Guidance on the risk assessment of genetically modified microorganisms and their products intended for food and feed use

EFSA statement on the requirements for whole genome sequence analysis of microorganisms intentionally used in the food chain

Microorganisms, genetically modified or not, may be used in the food chain either as active agents, biomasses or as production organisms of substances of interest. The placement of such microorganisms or their derived substances/products in the European market may be subject to a premarket authorisation process. The authorisation process requires a risk assessment in order to establish the safety and/or the efficacy of the microorganism(s) when used in the food chain as such, as biomasses or as production strains. This includes a full molecular characterisation of the microorganism(s) under assessment. For certain regulated products, the use of whole genome sequence (WGS) data of the microorganism is established as a requirement for the risk assessment. In this regard, data obtained from WGS analysis can provide information on the unambiguous taxonomic identification of the strains, on the presence of genes of concern (e.g. those encoding virulence factors, resistance to antimicrobials of clinical relevance for humans and animals, production of harmful metabolites or of clinically relevant antimicrobials) and on the characterisation of genetic modification(s) (where relevant). This document provides recommendations to applicants on how to describe and report the results of WGS analyses in the context of an application for market authorisation of a regulated product. Indications are given on how to perform genome sequencing and the quality criteria/thresholds that should be reached, as well as the data and relevant information that need to be reported, if required. This updated document replaces the EFSA 2021 Statement and reflects the current knowledge in technologies and methodologies to be used to generate and analyse WGS data for the risk assessment of microorganisms.

New developments in biotechnology applied to microorganisms

EFSA was requested by the European Commission (in accordance with Article 29 of Regulation (EC) No 178/2002) to provide a scientific opinion on the application of new developments in biotechnology (new genomic techniques, NGTs) to viable microorganisms and products of category 4 to be released into the environment or placed on the market as or in food and feed, and to non-viable products of category 3 to be placed on the market as or in food and feed. A horizon scanning exercise identified a variety of products containing microorganisms obtained with NGTs (NGT-Ms), falling within the remit of EFSA, that are expected to be placed on the (EU) market in the next 10 years. No novel potential hazards/risks from NGT-Ms were identified as compared to those obtained by established genomic techniques (EGTs), or by conventional mutagenesis. Due to the higher efficiency, specificity and predictability of NGTs, the hazards related to the changes in the genome are likely to be less frequent in NGT-Ms than those modified by EGTs and conventional mutagenesis. It is concluded that EFSA guidances are 'partially applicable', therefore on a case-by-case basis for specific NGT-Ms, fewer requirements may be needed. Some of the EFSA guidances are 'not sufficient' and updates are recommended. Because possible hazards relate to genotypic and phenotypic changes introduced and not to the method used for the modification, it is recommended that any new guidance should take a consistent risk assessment approach for strains/products derived from or produced with microorganisms obtained with conventional mutagenesis, EGTs or NGTs.

Exploration of Trichoderma reesei as an alternative host for erythritol production

BACKGROUND

Erythritol, a natural polyol, is a low-calorie sweetener synthesized by a number of microorganisms, such as Moniliella pollinis. Yet, a widespread use of erythritol is limited by high production costs due to the need for cultivation on glucose-rich substrates. This study explores the potential of using Trichoderma reesei as an alternative host for erythritol production, as this saprotrophic fungus can be cultivated on lignocellulosic biomass residues. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether such an alternative host would lead to a more sustainable and economically viable production of erythritol by identifying suitable carbon sources for erythritol biosynthesis, the main parameters influencing erythritol biosynthesis and evaluating the feasibility of scaling up the defined process.

RESULTS

Our investigation revealed that T. reesei can synthesize erythritol from glucose but not from other carbon sources like xylose and lactose. T. reesei is able to consume erythritol, but it does not in the presence of glucose. Among nitrogen sources, urea and yeast extract were more effective than ammonium and nitrate. A significant impact on erythritol synthesis was observed with variations in pH and temperature. Despite successful shake flask experiments, the transition to bioreactors faced challenges, indicating a need for further scale-up optimization.

CONCLUSIONS

While T. reesei shows potential for erythritol production, reaching a maximum concentration of 1 g/L over an extended period, its productivity could be improved by optimizing the parameters that affect erythritol production. In any case, this research contributes valuable insights into the polyol metabolism of T. reesei, offering potential implications for future research on glycerol or mannitol production. Moreover, it suggests a potential metabolic association between erythritol production and glycolysis over the pentose phosphate pathway.

Horizon scanning of potential environmental applications of terrestrial animals, fish, algae and microorganisms produced by genetic modification, including the use of new genomic techniques

With scientific progress and the development of new genomic techniques (NGTs), the spectrum of organisms modified for various purposes is rapidly expanding and includes a wide range of taxonomic groups. An improved understanding of which newly developed products may be introduced into the market and released into the environment in the near and more distant future is of particular interest for policymakers, regulatory authorities, and risk assessors. To address this information need, we conducted a horizon scanning (HS) of potential environmental applications in four groups of organisms: terrestrial animals (excluding insects and applications with gene drives), fish, algae and microorganisms. We applied a formal scoping review methodology comprising a structured search of the scientific literature followed by eligibility screening, complemented by a survey of grey literature, and regulatory websites and databases. In all four groups of organisms we identified a broad range of potential applications in stages of basic as well as advanced research, and a limited number of applications which are on, or ready to be placed on, the market. Research on GM animals including fish is focused on farmed animals and primarily targets traits which increase performance, influence reproduction, or convey resistance against diseases. GM algae identified in the HS were all unicellular, with more than half of the articles concerning biofuel production. GM algae applications for use in the environment include biocontrol and bioremediation, which are also the main applications identified for GM microorganisms. From a risk assessor's perspective these potential applications entail a multitude of possible pathways to harm. The current limited level of experience and limited amount of available scientific information could constitute a significant challenge in the near future, for which risk assessors and competent authorities urgently need to prepare.

Genomic deletions in Aureobasidium pullulans by an AMA1 plasmid for gRNA and CRISPR/Cas9 expression

BACKGROUND

Aureobasidium pullulans is a generalist polyextremotolerant black yeast fungus. It tolerates temperatures below 0 °C or salt concentrations up to 18%, among other stresses. A. pullulans genome sequencing revealed a high potential for producing bioactive metabolites. Only few molecular tools exist to edit the genome of A. pullulans, hence it is important to make full use of its potential. Two CRISPR/Cas9 methods have been proposed for the protoplast-based transformation of A. pullulans. These methods require the integration of a marker gene into the locus of the gene to be deleted, when the deletion of this gene does not yield a selectable phenotype. We present the adaptation of a plasmid-based CRISPR/Cas9 system developed in Aspergillus niger for A. pullulans to create deletion strains.

