Metabolic Imaging of Glutamine in Cancer

High glutamine increases stroke risk by inducing the endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition in moyamoya disease

At present, there is limited research on the mechanisms underlying moyamoya disease (MMD). Herein, we aimed to determine the role of glutamine in MMD pathogenesis, and 360 adult patients were prospectively enrolled. Human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) were subjected to Integrin Subunit Beta 4 (ITGB4) overexpression or knockdown and atorvastatin. We assessed factors associated with various signaling pathways in the context of the endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT), and the expression level of related proteins was validated in the superficial temporal arteries of patients. We found glutamine levels were positively associated with a greater risk of stroke (OR = 1.599, p = 0.022). After treatment with glutamine, HBMECs exhibited enhanced proliferation, migration, and EndMT, all reversed by ITGB4 knockdown. In ITGB4-transfected HBMECs, the MAPK-ERK-TGF-β/BMP pathway was activated, with Smad4 knockdown reversing the EndMT. Furthermore, atorvastatin suppressed the EndMT by inhibiting Smad1/5 phosphorylation and promoting Smad4 ubiquitination in ITGB4-transfected HBMECs. We also found the protein level of ITGB4 was upregulated in the superficial temporal arteries of patients with MMD. In conclusion, our study suggests that glutamine may be an independent risk factor for hemorrhage or infarction in patients with MMD and targeting ITGB4 could potentially be therapeutic approaches for MMD.

PET Imaging of Metabolism, Perfusion, and Hypoxia: FDG and Beyond

ABSTRACT

Imaging glucose metabolism with [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography has transformed the diagnostic and treatment algorithms of numerous malignancies in clinical practice. The cancer phenotype, though, extends beyond dysregulation of this single pathway. Reprogramming of other pathways of metabolism, as well as altered perfusion and hypoxia, also typifies malignancy. These features provide other opportunities for imaging that have been developed and advanced into humans. In this review, we discuss imaging metabolism, perfusion, and hypoxia in cancer, focusing on the underlying biology to provide context. We conclude by highlighting the ability to image multiple facets of biology to better characterize cancer and guide targeted treatment.

Mitochondrial-Stem Cell Connection: Providing Additional Explanations for Understanding Cancer

The cancer paradigm is generally based on the somatic mutation model, asserting that cancer is a disease of genetic origin. The mitochondrial-stem cell connection (MSCC) proposes that tumorigenesis may result from an alteration of the mitochondria, specifically a chronic oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos) insufficiency in stem cells, which forms cancer stem cells (CSCs) and leads to malignancy. Reviewed evidence suggests that the MSCC could provide a comprehensive understanding of all the different stages of cancer. The metabolism of cancer cells is altered (OxPhos insufficiency) and must be compensated by using the glycolysis and the glutaminolysis pathways, which are essential to their growth. The altered mitochondria regulate the tumor microenvironment, which is also necessary for cancer evolution. Therefore, the MSCC could help improve our understanding of tumorigenesis, metastases, the efficiency of standard treatments, and relapses.

KRAS Mutation Detection with (2S,4R)-4-[18F]FGln for Noninvasive PDAC Diagnosis

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), which has a poor prognosis and nonspecific symptoms and progresses rapidly, is the most common pancreatic cancer type. Inhibitors targeting KRAS G12D and G12C mutations have been pivotal in PDAC treatment. Cancer cells with different KRAS mutations exhibit various degrees of glutamine dependency; in particular, cells with KRAS G12D mutations exhibit increased glutamine uptake. (2S,4R)-4-[18F]FGln has recently been developed for clinical cancer diagnosis and tumor cell metabolism analysis. Thus, we verified the heterogeneity of glutamine dependency in PDAC models with different KRAS mutations by a visual and noninvasive method with (2S,4R)-4-[18F]FGln. Two tumor-bearing mouse models (bearing the KRAS G12D or G12C mutation) were injected with (2S,4R)-4-[18F]FGln, and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging features and biodistribution were observed and analyzed. The SUVmax in the regions of interest (ROI) was significantly higher in PANC-1 (G12D) tumors than in MIA PaCa-2 (G12C) tumors. Biodistribution analysis revealed higher tumor accumulation of (2S,4R)-4-[18F]FGln and other metrics, such as T/M and T/B, in the PANC-1 mouse models compared to those in the MIAPaCa-2 mouse models. In conclusion, PDAC cells with the KRAS G12D and G12C mutations exhibit various degrees of (2S,4R)-4-[18F]FGln uptake, indicating that (2S,4R)-4-[18F]FGln might be applied to detect KRAS G12C and G12D mutations and provide treatment guidance.

