Opioid receptor PET reveals the psychobiologic correlates of reward processing

Neural correlates of harm avoidance: a multimodal meta-analysis of brain structural and resting-state functional neuroimaging studies

Harm avoidance (HA) is a Cloninger personality trait that describes behavioural inhibition to avoid aversive stimuli. It serves as a predisposing factor that contributes to the development of mental disorders such as anxiety and major depressive disorder. Neuroimaging research has identified some brain anatomical and functional correlates of HA, but reported findings are inconsistent. We therefore conducted a multimodal meta-analysis of whole-brain structural and resting-state functional neuroimaging studies to identify the most stable neural substrate of HA. Included were a total of 10 structural voxel-based morphometry studies (11 datasets) and 13 functional positron emission tomography or single photon emission computed tomography studies (16 datasets) involving 3053 healthy participants without any psychiatric or neurological disorders evaluated for HA using the Three-Dimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ) or the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). The meta-analysis revealed brain volumetric correlates of HA in parietal and temporal cortices, and resting-state functional correlates in prefrontal, temporal and parietal gray matter. Volumetric and functional correlates co-occurred in the left superior frontal gyrus and left middle frontal gyrus, and were dissociated in the left rectus gyrus. Our meta-analysis is the first study to give a comprehensive picture of the structural and functional correlates of HA, a contribution that may help bridge the grievous gap between the neurobiology of HA and the pathogenesis, prevention and treatment of HA-related mental disorders.

Optimization of a Nucleophilic Two-Step Radiosynthesis of 6-O-(2-[18F]fluoroethyl)-6-O-desmethyl-diprenorphine ([18F]FE-DPN) for PET Imaging of Brain Opioid Receptors

We have established a method for nucleophilic one-pot, two-step radiosynthesis of the popular opioid receptor radioligand 6-O-(2-[18F]fluoroethyl)-6-O-desmethyl-diprenorphine ([18F]FE-DPN) from the novel precursor 6-O-(2-tosyloxyethyl)-6-O-desmethyl- 3-O-trityl-diprenorphine (TE-TDDPN), which we designate as the Henriksen precursor. We undertook an optimization of the synthesis conditions, aiming to enhance the accessibility of [18F]FE-DPN for positron emission tomography (PET) studies of μ-opioid receptors. Herein, we report an optimized direct nucleophilic 18F-fluorination and the deprotection conditions for a fully automated radiosynthesis of [18F]FE-DPN on a modified GE Tracerlab FX FE synthesis panel. Starting from 1-1.5 GBq of [18F]fluoride and applying an Oasis Max 1cc cartridge for fluorine-18 trapping with a reduced amount of K2CO3 (5.06 μmol K+ ion), [18F]FE-DPN ([18F]11) was produced with 44.5 ± 10.6 RCY (decay-corrected), high radiochemical purity (>99%), and a molar activity of 32.2 ± 11.8 GBq/μmol in 60-65 min.

A New Precursor for the Radiosynthesis of 6-O-(2-[18F]Fluoroethyl)-6-Odesmethyl- diprenorphine ([18F]FE-DPN) by Nucleophilic Radiofluorination

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We present the preparation of the new precursor 6-O-(2-tosyloxyethoxy)-6-O-desmethyl-3- O-trityl-diprenorphine (TE-TDDPN) for a one-pot, two-step nucleophilic radiosynthesis of 6-O-(2- [18F]fluoroethyl-6-O-desmethyl-diprenorphine ([18F]FE-DPN). The route to the precursor consists of a five-step synthesis starting from diprenorphine. We also provide alternative synthesis routes for the cold reference standard and the complete 1H- and 13C-NMR assignment of the prepared derivatives.

The Reward System and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Does Trauma Affect the Way We Interact With Positive Stimuli?

