselves or through their derivatives. At the whole body level, the bioavailability and metabolism of amino acids, interacting with other macronutrients, is critical for the physiological processes of reproduction including gametogenesis, fertilization, implantation, placentation, fetal growth and development. In fertilization and early pregnancy, histotroph in oviductal and uterine secretions provides nutrients and microenvironment for conceptus (embryo and extraembryonic membranes) development. These nutrients include select amino acids in histotroph (arginine, leucine and glutamine of particular interest) that stimulate conceptus growth and development, as well as interactions between maternal uterus and the conceptus, thus impacting maintenance of pregnancy, placental growth, development and functions, fetal growth and development, and consequential pregnancy outcomes. Gestational protein undernutrition causes fetal growth restriction and predisposes cardiovascular, metabolic diseases and others in offspring via multiple mechanisms, whereas the supplementation of glycine, leucine and taurine during pregnancy partially rescues growth restriction and beneficially modulates fetal programming. Thus, amino acids are essential for the fertility of humans and all animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haijun Gao
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Napso T, Hung YP, Davidge ST, Care AS, Sferruzzi-Perri AN. Advanced maternal age compromises fetal growth and induces sex-specific changes in placental phenotype in rats. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16916. [PMID: 31780670 PMCID: PMC6882885 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-53199-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Advanced maternal age is associated with an increased risk of pregnancy complications. It programmes sex-specific cardiovascular dysfunction in rat offspring, however the intrauterine mechanisms involved remain unknown. This study in the rat assessed the impact of advanced maternal age on placental phenotype in relation to the growth of female and male fetuses. We show that relative to young (3-4 months) dams, advanced maternal age (9.5-10 months) compromises growth of both female and male fetuses but affects the placental phenotype sex-specifically. In placentas from aged versus young dams, the size of the placental transport and endocrine zones were increased and expression of Igf2 (+41%) and placental lactogen (Prl3b1: +59%) genes were upregulated in female, but not male fetuses. Placental abundance of IGF2 protein also decreased in the placenta of males only (-95%). Moreover, in placentas from aged versus young dams, glucocorticoid metabolism (11β-hsd2: +63% and 11β-hsd1: -33%) was higher in females, but lower in males (11β-hsd2: -50% and 11β-hsd1: unaltered). There was however, no change in the placental abundance of 11β-HSD2 protein in aged versus young dams regardless of fetal sex. Levels of oxidative stress in the placenta were increased in female and male fetuses (+57% and +90%, respectively) and apoptosis increased specifically in the placenta of males from aged rat dams (+700%). Thus, advanced maternal age alters placental phenotype in a sex-specific fashion. These sexually-divergent changes may play a role in determining health outcomes of female and male offspring of aged mothers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tina Napso
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Yin-Po Hung
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Sandra T Davidge
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Women and Children's Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Alison S Care
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Women and Children's Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- Robinson Research Institute and Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Amanda N Sferruzzi-Perri
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Perinatal Nutrition and Programmed Risk for Neuropsychiatric Disorders: A Focus on Animal Models. Biol Psychiatry 2019; 85:122-134. [PMID: 30293647 PMCID: PMC6309477 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Revised: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Maternal nutrition is critically important for fetal development. Recent human studies demonstrate a strong connection between diet during pregnancy and offspring risk for neuropsychiatric disorders including depression, anxiety, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Animal models have emerged as a crucial tool for understanding maternal nutrition's contribution to prenatal programming and the later development of neuropsychiatric disorders. This review highlights preclinical studies examining how maternal consumption of the three macronutrients (protein, fats, and carbohydrates) influence offspring negative-valence behaviors relevant to neuropsychiatric disorders. We highlight the translational aspects of animal models and so examine exposure periods that mirror the neurodevelopmental stages of human gestation. Because of our emphasis on programmed changes in neurobehavioral development, studies that continue diet exposure until assessment in adulthood are not discussed. The presented research provides a strong foundation of preclinical evidence of nutritional programming of neurobehavioral impairments. Alterations in risk assessment and response were observed alongside neurodevelopmental impairments related to neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, and synaptic plasticity. To date, the large majority of studies utilized rodent models, and the field could benefit from additional study of large-animal models. Additional future directions are discussed, including the need for further studies examining how sex as a biological variable affects the contribution of maternal nutrition to prenatal programming.