Targeting the Warburg effect: A revisited perspective from molecular mechanisms to traditional and innovative therapeutic strategies in cancer

Cancer reprogramming is an important facilitator of cancer development and survival, with tumor cells exhibiting a preference for aerobic glycolysis beyond oxidative phosphorylation, even under sufficient oxygen supply condition. This metabolic alteration, known as the Warburg effect, serves as a significant indicator of malignant tumor transformation. The Warburg effect primarily impacts cancer occurrence by influencing the aerobic glycolysis pathway in cancer cells. Key enzymes involved in this process include glucose transporters (GLUTs), HKs, PFKs, LDHs, and PKM2. Moreover, the expression of transcriptional regulatory factors and proteins, such as FOXM1, p53, NF-κB, HIF1α, and c-Myc, can also influence cancer progression. Furthermore, lncRNAs, miRNAs, and circular RNAs play a vital role in directly regulating the Warburg effect. Additionally, gene mutations, tumor microenvironment remodeling, and immune system interactions are closely associated with the Warburg effect. Notably, the development of drugs targeting the Warburg effect has exhibited promising potential in tumor treatment. This comprehensive review presents novel directions and approaches for the early diagnosis and treatment of cancer patients by conducting in-depth research and summarizing the bright prospects of targeting the Warburg effect in cancer.

PaSTe. Blockade of the Lipid Phenotype of Prostate Cancer as Metabolic Therapy: A Theoretical Proposal

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy in 112 countries and is the leading cause of death in eighteen. In addition to continuing research on prevention and early diagnosis, improving treatments and making them more affordable is imperative. In this sense, the therapeutic repurposing of low-cost and widely available drugs could reduce global mortality from this disease. The malignant metabolic phenotype is becoming increasingly important due to its therapeutic implications. Cancer generally is characterized by hyperactivation of glycolysis, glutaminolysis, and fatty acid synthesis. However, prostate cancer is particularly lipidic; it exhibits increased activity in the pathways for synthesizing fatty acids, cholesterol, and fatty acid oxidation (FAO).

OBJECTIVE

Based on a literature review, we propose the PaSTe regimen (Pantoprazole, Simvastatin, Trimetazidine) as a metabolic therapy for prostate cancer. Pantoprazole and simvastatin inhibit the enzymes fatty acid synthase (FASN) and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl- coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR), therefore, blocking the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol, respectively. In contrast, trimetazidine inhibits the enzyme 3-β-Ketoacyl- CoA thiolase (3-KAT), an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of fatty acids (FAO). It is known that the pharmacological or genetic depletion of any of these enzymes has antitumor effects in prostatic cancer.

RESULTS

Based on this information, we hypothesize that the PaSTe regimen will have increased antitumor effects and may impede the metabolic reprogramming shift. Existing knowledge shows that enzyme inhibition occurs at molar concentrations achieved in plasma at standard doses of these drugs.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that this regimen deserves to be preclinically evaluated because of its clinical potential for the treatment of prostate cancer.

Evaluation of (2S,4S)-4-[18F]FEBGln as a Positron Emission Tomography Tracer for Tumor Imaging