RESULTS

The A. niger CRISPR/Cas9 plasmid led to efficient genomic deletions in A. pullulans. In this study, strains with deletions ranging from 30 to 862 bp were obtained by using an AMA1 plasmid-based genome editing strategy.

CONCLUSION

The CRISPR/Cas9 transformation system presented in this study provides new opportunities for strain engineering of A. pullulans. This system allows expression of Cas9 and antibiotic resistance while being easy to adapt. This strategy could open the path to intensive genomic engineering in A. pullulans.

Production of microbial transglutaminase by Streptoverticillium cinnamoneum KKP 1658

Transglutaminase finds broad applications in the food industry, influencing texture, shelf life and overall food quality. It can be utilized to create products with enhanced sensory and technological properties and serves as a tool to reduce food waste. The aim of this study was to optimize the production of microbial transglutaminase (MTG) by the genetically unmodified strain of Streptoverticillium cinnamoneum KKP 1658. Tryptone soy broth (TSB) was chosen as the optimal inoculation medium due to its high MTG activity in the cultivation substrate. The optimal inoculum incubation time was determined as 24 hours, with a dosage of 10 %. Various nitrogen sources were investigated while maintaining a consistent nitrogen dosage (0.2 %) (including aminobak, corn steep liquor, ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate) to achieve the highest microbiological transglutaminase activity. The combination of aminobak with corn steep liquor and a cultivation period of 72 hours (28 °C; pH 6.0-6.5) yielded the highest MTG activity at 6.59 U/mL.

Allergic to bureaucracy? Regulatory allergenicity assessments of novel food: Motivations, challenges, compromises, and possibilities

New sources of proteins are essential to meet the demands of the growing world population and evolving food trends. Assessing the allergenicity of proteins in novel food (NF) poses a significant food safety regulatory challenge. The Codex Alimentarius Commission presented an allergenicity assessment protocol for genetically modified (GM) foods, which can also be adapted for NF. Since no single laboratory test can adequately predict the allergenic potential of NF, the protocol follows a weight-of-evidence approach, evaluated by experts, as part of a risk management process. Regulatory bodies worldwide have adopted this safety protocol, which, among other things, promotes global harmonization. This review unravels the reliability and various motivations, terms, concepts, and approaches of allergenicity assessments, aiming to enhance understanding among manufacturers and the public. Health Canada, Food Safety Commission JAPAN, and Food Standards Australia New Zealand were surveyed, focusing on the European Food Safety Authority and the US Food Safety Administration for examples of scientific opinions regarding allergenicity assessments for novel and GM foods, from 2019 to 2023. According to our findings, current regulatory allergenicity assessments for NF approval primarily rely on literature reviews. Only a few of the NF assessments proactively presented additional tests. We recommend conducting bioinformatic analyses on NF when a panel of experts deems that there is insufficient prior scientific research.

Riboflavin bio-enrichment of soy beverage by selected roseoflavin-resistant and engineered lactic acid bacteria

Some lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have the ability to synthesize riboflavin, a trait linked to the presence of ribG, ribB, ribA and ribH genes located in the rib operon. Previous screening of riboflavin producers identified several LAB strains belonging to different species with this ability, but none of them surpassed 0.25 mg/L production of the vitamin. In this study, we explored two strategies to obtain riboflavin-overproducing strains: by roseoflavin selection of mutants, and by the transformation of selected strains with plasmids pNZ:TuR.rib or pNZ:TuB.rib containing the genes ribG, ribB, ribA and ribH from Lactococcus cremoris MG1363. The resulting riboflavin-overproducing strains were able to produce yields between 0.5 and 6 mg/L in culture media and several of them were selected for the fermentation of soy beverages. Riboflavin in bio-enriched soy beverages was evaluated by direct fluorescence measurement and high-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence analysis. Soy beverages fermented with the recombinant strains Lactococcus cremoris ESI 277 pNZ:TuB.rib and Lactococcus lactis INIA 12 pNZ:TuR.rib showed the highest riboflavin yields (>5 mg/L) after 24 h fermentation. On the other hand, roseoflavin-resistant mutant Limosilactobacillus fermentum INIA P143R2 was able to enrich fermented soy beverages with 1.5 mg/L riboflavin. Riboflavin-overproducing LAB strains constitute a good option for riboflavin enrichment of soy beverages by fermentation and the commercialization of such beverages could be very useful to prevent riboflavin deficiency.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme glutaminase from the non-genetically modified Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain AE-GT

The food enzyme glutaminase (l-glutamine amidohydrolase; EC 3.5.1.2) is produced with the non-genetically modified Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain AE-GT by Amano Enzyme Inc. The production strain met the requirements for the qualified presumption of safety (QPS) approach. The food enzyme is intended to be used in five food manufacturing processes. Dietary exposure to the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) was estimated to be up to 0.462 mg TOS/kg body weight per day in European populations. Given the QPS status of the production strain and the absence of concerns resulting from the food enzyme's manufacturing process, toxicity tests were considered unnecessary by the Panel. A search for the similarity of the amino acid sequence of the food enzyme to known allergens was made and no match was found. The Panel considered that a risk of allergic reactions upon dietary exposure cannot be excluded, but the likelihood is low. Based on the data provided, the Panel concluded that this food enzyme does not give rise to safety concerns under the intended conditions of use.

Scanning the Horizon for Environmental Applications of Genetically Modified Viruses Reveals Challenges for Their Environmental Risk Assessment

The release of novel genetically modified (GM) virus applications into the environment for agricultural, veterinary, and nature-conservation purposes poses a number of significant challenges for risk assessors and regulatory authorities. Continuous efforts to scan the horizon for emerging applications are needed to gain an overview of new GM virus applications. In addition, appropriate approaches for risk assessment and management have to be developed. These approaches need to address pertinent challenges, in particular with regard to the environmental release of GM virus applications with a high probability for transmission and spreading, including transboundary movements and a high potential to result in adverse environmental effects. However, the current preparedness at the EU and international level to assess such GM virus application is limited. This study addresses some of the challenges associated with the current situation, firstly, by conducting a horizon scan to identify emerging GM virus applications with relevance for the environment. Secondly, outstanding issues regarding the environmental risk assessment (ERA) of GM virus applications are identified based on an evaluation of case study examples. Specifically, the limited scientific information available for the ERA of some applications and the lack of detailed and appropriate guidance for ERA are discussed. Furthermore, considerations are provided for future work that is needed to establish adequate risk assessment and management approaches.