Collapse
|
7
|
Sferruzzi-Perri AN, Sandovici I, Constancia M, Fowden AL. Placental phenotype and the insulin-like growth factors: resource allocation to fetal growth. J Physiol 2017; 595:5057-5093. [PMID: 28337745 DOI: 10.1113/jp273330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The placenta is the main determinant of fetal growth and development in utero. It supplies all the nutrients and oxygen required for fetal growth and secretes hormones that facilitate maternal allocation of nutrients to the fetus. Furthermore, the placenta responds to nutritional and metabolic signals in the mother by altering its structural and functional phenotype, which can lead to changes in maternal resource allocation to the fetus. The molecular mechanisms by which the placenta senses and responds to environmental cues are poorly understood. This review discusses the role of the insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) in controlling placental resource allocation to fetal growth, particularly in response to adverse gestational environments. In particular, it assesses the impact of the IGFs and their signalling machinery on placental morphogenesis, substrate transport and hormone secretion, primarily in the laboratory species, although it draws on data from human and other species where relevant. It also considers the role of the IGFs as environmental signals in linking resource availability to fetal growth through changes in the morphological and functional phenotype of the placenta. As altered fetal growth is associated with increased perinatal morbidity and mortality and a greater risk of developing adult-onset diseases in later life, understanding the role of IGFs during pregnancy in regulating placental resource allocation to fetal growth is important for identifying the mechanisms underlying the developmental programming of offspring phenotype by suboptimal intrauterine growth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda N Sferruzzi-Perri
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, Downing Street, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EG, UK
| | - Ionel Sandovici
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology and NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0SW, UK
| | - Miguel Constancia
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology and NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0SW, UK
| | - Abigail L Fowden
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, Downing Street, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EG, UK
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Colombelli KT, Santos SAA, Camargo ACL, Constantino FB, Barquilha CN, Rinaldi JC, Felisbino SL, Justulin LA. Impairment of microvascular angiogenesis is associated with delay in prostatic development in rat offspring of maternal protein malnutrition. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2017; 246:258-269. [PMID: 28041790 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2016.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2016] [Revised: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Experimental data demonstrated the negative impact of maternal protein malnutrition (MPM) on rat prostate development, but the mechanism behind the impairment of prostate growth has not been well understood. Male Sprague Dawley rats, borned to dams fed a normal protein diet (CTR group, 17% protein diet), were compared with those borned from dams fed a low protein diet (6% protein diet) during gestation (GLP group) or gestation and lactation (GLLP). The ventral prostate lobes (VP) were removed at post-natal day (PND) 10 and 21, and analyzed via different methods. The main findings were low birth weight, a reduction in ano-genital distance (AGD, a testosterone-dependent parameter), and an impairment of prostate development. A delay in prostate morphogenesis was associated with a reduced testosterone levels and angiogenic process through downregulation of aquaporin-1 (AQP-1), insulin/IGF-1 axis and VEGF signaling pathway. Depletion of the microvascular network, which occurs in parallel to the impairment of proliferation and differentiation of the epithelial cells, affects the bidirectional flux between blood vessels impacting prostatic development. In conclusion, our data support the hypothesis that a reduction in microvascular angiogenesis, especially in the subepithelial compartment, is associated to the impairment of prostate morphogenesis in the offspring of MPM dams.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ketlin T Colombelli
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biosciences, Sao Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Sérgio A A Santos
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biosciences, Sao Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Ana C L Camargo
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biosciences, Sao Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Flávia B Constantino
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biosciences, Sao Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Caroline N Barquilha
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biosciences, Sao Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Jaqueline C Rinaldi
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biosciences, Sao Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Sérgio L Felisbino
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biosciences, Sao Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Luis A Justulin