Glutamine metabolism-related tracers have the potential to visualize numerous tumors because glutamine is the second largest source of energy for tumors. (2S,4S)-4-[18F]FEBGln was designed by introducing [18F]fluoroethoxy benzyl on carbon-4 of glutamine. The aim of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetic properties and tumor positron emission tomography (PET) imaging characteristics of (2S,4S)-4-[18F]FEBGln in detail. The biodistribution results of nude mice bearing MCF-7 tumor showed that (2S,4S)-4-[18F]FEBGln had high initial tumor uptake, and a fast clearance rate, resulting in a high tumor-to-muscle ratio at 30 min postinjection. There was no obvious defluorination in vivo. The micro-PET-CT imaging results of (2S,4S)-4-[18F]FEBGln orthotopic MCF-7 tumor-bearing nude mice were consistent with the biological distribution results. Compared with (2S,4R)-4-[18F]FGln, (2S,4S)-4-[18F]FEBGln showed poor tumor retention, but its clearance in normal tissues was also fast, so it had better PET image contrast than the former. Unlike poor retention in MCF-7-bearing nude mice, (2S,4S)-4-[18F]FEBGln has good retention in NCI-h1975 and 22Rv1 tumor models. Since (2S,4S)-4-[18F]FEBGln has low uptake in normal lungs and high uptake in the bladder, it is expected to be used in the accurate diagnosis of lung cancer but cannot accurately determine prostate cancer. Consistent with the advantages of radiolabeled amino acids in the application of brain tumors, (2S,4S)-4-[18F]FEBGln accurately diagnoses U87MG glioma with higher contrast than [18F]FET and [18F]FDG, and there is a correlation between (2S,4S)-4-[18F]FEBGln uptake and tumor growth cycle. Further kinetic model analysis showed that (2S,4S)-4-[18F]FEBGln was similar to (2S,4R)-4-[18F]FGln, conforming to the one-compartment model and the Logan graphical model, and was expected to assess the size of the glutamine pool of the tumor. Therefore, (2S,4S)-4-[18F]FEBGln is expected to provide a strong imaging basis for the diagnosis, formulation of personalized plans, and efficacy evaluation of glioma, lung cancer, and breast cancer.

Monitoring and modelling the glutamine metabolic pathway: a review and future perspectives

BACKGROUND

Analysis of the glutamine metabolic pathway has taken a special place in metabolomics research in recent years, given its important role in cell biosynthesis and bioenergetics across several disorders, especially in cancer cell survival. The science of metabolomics addresses the intricate intracellular metabolic network by exploring and understanding how cells function and respond to external or internal perturbations to identify potential therapeutic targets. However, despite recent advances in metabolomics, monitoring the kinetics of a metabolic pathway in a living cell in situ, real-time and holistically remains a significant challenge.

AIM

This review paper explores the range of analytical approaches for monitoring metabolic pathways, as well as physicochemical modeling techniques, with a focus on glutamine metabolism. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method and explore the potential of label-free Raman microspectroscopy, in conjunction with kinetic modeling, to enable real-time and in situ monitoring of the cellular kinetics of the glutamine metabolic pathway.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS

Given its important role in cell metabolism, the ability to monitor and model the glutamine metabolic pathways are highlighted. Novel, label free approaches have the potential to revolutionise metabolic biosensing, laying the foundation for a new paradigm in metabolomics research and addressing the challenges in monitoring metabolic pathways in living cells.

Adrenocortical Carcinoma (ACC) Cells Rewire Their Metabolism to Overcome Curcumin Antitumoral Effects Opening a Window of Opportunity to Improve Treatment

Extensive research suggests that curcumin interferes with multiple cell signaling pathways involved in cancer development and progression. This study aimed to evaluate curcumin effects on adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC), a rare but very aggressive tumor. Curcumin reduced growth, migration and activated apoptosis in three different ACC cell lines, H295R, SW13, MUC-1. This event was related to a decrease in estrogen-related receptor-α (ERRα) expression and cholesterol synthesis. More importantly, curcumin changed ACC cell metabolism, increasing glycolytic gene expression. However, pyruvate from glycolysis was only minimally used for lactate production and the Krebs cycle (TCA). In fact, lactate dehydrogenase, extracellular acidification rate (ECAR), TCA genes and oxygen consumption rate (OCR) were reduced. We instead found an increase in Glutamic-Pyruvic Transaminase (GPT), glutamine antiport transporter SLC1A5 and glutaminase (GLS1), supporting a metabolic rewiring toward glutamine metabolism. Targeting this mechanism, curcumin effects were improved. In fact, in a low glutamine-containing medium, the growth inhibitory effects elicited by curcumin were observed at a concentration ineffective in default growth medium. Data from this study prove the efficacy of curcumin against ACC growth and progression and point to the concomitant use of inhibitors for glutamine metabolism to improve its effects.