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a highly prevalent disorder and a highly debilitating condition. Although anhedonia is an important construct of the disorder, the relationship between PTSD and reward functioning is still under-researched. To date, the majority of research on PTSD has focused on fear: fear learning, maintenance, and extinction. Here we review the relevant literature-including clinical observations, self-report data, neuroimaging research, and animal studies-in order to examine the potential effects of post-traumatic stress disorder on the reward system. Our current lack of sufficient insight into how trauma affects the reward system is one possible hindrance to clinical progress. The current review highlights the need for further investigation into the complex relationship between exposure to trauma and the reward system to further our understandings of the ethology of PTSD.

A Survey of Molecular Imaging of Opioid Receptors

The discovery of endogenous peptide ligands for morphine binding sites occurred in parallel with the identification of three subclasses of opioid receptor (OR), traditionally designated as μ, δ, and κ, along with the more recently defined opioid-receptor-like (ORL1) receptor. Early efforts in opioid receptor radiochemistry focused on the structure of the prototype agonist ligand, morphine, although N-[methyl-¹¹C]morphine, -codeine and -heroin did not show significant binding in vivo. [¹¹C]Diprenorphine ([¹¹C]DPN), an orvinol type, non-selective OR antagonist ligand, was among the first successful PET tracers for molecular brain imaging, but has been largely supplanted in research studies by the μ-preferring agonist [¹¹C]carfentanil ([¹¹C]Caf). These two tracers have the property of being displaceable by endogenous opioid peptides in living brain, thus potentially serving in a competition-binding model. Indeed, many clinical PET studies with [¹¹C]DPN or [¹¹C]Caf affirm the release of endogenous opioids in response to painful stimuli. Numerous other PET studies implicate μ-OR signaling in aspects of human personality and vulnerability to drug dependence, but there have been very few clinical PET studies of μORs in neurological disorders. Tracers based on naltrindole, a non-peptide antagonist of the δ-preferring endogenous opioid enkephalin, have been used in PET studies of δORs, and [¹¹C]GR103545 is validated for studies of κORs. Structures such as [¹¹C]NOP-1A show selective binding at ORL-1 receptors in living brain. However, there is scant documentation of δ-, κ-, or ORL1 receptors in healthy human brain or in neurological and psychiatric disorders; here, clinical PET research must catch up with recent progress in radiopharmaceutical chemistry.

Do Event-Related Evoked Potentials Reflect Apathy Tendency and Motivation?

Apathy is a mental state of diminished motivation. Although the reward system as the foundation of the motivation in the human brain has been studied extensively with neuroimaging techniques, the electrophysiological correlates of motivation and apathy have not been fully explored. Thus, in 14 healthy volunteers, we examined whether event-related evoked potentials (ERP) obtained during a simple number discrimination task with/without rewards reflected apathy tendency and a reward-dependent tendency, which were assessed separately using the apathy scale and the temperament and character inventory (TCI). Participants were asked to judge the size of a number, and received feedback based on their performance in each trial. The P3 amplitudes related to the feedback stimuli increased only in the reward condition. Furthermore, the P2 amplitudes related to the negative feedback stimuli in the reward condition had a positive correlation with the reward-dependent tendency in TCI, whereas the P3 amplitudes related to the positive feedback stimuli had a negative correlation with the apathy score. Our result suggests that the P2 and P3 ERPs to reward-related feedback stimuli are modulated in a distinctive manner by the motivational reward dependence and apathy tendency, and thus the current paradigm may be useful for investigating the brain activity associated with motivation.

Nucleus Accumbens Deep Brain Stimulation in Patients with Substance Use Disorders and Delay Discounting

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shows first promising results in patients with severe substance use disorder (SUD), a patient group known to have deficits in self-control. One facet of self-control is the ability to forego smaller sooner rewards in favor of larger later rewards (delay discounting, DD). The NAc has been suggested to integrate motivational information to guide behavior while the consequences of NAc-DBS on DD are unknown. To this end, nine patients with SUD performed a DD task with DBS on and after a 24 h DBS off period. Furthermore, 18 healthy controls were measured to assess possible alterations in DD in patients with SUD. Our findings implicate that DD was not significantly modulated by NAc-DBS and also that patients with SUD did not differ from healthy controls. While null results must be interpreted with caution, the commonly observed association of impaired DD in SUD might suggest a long-term effect of NAc-DBS that was not sufficiently modulated by a 24 h DBS off period.