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biosciences, Sao Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kühnel E, Kleff V, Stojanovska V, Kaiser S, Waldschütz R, Herse F, Plösch T, Winterhager E, Gellhaus A. Placental-Specific Overexpression of sFlt-1 Alters Trophoblast Differentiation and Nutrient Transporter Expression in an IUGR Mouse Model. J Cell Biochem 2017; 118:1316-1329. [PMID: 27859593 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.25789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Since it is known that placental overexpression of the human anti-angiogenic molecule sFlt-1, the main candidate in the progression of preeclampsia, lead to intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) in mice by lentiviral transduction of mouse blastocysts, we hypothesize that sFlt-1 influence placental morphology and physiology resulting in fetal IUGR. We therefore examined the effect of sFlt-1 on placental morphology and physiology at embryonic day 18.5 with histologic and morphometric analyses, transcript analyses, immunoblotting, and methylation studies. Interestingly, placental overexpression of sFlt-1 leads to IUGR in the fetus and results in lower placental weights. Moreover, we observed altered trophoblast differentiation with reduced expression of IGF2, resulting in a smaller placenta, a smaller labyrinth, and the loss of glycogen cells in the junctional zone. Changes in IGF2 are accompanied by small changes in its DNA methylation, whereas overall DNA methylation is unaffected. In addition, the expression of placental nutrient transporters, such as the glucose diffusion channel Cx26, is decreased. In contrast, the expression of the fatty acid transporter CD36 and the cholesterol transporter ABCA1 is significantly increased. In conclusion, placental sFlt-1 overexpression resulted in a reduction in the differentiation of the spongiotrophoblast into glycogen cells. These findings of a reduced exchange area of the labyrinth and glycogen stores, as well as decreased expression of glucose transporter, could contribute to the intrauterine growth restriction phenotype. All of these factors change the intrauterine availability of nutrients. Thus, we speculate that the alterations triggered by increased anti-angiogenesis strongly affect fetal outcome and programming. J. Cell. Biochem. 118: 1316-1329, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Kühnel
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Veronika Kleff
- Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Violeta Stojanovska
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Stephanie Kaiser
- Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Ralph Waldschütz
- Central Animal Laboratory, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Florian Herse
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center, a joint cooperation between the Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association and the Charité Medical Faculty, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Berlin, Germany
| | - Torsten Plösch
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Elke Winterhager
- Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Alexandra Gellhaus
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kalisch-Smith JI, Simmons DG, Dickinson H, Moritz KM. Review: Sexual dimorphism in the formation, function and adaptation of the placenta. Placenta 2016; 54:10-16. [PMID: 27979377 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2016.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2016] [Revised: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Exposure of the embryo or fetus to perturbations in utero can result in intrauterine growth restriction, a primary risk factor for the development of adult disease. However, despite similar exposures, males and females often have altered disease susceptibility or progression from different stages of life. Fetal growth is largely mediated by the placenta, which, like the fetus is genetically XX or XY. The placenta and its associated trophoblast lineages originate from the trophectoderm (TE) of the early embryo. Rodent models (rat, mouse, spiny mouse), have been used extensively to examine placenta development and these have demonstrated the growth trajectory of the placenta in females is generally slower compared to males, and also shows altered adaptive responses to stressful environments. These placental adaptations are likely to depend on the type of stressor, duration, severity and the window of exposure during development. Here we describe the divergent developmental pathways between the male and female placenta contributing to altered differentiation of the TE derived trophoblast subtypes, placental growth, and formation of the placental architecture. Our focus is primarily genetic or environmental perturbations in rodent models which show altered placental responsiveness between sexes. We suggest that perturbations during early placental development may have greater impact on viability and growth of the female fetus whilst those occurring later in gestation may preferentially affect the male fetus. This may be of great relevance to human pregnancies which result from assisted reproductive technologies or complications such as pre-eclampsia and diabetes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J I Kalisch-Smith
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - D G Simmons
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - H Dickinson
- The Ritchie Centre, Hudson Institute of Medical Research and Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Monash University, Australia
| | - K M Moritz
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia; Centre for Children's Health Research, The University of Queensland, South Brisbane, QLD, 4101, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Sferruzzi-Perri AN, Camm EJ. The Programming Power of the Placenta. Front Physiol 2016; 7:33. [PMID: 27014074 PMCID: PMC4789467 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Size at birth is a critical determinant of life expectancy, and is dependent primarily on the placental supply of nutrients. However, the placenta is not just a passive organ for the materno-fetal transfer of nutrients and oxygen. Studies show that the placenta can adapt morphologically and functionally to optimize substrate supply, and thus fetal growth, under adverse intrauterine conditions. These adaptations help meet the fetal drive for growth, and their effectiveness will determine the amount and relative proportions of specific metabolic substrates supplied to the fetus at different stages of development. This flow of nutrients will ultimately program physiological systems at the gene, cell, tissue, organ, and system levels, and inadequacies can cause permanent structural and functional changes that lead to overt disease, particularly with increasing age. This review examines the environmental regulation of the placental phenotype with particular emphasis on the impact of maternal nutritional challenges and oxygen scarcity in mice, rats and guinea pigs. It also focuses on the effects of such conditions on fetal growth and the developmental programming of disease postnatally. A challenge for future research is to link placental structure and function with clinical phenotypes in the offspring.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Emily J Camm