Safety evaluation of synthesised DNA oligonucleotides as a food additive

The EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF) was requested to evaluate the safety of synthesised DNA oligonucleotides as a new food additive, in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 1331/2008. Considering that the additional information requested by the Panel during the risk assessment was not provided by the applicant, the assessment was concluded on the basis of the sole information available in the application. The proposed food additive consists of purified synthetic DNA sequences intended to be used for traceability purposes, alone or combined with carriers. Information provided by the applicant on the identity, characterisation and production process of the proposed food additive was considered insufficient. The Panel considered that the product specifications as proposed by the applicant do not adequately define and characterise the proposed food additive. The applicant proposed for the food additive the maximum use levels of 0.001 mg/kg for a variety of food categories. The food additive was also proposed as a Group I additive at a specific maximum level of quantum satis. The applicant did not provide exposure estimates according to the EFSA ANS Panel guidance (2012). No biological or toxicological data were provided by the applicant for the proposed food additive. Considering the inadequate information available and the uncertainty introduced by the proposal at quantum satis, along with the insufficient specifications, the Panel could not conclude on the safety of the food additive as proposed and described by the applicant.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme triacylglycerol lipase from the genetically modified Aspergillus luchuensis strain FL108SC

The food enzyme triacylglycerol lipase (triacylglycerol acylhydrolase; EC 3.1.1.3) is produced with the genetically modified Aspergillus luchuensis strain FL108SC by Advanced Enzyme Technologies Ltd. The genetic modifications do not give rise to safety concerns. The food enzyme is free from viable cells of the production organism and its DNA. It is intended to be used in an immobilised form for the production of modified fats and oils by interesterification. Genotoxicity tests did not raise safety concerns. The systemic toxicity was assessed by means of a repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rodents. The Panel identified a no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) at the highest dose of 774 mg TOS/kg body weight per day. As the food enzyme is used in an immobilised form and as any residual amounts of the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) are removed during the food manufacturing process, dietary exposure was not calculated. A search for the similarity of the amino acid sequence of the food enzyme to known allergens was made and no match was found. The Panel considered that a risk of allergic reactions upon dietary exposure cannot be excluded, but the likelihood is low. Based on the data provided, the Panel concluded that this food enzyme does not give rise to safety concerns under the intended conditions of use.

Hydroxytyrosol produced by engineered Escherichia coli strains activates Nrf2/HO-1 pathway: An in vitro and in vivo study

This study explores the biological effects of hydroxytyrosol (HT), produced by the metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli, in a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments. In particular, a metabolically engineered Escherichia coli strain capable of producing HT was constructed and utilized. HEK293 and HeLa cells were exposed to purified HT to determine non-toxic doses that can offer protection against oxidative stress (activation of Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway). Male CD-1 mice were orally supplemented with HT to evaluate (1) renal and hepatic toxicity, (2) endogenous system antioxidant response, and (3) activation of Nrf2/HO-1 system in the liver. HT protected cells from oxidative stress through the activation of Nrf2 regulatory network. Activation of Nrf2 signaling pathway was also observed in the hepatic tissue of the mice. HT supplementation was safe and produced differential effects on mice's endogenous antioxidant defense system. HT biosynthesized from genetically modified Escherichia coli strains is an alternative method to produce high-quality HT that exerts favorable effects in the regulation of the organism's response to oxidative stress. Nonetheless, further investigation of the multifactorial action of HT on the antioxidant network regulation is needed.

Improved family-wise error rate control in multiple equivalence testing

Equivalence testing is an important component of safety assessments, used for example by the European Food Safety Authority, to allow new food or feed products on the market. The aim of such tests is to demonstrate equivalence of characteristics of test and reference crops. Equivalence tests are typically univariate and applied to each measured analyte (characteristic) separately without multiplicity correction. This increases the probability of making false claims of equivalence (type I errors) when evaluating multiple analytes simultaneously. To solve this problem, familywise error rate (FWER) control using Hochberg's method has been proposed. This paper demonstrates that, in the context of equivalence testing, other FWER-controlling methods are more powerful than Hochberg's. Particularly, it is shown that Hommel's method is guaranteed to perform at least as well as Hochberg's and that an "adaptive" version of Bonferroni's method, which uses an estimator of the proportion of non-equivalent characteristics, often substantially outperforms Hommel's method. Adaptive Bonferroni takes better advantage of the particular context of food safety where a large proportion of true equivalences is expected, a situation where other methods are particularly conservative. The different methods are illustrated by their application to two compositional datasets and further assessed and compared using simulated data.

Requirements for market entry of gene drive-modified mosquitoes for control of vector-borne diseases: analogies to other biologic and biotechnology products

Gene drive-modified mosquitoes (GDMMs) are proposed as new tools for control and elimination of malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases, and promising results have been observed from testing conducted in containment. Although still at an early stage of development, it is important to begin now to consider approval procedures and market entry strategies for the eventual implementation of GDMMs in the context of disease control programs, as these could impact future research plans. It is expected that, as for other types of new products, those seeking to bring GDMMs to market will be required to provide sufficient information to allow the regulator(s) to determine whether the product is safe and effective for its proposed use. There already has been much emphasis on developing requirements for the biosafety components of the "safe and effective" benchmark, largely concerned with their regulation as genetically modified organisms. Other potential approval requirements have received little attention, however. Although GDMMs are expected to be implemented primarily in the context of public health programs, any regulatory analogies to other public health products, such as pharmaceuticals, vaccines, or chemical pesticides, must take into account the characteristics of live mosquito products. Typical manufacturing standards related to product identity, potency or quality will need to be adapted to GDMMs. Valuable lessons can be drawn from the regulatory approval processes for other whole organism and genetically modified (GM) organism products. Supply chain requirements, such as scale of production, location and design of production facilities, and methods of distribution and delivery, will be dependent upon the characteristics of the particular GDMM product, the conditions of use, and the region to be served. Plans for fulfilling supply chain needs can build upon experience in the development of other live insect products for use in public health and agriculture. Implementation of GDMMs would benefit from additional research on enabling technologies for long-term storage of mosquito life stages, efficient mass production, and area-wide delivery of GDMMs. Early consideration of these practical requirements for market entry will help to mitigate downstream delays in the development of these promising new technologies.