Reaching out for Sensitive Evaluation of the Mu Opioid Receptor in Vivo: Positron Emission Tomography Imaging of the Agonist [11C]AH7921

Imaging of the mu opioid receptor (MOR) availability with positron emission tomography (PET) is a pertinent challenge in Neuroscience. Both, regulation of receptor expression and occupancy by endogeneous opioids play into cognitive and behavioral phenotypes of healthy function and disease. Receptor expression in the active and inactive states can be measured using high affinity radioagonist and radioantagonist PET tracers, respectively. Occupancy assessment requires radioligands showing competitive and reversible binding with moderate affinity to the MOR, which may lead to physical extinction of the receptor specific signal in vivo. We investigated a moderately potent, selective MOR agonist in rat to test if a radiotracer design paradigm tailored to competition with endogeneous opioids leads to viable imaging results. The benzamide 3,4-dichlorobenzenecarboxylic acid (dimethylamino)cyclohexyl)methyl amide (AH-7921, 1) was synthesized and characterized in rat brain using autoradiography and positron emission tomography. Compound 1 was found to activate with low nanomolar potency the MOR and to a lesser extent KOR as a full agonist. Concentration dependent binding studies with agonist and antagonist radioligands were conducted to assess competition behavior and obtain inhibition constants. Kinetic analysis of 3,4-dichlorobenzene[¹¹C]carboxylic acid (dimethylamino)cyclohexyl)methyl amide binding in rat brain resulted in low but reproducible binding potential in the thalamus (0.8 ± 0.1). A radioactive metabolite was detected in brain (17%, after 15 min). Nonetheless, we conclude that quantitative imaging of MOR availability is possible when using a moderate affinity radiotracer.

Novelty seeking and reward dependence-related large-scale brain networks functional connectivity variation during salience expectancy

A salience network (SN) anchored in the anterior insula (AI) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) plays a key role in switching between brain networks during salience detection and attention regulation. Previous fMRI studies have associated expectancy behaviors and SN activation with novelty seeking (NS) and reward dependence (RD) personality traits. To address the question of how functional connectivity (FC) in the SN is modulated by internal (expectancy-related) salience assignment and different personality traits, 68 healthy participants performed a salience expectancy task using functional magnetic resonance imaging, and psychophysiological interaction analysis (PPI) was conducted to determine salience-related connectivity changes during these anticipation periods. Correlation was then evaluated between PPI and personality traits, assessed using the temperament and character inventory of 32 male participants. During high salience expectancy, SN-seed regions showed reduced FC to visual areas and parts of the default mode network, but increased FC to the central executive network. With increasing NS, participants showed significantly increasing disconnection between right AI and middle cingulate cortex when expecting high-salience pictures as compared to low-salience pictures, while increased RD also predicted decreased right dACC and caudate FC for high salience expectancy. Our findings suggest a direct link between personality traits and internal salience processing mediated by differential network integration of the SN. SN activity and coordination may therefore be moderated by novelty seeking and reward dependency personality traits, which are associated with risk of addiction. Hum Brain Mapp 38:4064-4077, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Positive Association Between Limbic Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 5 Availability and Novelty-Seeking Temperament in Humans: An 18F-FPEB PET Study

Heritable temperament traits have been linked to several neuropsychiatric illnesses, including disorders associated with metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) and dopaminergic dysfunctions. Considering its modulating effect on neurotransmission, we hypothesized that cerebral mGluR5 availability is associated with temperament traits in healthy humans.