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge Cambridge, UK
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Gao H, Sisley S, Yallampalli C. Blunted hypothalamic ghrelin signaling reduces diet intake in rats fed a low-protein diet in late pregnancy. Physiol Rep 2015; 3:3/12/e12629. [PMID: 26660550 PMCID: PMC4760445 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.12629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Diet intake in pregnant rats fed a low‐protein (LP) diet was significantly reduced during late pregnancy despite elevated plasma levels of ghrelin. In this study, we hypothesized that ghrelin signaling in the hypothalamus is blunted under a low‐protein diet condition and therefore, it does not stimulate diet intake during late pregnancy. Female Sprague–Dawley rats were fed a normal (CT) or LP diet from Day 1 of pregnancy. On Day 21, 0.5 μg ghrelin was given into the third ventricle (ICV). Diet and water intake at 30, 60, and 120 min after ICV injection was measured. Hypothalami were dissected and analyzed for expression of genes related to appetite regulation (Npy, Agrp, Pomc and Cart) and phosphorylation of AMPK and ACC proteins (downstream proteins of ghrelin receptor activation). Results include: In response to ICV injection of ghrelin, (1) diet intake was significantly lower in LP compared to CT rats; (2) water intake was not affected in LP rats; (3) expression of Npy and Agrp, but not Pomc and Cart, were higher in the hypothalamus of LP compared to CT rats; (4) the abundance of phosphorylated AMPK and the ratio of phosphorylated to total AMPK, but not the abundance of total AMPK, were lower in LP compared to CT rats; (5) the abundance of phosphorylated ACC, but not total ACC, was lower in LP rats. These findings suggest that blunted ghrelin signaling in the hypothalamus of pregnant rats fed a LP diet leads to reduced diet intake and exacerbates gestational protein insufficiency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haijun Gao
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Stephanie Sisley
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Chandra Yallampalli
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Gao H, Tanchico DT, Yallampalli U, Balakrishnan MP, Yallampalli C. Appetite regulation is independent of the changes in ghrelin levels in pregnant rats fed low-protein diet. Physiol Rep 2015; 3:3/4/e12368. [PMID: 25907788 PMCID: PMC4425973 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.12368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Gestational protein restriction causes hypertension in the adult offspring. Very little is known about the food intake regulation and ghrelin signaling in pregnant dams fed a low-protein (LP) diet. We hypothesized that diet intake and ghrelin signaling are altered in pregnant rats fed the low-protein diet. Sprague–Dawley rats were fed a control (CT) or LP diet from Day 3 of pregnancy. Diet intake and body weight were monitored daily. Expression of ghrelin production-related genes in the stomach and appetite-related genes in the hypothalamus was analyzed by real-time PCR. Plasma levels of total and active ghrelin, growth hormone and leptin were measured by ELISA. Main results include: (1) Daily diet intake was greater in the LP group than in the CT group in early pregnancy, but substantially lower in late pregnancy; (2) Daily gain in body weight was substantially lower in the LP group in late pregnancy; (3) Expression of ghrelin production-related genes in the stomach and plasma total ghrelin levels were increased in LP group in late pregnancy; (4) Plasma active ghrelin levels were elevated in the LP group at mid-late pregnancy, but growth hormone and leptin levels were uncorrelated with active ghrelin in late pregnancy; and (5) Hypothalamic expression of ghrelin-stimulated genes in LP rats was unassociated with the changes in both plasma ghrelin levels and the diet intake. Taken together, the appetite in LP rats is greater in early pregnancy but reduced at late pregnancy, possibly due to ghrelin insensitivity in appetite regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haijun Gao
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Daren T Tanchico
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Uma Yallampalli
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Meena P Balakrishnan
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Chandra Yallampalli