Scientific Guidance on the data required for the risk assessment of flavourings to be used in or on foods

Following a request from the European Commission, EFSA developed a new scientific guidance to assist applicants in the preparation of applications for the authorisation of flavourings to be used in or on foods. This guidance applies to applications for a new authorisation as well as for a modification of an existing authorisation of a food flavouring, submitted under Regulation (EC) No 1331/2008. It defines the scientific data required for the evaluation of those food flavourings for which an evaluation and approval is required according to Article 9 of Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008. This applies to flavouring substances, flavouring preparations, thermal process flavourings, flavour precursors, other flavourings and source materials, as defined in Article 3 of Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008. Information to be provided in all applications relates to: (a) the characterisation of the food flavouring, including the description of its identity, manufacturing process, chemical composition, specifications, stability and reaction and fate in foods; (b) the proposed uses and use levels and the assessment of the dietary exposure and (c) the safety data, including information on the genotoxic potential of the food flavouring, toxicological data other than genotoxicity and information on the safety for the environment. For the toxicological studies, a tiered approach is applied, for which the testing requirements, key issues and triggers are described. Applicants should generate the data requested in each section to support the safety assessment of the food flavouring. Based on the submitted data, EFSA will assess the safety of the food flavouring and conclude whether or not it presents risks to human health and to the environment, if applicable, under the proposed conditions of use.

Fermentation of soymilk by Lactobacillus acidipiscis isolated from Chinese stinky tofu capable of efficiently biotransforming isoflavone glucosides to dihydrodaidzein and dihydrogenistein

BACKGROUND

The soy isoflavone microbial metabolites dihydrodaidzein (DHD), dihydrogenistein (DHG), equol and 5-hydroxy-equol are generally more biologically active than their precursors daidzein and genistein. Bacteria responsible for isoflavone metabolism have been isolated and identified. Fermented soymilk is a potential functional food; however, there are few lactic acid bacteria capable of metabolizing soy isoflavones.

RESULTS

A newly isolated Gram-positive facultative anaerobic bacterium, which was named Lactobacillus acidipiscis HAU-FR7, was isolated from the traditional Chinese fermented soy product 'stinky tofu'. Bacterium strain HAU-FR7 can grow under aerobic conditions and can also convert most of the daidzin and genistin in soymilk into DHD and DHG, respectively. The concentrations of DHD and DHG produced were 183 and 134 μmol L^-1 , respectively, after fermentation for 24 h. Strain HAU-FR7 does not produce the biogenic amines cadaverine, putrescine, histamine or tyramine, and an antibiotic susceptibility test showed that HAU-FR7 is sensitive to nine of the ten tested antibiotics, except for vancomycin. Moreover, the 1,1-diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging capacity of soymilk fermented with HAU-FR7 was significantly higher than that of unfermented soymilk.

CONCLUSION

A facultative anaerobic lactic acid bacterium, designated Lactobacillus acidipiscis HAU-FR7, is capable of reducing the soy isoflavone glucosides daidzin and genistin in soymilk to DHD and DHG efficiently, even in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. The biotransformation activity of HAU-FR7 grown in soymilk is higher than that in de Man-Rogosa-Sharpe liquid culture medium. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Unintended Genomic Outcomes in Current and Next Generation GM Techniques: A Systematic Review

Classical genetic engineering and new genome editing techniques, especially the CRISPR/Cas technology, increase the possibilities for modifying the genetic material in organisms. These technologies have the potential to provide novel agricultural traits, including modified microorganisms and environmental applications. However, legitimate safety concerns arise from the unintended genetic modifications (GM) that have been reported as side-effects of such techniques. Here, we systematically review the scientific literature for studies that have investigated unintended genomic alterations in plants modified by the following GM techniques: Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated gene transfer, biolistic bombardment, and CRISPR-Cas9 delivered via Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer (DNA-based), biolistic bombardment (DNA-based) and as ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs). The results of our literature review show that the impact of such techniques in host genomes varies from small nucleotide polymorphisms to large genomic variation, such as segmental duplication, chromosome truncation, trisomy, chromothripsis, breakage fusion bridge, including large rearrangements of DNA vector-backbone sequences. We have also reviewed the type of analytical method applied to investigate the genomic alterations and found that only five articles used whole genome sequencing in their analysis methods. In addition, larger structural variations detected in some studies would not be possible without long-read sequencing strategies, which shows a potential underestimation of such effects in the literature. As new technologies are constantly evolving, a more thorough examination of prospective analytical methods should be conducted in the future. This will provide regulators working in the field of genetically modified and gene-edited organisms with valuable information on the ability to detect and identify genomic interventions.

Evaluation of existing guidelines for their adequacy for the food and feed risk assessment of microorganisms obtained through synthetic biology

EFSA was asked by the European Commission to evaluate synthetic biology (SynBio) developments for agri-food use in the near future and to determine whether or not they are expected to constitute potential new hazards/risks. Moreover, EFSA was requested to evaluate the adequacy of existing guidelines for risk assessment of SynBio and if updated guidance is needed. The scope of this Opinion covers food and feed risk assessment, the variety of microorganisms that can be used in the food/feed chain and the whole spectrum of techniques used in SynBio. This Opinion complements a previously adopted Opinion with the evaluation of existing guidelines for the microbial characterisation and environmental risk assessment of microorganisms obtained through SynBio. The present Opinion confirms that microbial SynBio applications for food and feed use, with the exception of xenobionts, could be ready in the European Union in the next decade. New hazards were identified related to the use or production of unusual and/or new-to-nature components. Fifteen cases were selected for evaluating the adequacy of existing guidelines. These were generally adequate for assessing the product, the production process, nutritional and toxicological safety, allergenicity, exposure and post-market monitoring. The comparative approach and a safety assessment per se could be applied depending on the degree of familiarity of the SynBio organism/product with the non-genetically modified counterparts. Updated guidance is recommended for: (i) bacteriophages, protists/microalgae, (ii) exposure to plant protection products and biostimulants, (iii) xenobionts and (iv) feed additives for insects as target species. Development of risk assessment tools is recommended for assessing nutritional value of biomasses, influence of microorganisms on the gut microbiome and the gut function, allergenic potential of new-to-nature proteins, impact of horizontal gene transfer and potential risks of living cell intake. A further development towards a strain-driven risk assessment approach is recommended.