METHODS

Forty-four nonsmoking healthy volunteers (mean age ± SD, 40 ± 14 y; age range, 22-66 y; 22 women) were included in this cross-sectional investigation. Brain mGluR5 availability was quantified on both a voxel-by-voxel and a volume-of-interest basis using the total distribution volume of the radioligand ¹⁸F-3-fluoro-5-[(pyridin-3-yl)ethynyl]benzonitrile (¹⁸F-FPEB) with 90-min dynamic PET and arterial input function. Moreover, glutamate-glutamine concentrations in the anterior cingulate cortex were measured using MR spectroscopy. These measures were related to the temperament traits of the 240-item Cloninger temperament and character inventory using a regression analysis with age and sex as nuisance variables.

RESULTS

High novelty-seeking temperament was robustly associated with increased mGluR5 availability in various regions including the thalamus (r = 0.71; the strongest association), amygdala, parahippocampus, insula, anterior and posterior cingulate cortex, and several primary sensory areas (all r > 0.58; P < 0.05, corrected for familywise error). These associations were specific because no correlations were found with other temperament scales or with spectroscopic measures of glutamatergic transmission.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these data posit mGluR5 in key paralimbic areas as a strong determinant of the temperament trait novelty seeking. These data add to our understanding of how brain neurochemistry accounts for the variation in human behavior and strongly support further research on mGluR5 as a potential therapeutic target in neuropsychiatric disorders associated with abnormal novelty-seeking behaviors.

Molecular imaging and neural networks in impulse control disorders in Parkinson's disease

Impulse control disorders (ICDs) may arise in Parkinson's disease (PD) in relation to the use of dopamine agonists (DA). A dysfunction of reward circuits is considered the main underlying mechanism. Neuroimaging has been largely used in this setting to understand the structure of the reward system and its abnormalities brought by exogenous stimulation in PD. Dopaminergic changes, such as increased dopamine release, reduced dopamine transporter activity and other changes, have been shown to be a consistent feature of ICDs in PD. Beyond the striatum, alterations of prefrontal cortical function may also impact an individuals' propensity for impulsivity. Neuroimaging is advancing our knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the development of these behavioral addictions. An increased understanding of these disorders may lead to the discovery of new therapeutic targets, or the identification of risk factors for the development of these disorders.

Role of personality traits in cocaine craving throughout an outpatient psychosocial treatment program

OBJECTIVE

Cocaine dependence is a major international public health concern. Its chronically relapsing nature is possibly related to craving intensity, which can be influenced by diverse biological and psychological aspects. This study aimed to evaluate the role of different personality traits in craving measured throughout a psychosocial treatment program.

METHOD

The sample comprised 66 cocaine-dependent outpatients who were enrolled in an individual and manualized cognitive-behavioral therapy program. The influence of personality traits on craving intensity, frequency, and duration was analyzed using a generalized estimating equations model with an autoregressive correlation structure.

RESULTS

Craving varied during treatment. The personality traits of novelty seeking, reward dependence, and harm avoidance interacted with craving intensity, and the personality trait of persistence interacted with craving duration throughout the treatment period. Furthermore, there were significant interactions between drug use and craving intensity, and between different routes of administration and craving intensity. Participants who used cocaine/crack while in treatment and concurrent users of crack (i.e., freebase) cocaine and powder cocaine also had a higher craving intensity.

CONCLUSION

The extent of craving variation can depend on certain personality styles. This study shows that craving is influenced by personality traits, and this may presumably change clinical expression involved in disease.

A fully automated radiosynthesis of [18F]fluoroethyl-diprenorphine on a single module by use of SPE cartridges for preparation of high quality 2-[18F]fluoroethyl tosylate

We have developed a new method for automated production of 2-[¹⁸F]fluoroethyl tosylate ([¹⁸F]FETos) that enables ¹⁸F-alkylation to provide PET tracers with high chemical purity. The method is based on the removal of excess ethylene glycol bistosylate precursor by precipitation and subsequent filtration and purification of the filtrate by means of solid phase extraction cartridges (SPE). The method is integrated to a single synthesis module and thereby provides the advantage over previous methods of not requiring HPLC purification, as demonstrated by the full radiosynthesis of the potent opioid receptor PET tracer [¹⁸F]fluoroethyldiprenorphine.