Glutamine Metabolism in Cancer Stem Cells: A Complex Liaison in the Tumor Microenvironment

In this review we focus on the role of glutamine in control of cancer stem cell (CSC) fate. We first provide an overview of glutamine metabolism, and then summarize relevant studies investigating how glutamine metabolism modulates the CSC compartment, concentrating on solid tumors. We schematically describe how glutamine in CSC contributes to several metabolic pathways, such as redox metabolic pathways, ATP production, non-essential aminoacids and nucleotides biosynthesis, and ammonia production. Furthermore, we show that glutamine metabolism is a key regulator of epigenetic modifications in CSC. Finally, we briefly discuss how cancer-associated fibroblasts, adipocytes, and senescent cells in the tumor microenvironment may indirectly influence CSC fate by modulating glutamine availability. We aim to highlight the complexity of glutamine's role in CSC, which supports our knowledge about metabolic heterogeneity within the CSC population.

Application of Metabolic Reprogramming to Cancer Imaging and Diagnosis

Cellular metabolism governs the signaling that supports physiological mechanisms and homeostasis in an individual, including neuronal transmission, wound healing, and circadian clock manipulation. Various factors have been linked to abnormal metabolic reprogramming, including gene mutations, epigenetic modifications, altered protein epitopes, and their involvement in the development of disease, including cancer. The presence of multiple distinct hallmarks and the resulting cellular reprogramming process have gradually revealed that these metabolism-related molecules may be able to be used to track or prevent the progression of cancer. Consequently, translational medicines have been developed using metabolic substrates, precursors, and other products depending on their biochemical mechanism of action. It is important to note that these metabolic analogs can also be used for imaging and therapeutic purposes in addition to competing for metabolic functions. In particular, due to their isotopic labeling, these compounds may also be used to localize and visualize tumor cells after uptake. In this review, the current development status, applicability, and limitations of compounds targeting metabolic reprogramming are described, as well as the imaging platforms that are most suitable for each compound and the types of cancer to which they are most appropriate.

Radiosynthesis, Preclinical, and Clinical Positron Emission Tomography Studies of Carbon-11 Labeled Endogenous and Natural Exogenous Compounds

The presence of positron emission tomography (PET) centers at most major hospitals worldwide, along with the improvement of PET scanner sensitivity and the introduction of total body PET systems, has increased the interest in the PET tracer development using the short-lived radionuclides carbon-11. In the last few decades, methodological improvements and fully automated modules have allowed the development of carbon-11 tracers for clinical use. Radiolabeling natural compounds with carbon-11 by substituting one of the backbone carbons with the radionuclide has provided important information on the biochemistry of the authentic compounds and increased the understanding of their in vivo behavior in healthy and diseased states. The number of endogenous and natural compounds essential for human life is staggering, ranging from simple alcohols to vitamins and peptides. This review collates all the carbon-11 radiolabeled endogenous and natural exogenous compounds synthesised to date, including essential information on their radiochemistry methodologies and preclinical and clinical studies in healthy subjects.

MRI measurement of alanine uptake in a mouse xenograft model of U-87 MG glioblastoma

The potential use of alanine as an MRI contrast agent was investigated. The relaxation properties of alanine solutions were measured at 9.4 T. The T₂ relaxivity caused by the chemical exchange (R_2ex) between amine protons and water protons was 0.10 mM^-1 s^-1 at 37 °C. As a demonstration, alanine uptake in a mouse xenograft model of U-87 MG glioblastoma was measured using MRI, and was compared with immunohistochemistry staining of ASCT2, a transporter that imports amino acids into cancer cells. Statistically significant (p = 0.0079) differences in ASCT2 distribution were found between regions that show strong and weak alanine uptake in MRI. To better understand the influence of perfusion, the effect of ASCT2 inhibition on the alanine uptake in MRI was investigated, and dynamic contrast enhanced MRI was compared with alanine MRI.

Hyperpolarized [5-13C,4,4-2H2,5-15N]-L-glutamine provides a means of annotating in vivo metabolic utilization of glutamine

Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in human plasma, although it is challenging to determine glutamine’s metabolic fate noninvasively. In this work, we utilize established chemical methods to develop a platform for imaging glutamine metabolism using hyperpolarized magnetic resonance imaging. Using this strategy, we are able to spatially measure glutaminolysis in vivo as well as develop a biomarker for the inhibition of glutaminase. Combining this biomarker with isotope tracing metabolomics connects this inhibition to reduced glutamine contribution to the tricarboxylic acid cycle. This provides an approach for future imaging of glutamine metabolism in humans.