Spontaneous Riboflavin-Overproducing Limosilactobacillus reuteri for Biofortification of Fermented Foods

Riboflavin-producing lactic acid bacteria represent a promising and cost-effective strategy for food biofortification, but production levels are typically insufficient to support daily human requirements. In this study, we describe the novel human isolate Limosilactobacillus reuteri AMBV339 as a strong food biofortification candidate. This strain shows a high natural riboflavin (vitamin B2) overproduction of 18.36 μg/ml, biomass production up to 6 × 10¹⁰ colony-forming units/ml (in the typical range of model lactobacilli), and pH-lowering capacities to a pH as low as 4.03 in common plant-based (coconut, soy, and oat) and cow milk beverages when cultured up to 72 h at 37°C. These properties were especially pronounced in coconut beverage and butter milk fermentations, and were sustained in co-culture with the model starter Streptococcus thermophilus. Furthermore, L. reuteri AMBV339 grown in laboratory media or in a coconut beverage survived in gastric juice and in a simulated gastrointestinal dialysis model with colon phase (GIDM-colon system) inoculated with fecal material from a healthy volunteer. Passive transport of L. reuteri AMBV339-produced riboflavin occurred in the small intestinal and colon stage of the GIDM system, and active transport via intestinal epithelial Caco-2 monolayers was also demonstrated. L. reuteri AMBV339 did not cause fecal microbiome perturbations in the GIDM-colon system and inhibited enteric bacterial pathogens in vitro. Taken together, our data suggests that L. reuteri AMBV339 represents a promising candidate to provide riboflavin fortification of plant-based and dairy foods, and has a high application potential in the human gastrointestinal tract.

Safety of the proposed amendment of the specifications for enzymatically produced steviol glycosides (E 960c): Rebaudioside D produced via enzymatic bioconversion of purified stevia leaf extract

The EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF Panel) provides a scientific opinion on the safety of a proposed amendment of the specifications of enzymatically produced steviol glycosides (E 960c) with respect to the inclusion of rebaudioside D produced via enzyme‐catalysed bioconversion of purified stevia leaf extract. Rebaudioside D (95% on dry basis) is produced via enzymatic bioconversion of purified stevia leaf extract using uridine diphosphate (UDP)‐glucosyltransferase (UGT) and sucrose synthase enzymes produced by the genetically modified yeast K. phaffii UGT‐A, that facilitates the transfer of glucose to purified stevia leaf extract via glycosidic bonds. The same enzymes from K. phaffii UGT‐A may be used in the manufacturing process of the food additive, rebaudioside M produced via enzyme modification of steviol glycosides from stevia (E 960c(i)). The Panel considered that separate specifications would be needed for this food additive produced via the manufacturing process described in the current application, aligned with those already established for E 960c(i). The Panel concluded that there is no toxicological concern for Rebaudioside D produced via enzymatic bioconversion of purified stevia leaf extract using UDP‐glucosyltransferase and sucrose synthase produced by a genetically modified strain of the yeast K. phaffii. However, based on the available data, the Panel could not exclude the possibility that some residual amount of DNA coding for the kanamycin resistance gene could remain in the final product. Should this gene propagate in microbiota due to the presence of recombinant DNA in the final product, this would be of concern. Therefore, the Panel concluded that the safety of Rebaudioside D produced via this enzymatic bioconversion was not sufficiently demonstrated with the available data given that the absence of recombinant DNA was not shown.

Biotechnological advances for improving natural pigment production: a state-of-the-art review

In current years, natural pigments are facing a fast-growing global market due to the increase of people's awareness of health and the discovery of novel pharmacological effects of various natural pigments, e.g., carotenoids, flavonoids, and curcuminoids. However, the traditional production approaches are source-dependent and generally subject to the low contents of target pigment compounds. In order to scale-up industrial production, many efforts have been devoted to increasing pigment production from natural producers, via development of both in vitro plant cell/tissue culture systems, as well as optimization of microbial cultivation approaches. Moreover, synthetic biology has opened the door for heterologous biosynthesis of pigments via design and re-construction of novel biological modules as well as biological systems in bio-platforms. In this review, the innovative methods and strategies for optimization and engineering of both native and heterologous producers of natural pigments are comprehensively summarized. Current progress in the production of several representative high-value natural pigments is also presented; and the remaining challenges and future perspectives are discussed.

Non-conventional yeasts for food and additives production in a circular economy perspective

Yeast species have been spontaneously participating in food production for millennia, but the scope of applications was greatly expanded since their key role in beer and wine fermentations was clearly acknowledged. The workhorse for industry and scientific research has always been Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It occupies the largest share of the dynamic yeast market, that could further increase thanks to the better exploitation of other yeast species. Food-related 'non-conventional' yeasts (NCY) represent a treasure trove for bioprospecting, with their huge untapped potential related to a great diversity of metabolic capabilities linked to niche adaptations. They are at the crossroad of bioprocesses and biorefineries, characterized by low biosafety risk and produce food and additives, being also able to contribute to production of building blocks and energy recovered from the generated waste and by-products. Considering that the usual pattern for bioprocess development focuses on single strains or species, in this review we suggest that bioprospecting at the genus level could be very promising. Candida, Starmerella, Kluyveromyces and Lachancea were briefly reviewed as case studies, showing that a taxonomy- and genome-based rationale could open multiple possibilities to unlock the biotechnological potential of NCY bioresources.

Strategies to achieve significant physiological concentrations of bioactive phytoestrogens in plasma

The benefits to health attributed to the intake of phytoestrogens (PEs) have been demonstrated in previous studies with significant physiological concentrations of bioactive PEs, such as genistein, equol, enterolignans and urolithins in plasma. However, the achievement of high bioactive PE levels in plasma is restricted to a select population group, mainly due to the low intake of plant PEs and/or the absence, or inhibition, of the microbiota capable of producing these bioactive forms. In this study, the intake of plant PEs, the concentration of bioactive PEs in plasma, the ability of the intestinal microbiota to produce bioactive PEs, as well as the different mechanisms used by GRAS bacteria to increase the level of bioactive PEs were evaluated concluding that the use of GRAS bacteria bioactive PE producers and the development of fermented foods enriched in bioactive PEs in addition to a high intake of plant PEs and taking care of the intestinal microbiota, are some of the different strategies to achieve significant physiological concentrations of bioactive PEs in the intestine and, subsequently, in plasma and targets organs which are essential to improve menopausal symptoms or reduce the risk of some pathologies such as breast and colon cancer, or cardiovascular disease.

Current insights into the microbial degradation for pyrethroids: strain safety, biochemical pathway, and genetic engineering

As a biologically inspired insecticide, pyrethroids (PYRs) exert evident toxic side effects on non-target organisms. PYRs and their general toxic intermediate 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) have shown high detection rates/levels in human beings recently, for which diet was identified as the major exposure route. Microbial mineralization has emerged as a versatile strategy in addressing such escalating concern. Herein, PYRs and 3-PBA biodegradation with regards to strain safety, application and surfactant were summarized. Numerous PYRs-degrading microbes have been reported yet with a minority focused on 3-PBA. Most isolates were from contaminated sites while several microbial food cultures (MFCs) have been investigated. MFCs such as Bacillus spp. and Aspergillus spp. that dominate in PYRs-degrading microbial pools are applicable candidates for agricultural by-products detoxification during the postharvest process. Subsequently, we discussed committed degradation steps, wherein hydrolase responsible for PYRs ester linkage cleavage and oxygenase for 3-PBA diphenyl ether bond rupture play vital roles. Finally, comprehensive information of the key enzyme genes is outlined along with methodologies concerning gene cloning. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYP) is competent for diphenyl ether scission. Newly-developed omics has become a feasible gene and enzyme mining technology. To achieve PYRs mineralization in feed and food commodities, the screening of MFCs rich in related enzymes and the construction of MFCs-derived genetically modified microbes (GMMs) exhibit great potential considering the safety issues.