Parcellation of the human substantia nigra based on anatomical connectivity to the striatum

Substantia nigra/ventral tegmental area (SN/VTA) subregions, defined by dopaminergic projections to the striatum, are differentially affected by health (e.g. normal aging) and disease (e.g. Parkinson's disease). This may have an impact on reward processing which relies on dopaminergic regions and circuits. We acquired diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) with probabilistic tractography in 30 healthy older adults to determine whether subregions of the SN/VTA could be delineated based on anatomical connectivity to the striatum. We found that a dorsomedial region of the SN/VTA preferentially connected to the ventral striatum whereas a more ventrolateral region connected to the dorsal striatum. These SN/VTA subregions could be characterised by differences in quantitative structural imaging parameters, suggesting different underlying tissue properties. We also observed that these connectivity patterns differentially mapped onto reward dependence personality trait. We show that tractography can be used to parcellate the SN/VTA into anatomically plausible and behaviourally meaningful compartments, an approach that may help future studies to provide a more fine-grained synopsis of pathological changes in the dopaminergic midbrain and their functional impact.

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We use DTI to segment the substantia nigra/ventral tegmental area (SN/VTA).

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Dorsomedial and ventrolateral SN/VTA regions were defined by striatal connectivity.

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R2* and fractional anisotropy values differed between SN/VTA subregions.

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Connectivity patterns differentially mapped onto a reward personality trait.

Baseline reward circuitry activity and trait reward responsiveness predict expression of opioid analgesia in healthy subjects

Variability in opioid analgesia has been attributed to many factors. For example, genetic variability of the μ-opioid receptor (MOR)-encoding gene introduces variability in MOR function and endogenous opioid neurotransmission. Emerging evidence suggests that personality trait related to the experience of reward is linked to endogenous opioid neurotransmission. We hypothesized that opioid-induced behavioral analgesia would be predicted by the trait reward responsiveness (RWR) and the response of the brain reward circuitry to noxious stimuli at baseline before opioid administration. In healthy volunteers using functional magnetic resonance imaging and the μ-opioid agonist remifentanil, we found that the magnitude of behavioral opioid analgesia is positively correlated with the trait RWR and predicted by the neuronal response to painful noxious stimuli before infusion in key structures of the reward circuitry, such as the orbitofrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, and the ventral tegmental area. These findings highlight the role of the brain reward circuitry in the expression of behavioral opioid analgesia. We also show a positive correlation between behavioral opioid analgesia and opioid-induced suppression of neuronal responses to noxious stimuli in key structures of the descending pain modulatory system (amygdala, periaqueductal gray, and rostral-ventromedial medulla), as well as the hippocampus. Further, these activity changes were predicted by the preinfusion period neuronal response to noxious stimuli within the ventral tegmentum. These results support the notion of future imaging-based subject-stratification paradigms that can guide therapeutic decisions.

The development, past achievements, and future directions of brain PET

The early developments of brain positron emission tomography (PET), including the methodological advances that have driven progress, are outlined. The considerable past achievements of brain PET have been summarized in collaboration with contributing experts in specific clinical applications including cerebrovascular disease, movement disorders, dementia, epilepsy, schizophrenia, addiction, depression and anxiety, brain tumors, drug development, and the normal healthy brain. Despite a history of improving methodology and considerable achievements, brain PET research activity is not growing and appears to have diminished. Assessments of the reasons for decline are presented and strategies proposed for reinvigorating brain PET research. Central to this is widening the access to advanced PET procedures through the introduction of lower cost cyclotron and radiochemistry technologies. The support and expertize of the existing major PET centers, and the recruitment of new biologists, bio-mathematicians and chemists to the field would be important for such a revival. New future applications need to be identified, the scope of targets imaged broadened, and the developed expertize exploited in other areas of medical research. Such reinvigoration of the field would enable PET to continue making significant contributions to advance the understanding of the normal and diseased brain and support the development of advanced treatments.