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Martínez JA, Milagro FI, Claycombe KJ, Schalinske KL. Epigenetics in adipose tissue, obesity, weight loss, and diabetes. Adv Nutr 2014; 5:71-81. [PMID: 24425725 PMCID: PMC3884103 DOI: 10.3945/an.113.004705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Given the role that diet and other environmental factors play in the development of obesity and type 2 diabetes, the implication of different epigenetic processes is being investigated. Although it is well known that external factors can cause cell type-dependent epigenetic changes, including DNA methylation, histone tail modifications, and chromatin remodeling, the regulation of these processes, the magnitude of the changes and the cell types in which they occur, the individuals more predisposed, and the more crucial stages of life remain to be elucidated. There is evidence that obese and diabetic people have a pattern of epigenetic marks different from nonobese and nondiabetic individuals. The main long-term goals in this field are the identification and understanding of the role of epigenetic marks that could be used as early predictors of metabolic risk and the development of drugs or diet-related treatments able to delay these epigenetic changes and even reverse them. But weight gain and insulin resistance/diabetes are influenced not only by epigenetic factors; different epigenetic biomarkers have also been identified as early predictors of weight loss and the maintenance of body weight after weight loss. The characterization of all the factors that are able to modify the epigenetic signatures and the determination of their real importance are hindered by the following factors: the magnitude of change produced by dietary and environmental factors is small and cumulative; there are great differences among cell types; and there are many factors involved, including age, with multiple interactions between them.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J. Alfredo Martínez
- Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Physiology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain,CIBERobn, Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain,To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
| | - Fermín I. Milagro
- Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Physiology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain,CIBERobn, Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Kate J. Claycombe
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Grand Forks Human Nutrition Research Center, Grand Forks, ND; and
| | - Kevin L. Schalinske
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Claycombe KJ, Uthus EO, Roemmich JN, Johnson LK, Johnson WT. Prenatal low-protein and postnatal high-fat diets induce rapid adipose tissue growth by inducing Igf2 expression in Sprague Dawley rat offspring. J Nutr 2013; 143:1533-9. [PMID: 23946348 DOI: 10.3945/jn.113.178038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Maternal low-protein diets result in lower birth weight followed by accelerated catch-up growth that is accompanied by the development of obesity and glucose intolerance in later life. Whether postnatal high-fat (HF) diets further contribute to the development of obesity and insulin resistance in offspring by affecting adipose tissue metabolism and DNA methylation is currently unknown. Obese-prone Sprague-Dawley rats were fed 8% low protein (LP) or 20% normal protein diets for 3 wk prior to conception and throughout pregnancy and lactation to investigate whether prenatal LP and postnatal HF diets affect the rate of adipose tissue growth, insulin-like growth factor 2 (Igf2) expression, and DNA methylation in male offspring. At weaning, the offspring were fed 10% normal fat or 45% HF diets for 12 wk. The adipose tissue growth rate was increased (up to 26-fold) by the LP prenatal and HF postnatal diets. Adipose tissue Igf2 mRNAs and DNA methylation were increased by the LP prenatal and HF postnatal diets. The LP prenatal and HF postnatal diet increased the number of small adipocytes in adipose tissue and decreased insulin sensitivity. These findings suggest that prenatal LP and postnatal HF intake result in adipose tissue catch-up growth through alterations in the expression of the Igf2 gene and DNA methylation within adipocytes. These alterations in adiposity are accompanied by an increased risk of development of type 2 diabetes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kate J Claycombe
- USDA Agricultural Research Service, Grand Forks Human Nutrition Research Center, Grand Forks, ND
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Gao H, Yallampalli U, Yallampalli C. Maternal protein restriction reduces expression of angiotensin I-converting enzyme 2 in rat placental labyrinth zone in late pregnancy. Biol Reprod 2012; 86:31. [PMID: 22011389 PMCID: PMC3290663 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.111.094607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Revised: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 10/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Both the systemic and the uteroplacental renin-angiotensin system (RAS) display dramatic changes during pregnancy. However, whether gestational protein insufficiency affects the expressions of RAS in the placenta remains unknown. In this study, we hypothesized that the expression of Ace2 in the placental labyrinth was reduced by maternal protein restriction. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were fed a normal diet or a low-protein diet (LP) from Day 1 of pregnancy until they were killed at Day 14 or Day 18. The labyrinth zone (LZ) of the placenta was then dissected and snap frozen for expression analysis by quantitative real-time PCR of Ace, Ace2, Agtr1a, Agtr1b, and Agtr2. Formalin-fixed placentas were used for immunohistochemical analysis on ACE and ACE2 proteins. The findings include 1) the expression of Ace2 in rat LZ was reduced by maternal protein restriction in late pregnancy; 2) ACE protein was mainly present in syncytiotrophoblasts, whereas ACE2 protein was found predominantly in fetal mesenchymal tissue and fetal capillaries; 3) Agtr1a was predominant in the rat LZ, and its mRNA levels, but not protein levels, were reduced by LP; 4) expressions of Ace, Ace2, and Agtr1a in the rat LZ and their response to LP occurred in a gender-dependent manner. These results may indicate that a reduced expression of Ace2 and perhaps an associated reduction in angiotensin (1-7) production in the placenta by maternal protein restriction may be responsible for fetal growth restriction and associated programming of adulthood hypertension.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haijun Gao
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Uma Yallampalli
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Chandra Yallampalli
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| |
Collapse
|