Equivalence tests for safety assessment of genetically modified crops using plant composition data

The evaluation of compositional characteristics of plants harvested from field trials is an important step in the safety assessment of a genetically modified crop and its derived products for food and feed. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) evaluates safety by testing for equivalence between the GM genotype and other genotypes, typically with a history of safe use. Here, a new equivalence test is proposed, which addresses issues with the EFSA test. The method is motivated by a recently proposed equivalence test for analysis of data from animal feeding trials. In order to be suitable for practical safety assessment, the new method has a statistical power set to a desired value, e.g. 95%, by construction. In addition, we assess distributions rather than average values. This way, equivalence limits can also be established when there is limited genotypic variation. The original EFSA equivalence test breaks down in this case. The method is illustrated by its application to data from a field study on maize grain. Simulation studies indicate that the proposed test has appropriate performance characteristics and is competitive with respect to recently proposed alternatives, including the EFSA/EU equivalence test.

Safety evaluation of steviol glycoside preparations, including rebaudioside AM, obtained by enzymatic bioconversion of highly purified stevioside and/or rebaudioside A stevia leaf extracts

The EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF) provides a scientific opinion on the safety of steviol glycoside preparations, including rebaudioside AM, obtained by enzymatic bioconversion of highly purified stevioside and/or rebaudioside A stevia leaf extracts. These steviol glycoside preparations are produced via enzymatic bioconversion of highly purified stevioside and/or rebaudioside A extracts obtained from stevia plant using two UDP-glucosyltransferases and one sucrose synthase enzymes produced by the genetically modified strains of E. coli K-12 that facilitate the transfer of glucose to purified stevia leaf extracts via glycosidic bonds. The Panel considered that the parental strain is a derivative of E. coli K-12 which is well characterised and its safety has been documented; therefore, it is considered to be safe for production purposes. The Panel concluded that there is no safety concern for steviol glycoside preparations, including rebaudioside AM, obtained by enzymatic bioconversion of highly purified stevioside and/or rebaudioside A stevia leaf extracts using UDP-glucosyltransferases and sucrose synthase enzymes produced by the genetically modified strains of E. coli K-12, to be used as a food additive. The Panel recommends the European Commission to consider the proposal of establishing separate specifications for steviol glycoside preparations, including rebaudioside AM, obtained by enzymatic bioconversion of highly purified stevioside and/or rebaudioside A stevia leaf extracts in Commission Regulation (EU) No 231/2012.

Heterologous production of equol by lactic acid bacteria strains in culture medium and food

The isoflavones daidzin and genistin, present in soybeans, can be transformed by the intestinal microbiota into equol and 5-hydroxy-equol, compounds with enhanced availability and bioactivity, although these are only produced by a fraction of the population. Hence, there is an interest in the production of these compounds, although, to date, few bacteria with biotechnological interest and applicability in food have been found able to produce equol. In order to obtain lactic acid bacteria able to produce equol, the daidzein reductase (dzr), dihydrodaidzein reductase (ddr), tetrahydrodaidzein reductase (tdr) and dihydrodaidzein racemase (ifcA) genes, from Slackia isoflavoniconvertens DSM22006, were cloned into the vector pNZ:TuR, under a strong constitutive promoter (TuR). Lactococcus lactis MG1363, Lacticaseibacillus casei BL23, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum WCFS1, Limosilactobacillus fermentum INIA 584L and L. fermentum INIA 832L, harbouring pNZ:TuR.tdr.ddr, were able to produce equol from dihydrodaidzein, while L. fermentum strains showed also production of 5-hydroxy-equol from dihydrogenistein. The metabolization of daidzein and genistein by the combination of strains harbouring pNZ:TuR.dzr and pNZ:TuR.tdr.ddr showed similar results, and the addition of the correspondent strain harbouring pNZ:TuR.ifcA resulted in an increase of equol production, but only in the L. fermentum strains. This pattern of equol and 5-hydroxy-equol production by L. fermentum strains was also confirmed in cow's milk supplemented with daidzein and genistein and incubated with the different combination of strains harbouring the constructed plasmids. Bacteria generally recognized as safe (GRAS), such as the lactic acid bacteria species used in this work, harbouring these plasmids, would be of value for the development of fermented vegetal foods enriched in equol and 5-hydroxy-equol.

EFSA statement on the requirements for whole genome sequence analysis of microorganisms intentionally used in the food chain

Microorganisms, genetically modified or not, may be used in the food chain as such or as production organisms of substances of interest. The placement of such microorganisms or derived substances/products in the European market may be subject to a pre-market authorisation process. The authorisation process defines the need to perform a risk assessment to establish the safety and/or the efficacy of the microorganisms when used in the food chain as such or as production strains of substances of interest. In order to perform a risk assessment, the microorganism/s subject to the application for authorisation need/s to be characterised. In this regard, data obtained from whole genome sequence analysis can provide information on the unequivocal taxonomic identification of the strains and on the characterisation of their potential functional traits of concern which may include virulence factors, resistance to antimicrobials of clinical relevance for humans and animals, production of known toxic metabolites. In fact, in some areas of the regulated products, the use of whole genome sequence-based data has been established as a requirement for the risk assessment. This document provides recommendations to applicants on how to describe the process and results which should be provided to the risk assessor in the context of an application for market authorisation of a regulated product. Indications are given on how to perform WGS and the quality criteria/thresholds that should be reached as well as the data and relevant information that need to be sent along whenever such kind of data is required.