Temperament trait Harm Avoidance associates with μ-opioid receptor availability in frontal cortex: a PET study using [(11)C]carfentanil

Harm Avoidance is a temperament trait that associates with sensitivity to aversive and non-rewarding stimuli, higher anticipated threat and negative emotions during stress as well as a higher risk for affective disorders. The neurobiological correlates of interindividual differences in Harm Avoidance are largely unknown. We hypothesized that variability in Harm Avoidance trait would be explained by differences in the activity of μ-opioid system as the opioid system is known to regulate affective states and stress sensitivity. Brain μ-opioid receptor availability was measured in 22 healthy subjects using positron emission tomography and [(11)C]carfentanil, a selective μ-opioid receptor agonist. The subjects were selected from a large Finish population-based cohort (N=2075) on the basis of their pre-existing Temperament and Character Scores. Subjects scoring consistently in the upper (10) and lower (12) quartiles for the Harm Avoidance trait were studied. High Harm Avoidance score associated with high μ-opioid receptor availability (i.e. lower endogenous μ-opioid drive) in anterior cingulate cortex, ventromedial and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices and anterior insular cortex. These associations were driven by two subscales of Harm Avoidance; Shyness with Strangers and Fatigability and Asthenia. In conclusion, higher Harm Avoidance score in healthy subjects is associated with higher μ-opioid availability in regions involved in the regulation of anxiety as well as in the control of emotions, affective component of pain and interoceptive awareness. The results have relevance in the research of vulnerability factors for affective disorders.

Social reward dependence and brain white matter microstructure

People show consistent differences in their cognitive and emotional responses to environmental cues, manifesting, for example, as variability in social reward processing and novelty-seeking behavior. However, the neurobiological foundation of human temperament and personality is poorly understood. A likely hypothesis is that personality traits rely on the integrity and function of distributed neurocircuitry. In this diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) study, this hypothesis was tested by examining the associations between reward dependence (RD) and novelty seeking (NS), as measured by Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory, and fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD) as DTI-derived indices of white matter (WM) microstructure across the brain. The results supported the hypothesis. RD was associated with WM architecture coherence as indicated by a negative correlation between RD and FA in frontally distributed areas including pathways connecting important constituents of reward-related neurocircuitry. The associations between RD and FA could not be explained by age, sex, alcohol consumption, or trait anxiety. In contrast, no effects were observed for NS. These findings support the theory that WM fiber tract properties modulate individual differences in social reward processing.

What have positron emission tomography and 'Zippy' told us about the neuropharmacology of drug addiction?

Translational molecular imaging with positron emission tomography (PET) and allied technologies offer unrivalled applications in the discovery of biomarkers and aetiological mechanisms relevant to human disease. Foremost among clinical PET findings during the past two decades of addiction research is the seminal discovery of reduced dopamine D(2/3) receptor expression in the striatum of drug addicts, which could indicate a predisposing factor and/or compensatory reaction to the chronic abuse of stimulant drugs. In parallel, recent years have witnessed significant improvements in the performance of small animal tomographs (microPET) and a refinement of animal models of addiction based on clinically relevant diagnostic criteria. This review surveys the utility of PET in the elucidation of neuropharmacological mechanisms underlying drug addiction. It considers the consequences of chronic drug exposure on regional brain metabolism and neurotransmitter function and identifies those areas where further research is needed, especially concerning the implementation of PET tracers targeting neurotransmitter systems other than dopamine, which increasingly have been implicated in the pathophysiology of drug addiction. In addition, this review considers the causal effects of behavioural traits such as impulsivity and novelty/sensation-seeking on the emergence of compulsive drug-taking. Previous research indicates that spontaneously high-impulsive rats--as exemplified by 'Zippy'--are pre-disposed to escalate intravenous cocaine self-administration, and subsequently to develop compulsive drug taking tendencies that endure despite concurrent adverse consequences of such behaviour, just as in human addiction. The discovery using microPET of pre-existing differences in dopamine D(2/3) receptor expression in the striatum of high-impulsive rats suggests a neural endophenotype that may likewise pre-dispose to stimulant addiction in humans.

Evidence for modulation of opioidergic activity in central vestibular processing: A [(18)F] diprenorphine PET study

Animal and functional imaging studies had identified cortical structures such as the parieto-insular vestibular cortex, the retro-insular cortex, or the anterior cingulate cortex belonging to a vestibular cortical network. Basic animal studies revealed that endorphins might be important transmitters involved in cerebral vestibular processing. The aim of the present study was therefore to analyse whether the opioid system is involved in vestibular neurotransmission of humans or not. Changes in opioid receptor availability during caloric air stimulation of the right ear were studied with [(18)F] Fluoroethyl-diprenorphine ([(18)F]FEDPN) PET scans in 10 right-handed healthy volunteers and compared to a control condition. Decrease in receptor availability to [(18)F]FEDPN during vestibular stimulation in comparison to the control condition was significant at the right posterior insular cortex and the postcentral region indicating more endogenous opioidergic binding in these regions during stimulation. These data give evidence that the opioidergic system plays a role in the right hemispheric dominance of the vestibular cortical system in right-handers.

Hedonic and motivational roles of opioids in food reward: implications for overeating disorders

Food reward can be driven by separable mechanisms of hedonic impact (food 'liking') and incentive motivation (food 'wanting'). Brain mu-opioid systems contribute crucially to both forms of food reward. Yet, opioid signals for food 'liking' and 'wanting' diverge in anatomical substrates, in pathways connecting these sites, and in the firing profiles of single neurons. Divergent neural control of hedonic and motivational processes raises the possibility for joint or separable modulation of food intake in human disorders associated with excessive eating and obesity. Early findings confirm an important role for 'liking' and 'wanting' in human appetitive behaviors, and suggest the intriguing possibility that exaggerated signals for 'wanting,' and perhaps 'liking,' may contribute to forms of overeating.

[Use of PET and SPECT in psychiatry]

This review presents the basic essentials of the application of nuclear medicine technology in psychiatry, i.e., positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). These include integral principles of physics and radiochemistry as well as of data acquisition and analysis. Significant findings from applications in research and the clinical setting (schizophrenic and affective disorders, substance abuse, dementia) illustrate the huge potential of these methods. They have helped to deepen the understanding of the neurobiology of those disorders and the mechanism of action of psychotropic drugs. Due to its unmatched sensitivity, molecular imaging with PET and SPECT represents an important complement to magnetic resonance imaging technology in research and clinical practice.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2008

This paper is the 31st consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2008 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration and thermoregulation (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).

Synthesis and evaluation of a full-agonist orvinol for PET-imaging of opioid receptors: [11C]PEO

Antagonist radiotracers have shown only a low sensitivity for detecting competition from high-efficacy agonists at opioid receptors (ORs) in vivo. We report that [(11)C]PEO binds with high affinity to mu and kappa-opioid receptors, is a full agonist, and concentrates in brain regions of rats with a high density of the mu-OR after intravenous injection. Blocking studies with mu and kappa-OR selective compounds demonstrated that the binding of [(11)C]PEO is saturable and selective to the mu-OR in rat brain.

The anatomy of the mesolimbic reward system: a link between personality and the placebo analgesic response

The anticipation of clinical benefit, a crucial component of placebo analgesia, has been suggested to be a special case of reward anticipation. Since reward processing is closely linked to the ventral striatum and the neurotransmitter dopamine, we examined the relationships between brain gray matter, placebo analgesic response, and personality traits associated with dopaminergic neurotransmission. We report that dopamine-related traits predict a substantial portion of the pain relief an individual gains from a sham treatment. Voxel-based morphometry of magnetic resonance images shows that the magnitude of placebo analgesia is related to gray matter density (GMD) in several brain regions, including the ventral striatum, insula, and prefrontal cortex. Similarly, GMD in ventral striatum and prefrontal cortex is related to dopamine-related personality traits. Our findings highlight the relationship between placebo and reward and potentially offer ways of identifying subjects who are likely to show large placebo analgesic responses.