Commercial Release of Genetically Modified Crops in Africa: Interface Between Biosafety Regulatory Systems and Varietal Release Systems

African countries face key challenges in the deployment of GM crops due to incongruities in the processes for effective and efficient commercial release while simultaneously ensuring food and environmental safety. Against the backdrop of the preceding scenario, and for the effective and efficient commercial release of GM crops for cultivation by farmers, while simultaneously ensuring food and environmental safety, there is a need for the close collaboration of and the interplay between the biosafety competent authorities and the variety release authorities. The commercial release of genetically modified (GM) crops for cultivation requires the approval of biosafety regulatory packages. The evaluation and approval of lead events fall under the jurisdiction of competent national authorities for biosafety (which may be ministries, autonomous authorities, or agencies). The evaluation of lead events fundamentally comprises a review of environmental, food, and feed safety data as provided for in the Biosafety Acts, implementing regulations, and, in some cases, the involvement of other relevant legal instruments. Although the lead GM event may be commercially released for farmers to cultivate, it is often introgressed into locally adapted and farmer preferred non-GM cultivars that are already released and grown by the farmers. The introduction of new biotechnology products to farmers is a process that includes comprehensive testing in the laboratory, greenhouse, and field over some time. The process provides answers to questions about the safety of the products before being introduced into the environment and marketplace. This is the first step in regulatory approvals. The output of the research and development phase of the product development cycle is the identification of a safe and best performing event for advancement to regulatory testing, likely commercialization, and general release. The process of the commercial release of new crop varieties in countries with established formal seed systems is guided by well-defined procedures and approval systems and regulated by the Seed Acts and implemented regulations. In countries with seed laws, no crop varieties are approved for commercial cultivation prior to the fulfillment of the national performance trials and the distinctness, uniformity, and stability tests, as well as prior to the approval by the National Variety Release Committee. This review outlines key challenges faced by African countries in the deployment of GM crops and cites lessons learned as well as best practices from countries that have successfully commercialized genetically engineered crops.

Guidance on safety evaluation of sources of nutrients and bioavailability of nutrient from the sources (Revision 1)

[Table: see text] This guidance describes the scientific data required to allow an evaluation of the safety of new substances that are proposed for use as sources of nutrients in food supplements, foods for the general population or foods for specific groups and an assessment of the bioavailability of the nutrient from the proposed source. This guidance describes the scientific data required to allow an evaluation of the safety of the source within the established framework for risk assessment of food additives and novel food ingredients and the bioavailability of the nutrient from this source. This document is arranged in five main sections: one on technical data aimed at characterising the proposed source and at identifying potential hazards resulting from its manufacture and stability in food; one on existing authorisations and evaluation, providing an overview of previous assessments on the proposed source and their conclusions; one on proposed uses and exposure assessment section, allowing an estimate of the dietary exposure to the source and the nutrient based on the proposed uses and use levels; one on toxicological data, describing approaches which can be used to identify (in conjunction with data on manufacture and composition) and to characterise hazards of the source and any relevant breakdown products; the final section on bioavailability focuses on determining the extent to which the nutrient from the proposed source is available for use by the body in comparison with one or more forms of the same nutrient that are already permitted for use on the positive lists. This guidance was adopted by the Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS Panel) on 16 May 2018. Upon request from EFSA, the present guidance has been revised to inform applicants of new provisions set out in Regulation (EC) No 178/2002, as amended by Regulation (EU) 2019/1381 on the transparency and sustainability of the EU risk assessment in the food chain.

Guidance on the preparation and submission of the notification and application for authorisation of traditional foods from third countries in the context of Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 (Revision 1)

[Table: see text] Following the adoption of Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 on Novel Foods, the European Commission requested EFSA to develop a scientific and technical guidance for the preparation and submission of notifications for traditional foods from third countries. This guidance presents a common format for the organisation of the information to be presented by applicant for the preparation of a well-structured dossier. The safety of a traditional food should be substantiated by reliable data on its composition, its experience of continued use and its proposed conditions of use. Its normal consumption should not be nutritionally disadvantageous. This guidance is also intended to support applicants in providing the type and quality of information EU Member States and EFSA need for the assessments of traditional foods from third countries. The applicant should integrate the information on the composition and the experience of continued use and provide a concise overall consideration on how this substantiates the history of safe use of the traditional food and how this relates to the proposed conditions of use for the EU. Where potential health hazards have been identified on the basis of the composition and/or data from the experience of continued use, they should be discussed. On the basis of the information provided, EFSA will assess the safety related to the consumption of the traditional food under the proposed conditions of use. This guidance was originally adopted by the NDA Panel in 2016. It has been revised in 2020 to inform applicants of the new provisions introduced by Regulation (EC) No 178/2002, as amended by Regulation (EU) 2019/1381 on the transparency and sustainability of the EU risk assessment in the food chain.It is applicable to allnotifications and applications submitted as of 27 March 2021. The 2016 version remains applicable to notifications and applications submitted before 27 March 2021.

Guidance on the preparation and submission of an application for authorisation of a novel food in the context of Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 (Revision 1)2

[Table: see text] Following the adoption of Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 on novel foods, the European Commission requested EFSA develop scientific and technical guidance for the preparation and submission of applications for authorisation of novel foods. This guidance presents a common format for the organisation of the information to be presented by the applicant when preparing a well-structured application to demonstrate the safety of the novel food. It outlines the data needed for the safety assessments of novel foods. Requirements relate to the description of the novel food, production process, compositional data, specification, proposed uses and use levels, and anticipated intake of the novel food. Further sections on the history of use of the novel food and/or its source, absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, nutritional information, toxicological information and allergenicity should be considered by the applicant by default. If not covered in the application, this should be justified. The applicant should integrate the data presented in the different sections to provide their overall considerations on how the information supports the safety of the novel food under the proposed conditions of use. Where potential health hazards have been identified, they should be discussed in relation to the anticipated intakes of the novel food and the proposed target populations. On the basis of the information provided, EFSA will assess the safety of the novel food under the proposed conditions of use. This guidance was originally adopted in 2016.It has beenrevised to informapplicants of the new provisions introduced by Regulation (EC) No 178/2002, as amended by Regulation (EU) 2019/1381 on the transparency and sustainability of the EU risk assessment in the food chain.This revised guidance applies to all dossiers submitted as of 27 March 2021. The 2016 version of this guidance remains applicable to applications submitted before 27 March 2021.

Applicability of the EFSA Opinion on site-directed nucleases type 3 for the safety assessment of plants developed using site-directed nucleases type 1 and 2 and oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis

The European Commission requested the EFSA Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) to assess whether section 4 (hazard identification) and the conclusions of EFSA's Scientific opinion on the risk assessment of plants developed using zinc finger nuclease type 3 technique (ZFN-3) and other site-directed nucleases (SDN) with similar function are valid for plants developed via SDN-1, SDN-2 and oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis (ODM). In delivering this Opinion, the GMO Panel compared the hazards associated with plants produced via SDN-1, SDN-2 and ODM with those associated with plants obtained via both SDN-3 and conventional breeding. Unlike for SDN-3 methods, the application of SDN-1, SDN-2 and ODM approaches aims to modify genomic sequences in a way which can result in plants not containing any transgene, intragene or cisgene. Consequently, the GMO Panel concludes that those considerations which are specifically related to the presence of a transgene, intragene or cisgene included in section 4 and the conclusions of the Opinion on SDN-3 are not relevant to plants obtained via SDN-1, SDN-2 or ODM as defined in this Opinion. Overall, the GMO Panel did not identify new hazards specifically linked to the genomic modification produced via SDN-1, SDN-2 or ODM as compared with both SDN-3 and conventional breeding. Furthermore, the GMO Panel considers that the existing Guidance for risk assessment of food and feed from genetically modified plants and the Guidance on the environmental risk assessment of genetically modified plants are sufficient but are only partially applicable to plants generated via SDN-1, SDN-2 or ODM. Indeed, those guidance documents' requirements that are linked to the presence of exogenous DNA are not relevant for the risk assessment of plants developed via SDN-1, SDN-2 or ODM approaches if the genome of the final product does not contain exogenous DNA.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme α-cyclodextrin glucanotransferase from Escherichia coli strain WCM105xpCM703

The food enzyme α‐cyclodextrin glucanotransferase ((1→4)‐α‐d‐glucan 4‐α‐d‐[(1→4)‐α‐d‐glucano]‐transferase; EC 2.4.1.19) is produced with a genetically modified Escherichia coli strain WCM105xpCM703 by Wacker Chemie GmbH. The production strain harbours a self‐replicating multicopy plasmid which contains genes conferring resistance to two highly important antimicrobials for human and veterinary medicine. The food enzyme is free from viable cells of the production organism, but not of its recombinant DNA. Therefore, the food enzyme poses a risk of promoting the spread of antimicrobial resistance genes. It is intended to be used in starch processing for the production of α‐cyclodextrin. Residual amounts of total organic solids (TOS) are removed by the purification steps applied during the production of α‐cyclodextrin; consequently, dietary exposure was not calculated. Genotoxicity tests, although not raising a safety concern, did not comply with the EFSA guideline. The systemic toxicity was assessed by means of a repeated dose 90‐day oral toxicity study in rats. The study was not supplied as a full report. The Panel identified the highest dose tested as the No Observed Adverse Effect Level, which according to the authors of the study corresponds to 260 mg TOS/kg body weight per day. In the absence of information about the sequence homology of this α‐cyclodextrin glucanotransferase with known allergens, the Panel could not complete the assessment on the allergenicity of the food enzyme. The Panel concludes that the food enzyme α‐cyclodextrin glucanotransferase produced with the genetically modified E. coli strain WCM105xpCM703 cannot be considered safe.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme β-cyclodextrin glucanotransferase from Escherichia coli strain WCM105xpCM6420

The food enzyme β‐cyclodextrin glucanotransferase ((1→4)‐α‐d‐glucan 4‐α‐d‐[(1→4)‐α‐d‐glucano]‐transferase; EC 2.4.1.19) is produced with a genetically modified Escherichia coli strain WCM105xpCM6420 by Wacker Chemie GmbH. The production strain harbours a self‐replicating multicopy plasmid which contains genes conferring resistance to two highly important antimicrobials for human and veterinary medicine. The food enzyme is free from viable cells of the production organism, but not of its recombinant DNA. Therefore, the food enzyme poses a risk of promoting the spread of antimicrobial resistance genes. It is intended to be used in starch processing for the production of γ‐cyclodextrin. Residual amounts of total organic solids are removed by the purification steps applied during the production of γ‐cyclodextrin; consequently, dietary exposure was not calculated. A bacterial reverse mutation test was not considered, because the representativeness of the test material could not be established. No other toxicological tests were provided. In the absence of information about the sequence homology of this β‐cyclodextrin glucanotransferase with known allergens, the Panel could not complete the assessment on the allergenicity of the food enzyme. The Panel concludes that the food enzyme β‐cyclodextrin glucanotransferase produced with the genetically modified E. coli strain WCM105xpCM6420 cannot be considered safe.

Evaluation of existing guidelines for their adequacy for the microbial characterisation and environmental risk assessment of microorganisms obtained through synthetic biology

EFSA was asked by the European Commission to consider synthetic biology developments for agri-food use in the near future and to determine if the use of this technology is expected to constitute potential risks and hazards for the environment. Moreover, EFSA was requested to evaluate the adequacy of existing guidelines for risk assessment and if updated guidance is needed. The scope of this Opinion covers viable synthetic biology microorganisms (SynBioMs) expected to be deliberately released into the environment. The evaluation was based on: (i) horizon scanning of published information, (ii) gap analysis of existing guidelines covering the scope of this mandate, and (iii) future outlooks. A horizon scan showed that SynBioM applications could be ready for deliberate release into the environment of the EU in the next decade. However, extensively engineered SynBioMs are only expected in the wider future. For the microbial characterisation and the environmental risk assessment, the existing EFSA Guidances are useful as a basis. The extent to which existing Guidances can be used depends on the familiarity of the SynBioM with non-modified organisms. Among the recommendations for updated Guidance, the range of uses of products to be assessed covering all agri-food uses and taking into account all types of microorganisms, their relevant exposure routes and receiving environments. It is suggested that new EFSA Guidances address all 'specific areas of risk' as per Directive 2001/18/EC. No novel environmental hazards are expected for current and near future SynBioMs. However, the efficacy by which the SynBioMs interact with the environment may differ. This could lead to increased exposure and risk. Novel hazards connected with the development of xenobionts may be expected in the wider future.

For the sake of the Bioeconomy: define what a Synthetic Biology Chassis is!

At the onset of the 4th Industrial Revolution, the role of synthetic biology (SynBio) as a fuel for the bioeconomy requires clarification of the terms typically adopted by this growing scientific-technical field. The concept of the chassis as a defined, reusable biological frame where non-native components can be plugged in and out to create new functionalities lies at the boundary between frontline bioengineering and more traditional recombinant DNA technology. As synthetic biology leaves academic laboratories and starts penetrating industrial and environmental realms regulatory agencies demand clear definitions and descriptions of SynBio constituents, processes and products. In this article, the state of the ongoing discussion on what is a chassis is reviewed, a non-equivocal nomenclature for the jargon used is proposed and objective criteria are recommended for distinguishing SynBio agents from traditional GMOs. The use of genomic barcodes as unique identifiers is strongly advocated. Finally the soil bacterium Pseudomonas putida is shown as an example of the roadmap that one environmental isolate may go through to become a bona fide SynBio chassis.