Glutamine is consumed by rapidly proliferating cells and can provide the carbon and nitrogen required for growth through various metabolic pathways. However, delineating the metabolic fate of glutamine is challenging to interrogate in vivo. Hyperpolarized magnetic resonance, by providing high transient nuclear magnetic resonance signals, provides an approach to measure fast biochemical processes in vivo. Aminohydrolysis of glutamine at carbon-5 plays an important role in providing nitrogen and carbon for multiple pathways. Here, we provide a synthetic strategy for isotope-enriched forms of glutamine that prolongs glutamine-C5 relaxation times and thereby reveals in vivo reactions involving carbon-5. We investigate multiple enrichment states, finding [5-¹³C,4,4-²H₂,5-¹⁵N]-L-glutamine to be optimal for hyperpolarized measurement of glutamine conversion to glutamate in vivo. Leveraging this compound, we explore pancreatic cancer glutamine metabolism in vivo. Taken together, this work provides a means for studying glutamine metabolic flux in vivo and demonstrates on-target effects of metabolic enzyme inhibitors.

Metabolic response to radiation therapy in cancer

Tumor metabolism has emerged as a hallmark of cancer and is involved in carcinogenesis and tumor growth. Reprogramming of tumor metabolism is necessary for cancer cells to sustain high proliferation rates and enhanced demands for nutrients. Recent studies suggest that metabolic plasticity in cancer cells can decrease the efficacy of anticancer therapies by enhancing antioxidant defenses and DNA repair mechanisms. Studying radiation-induced metabolic changes will lead to a better understanding of radiation response mechanisms as well as the identification of new therapeutic targets, but there are few robust studies characterizing the metabolic changes induced by radiation therapy in cancer. In this review, we will highlight studies that provide information on the metabolic changes induced by radiation and oxidative stress in cancer cells and the associated underlying mechanisms.

Imaging the Rewired Metabolism in Lung Cancer in Relation to Immune Therapy

Metabolic reprogramming is recognized as one of the hallmarks of cancer. Alterations in the micro-environmental metabolic characteristics are recognized as important tools for cancer cells to interact with the resident and infiltrating T-cells within this tumor microenvironment. Cancer-induced metabolic changes in the micro-environment also affect treatment outcomes. In particular, immune therapy efficacy might be blunted because of somatic mutation-driven metabolic determinants of lung cancer such as acidity and oxygenation status. Based on these observations, new onco-immunological treatment strategies increasingly include drugs that interfere with metabolic pathways that consequently affect the composition of the lung cancer tumor microenvironment (TME). Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging has developed a wide array of tracers targeting metabolic pathways, originally intended to improve cancer detection and staging. Paralleling the developments in understanding metabolic reprogramming in cancer cells, as well as its effects on stromal, immune, and endothelial cells, a wave of studies with additional imaging tracers has been published. These tracers are yet underexploited in the perspective of immune therapy. In this review, we provide an overview of currently available PET tracers for clinical studies and discuss their potential roles in the development of effective immune therapeutic strategies, with a focus on lung cancer. We report on ongoing efforts that include PET/CT to understand the outcomes of interactions between cancer cells and T-cells in the lung cancer microenvironment, and we identify areas of research which are yet unchartered. Thereby, we aim to provide a starting point for molecular imaging driven studies to understand and exploit metabolic features of lung cancer to optimize immune therapy.

Petasin potently inhibits mitochondrial complex I-based metabolism that supports tumor growth and metastasis

Mitochondrial electron transport chain complex I (ETCC1) is the essential core of cancer metabolism, yet potent ETCC1 inhibitors capable of safely suppressing tumor growth and metastasis in vivo are limited. From a plant extract screening, we identified petasin (PT) as a highly potent ETCC1 inhibitor with a chemical structure distinct from conventional inhibitors. PT had at least 1700 times higher activity than that of metformin or phenformin and induced cytotoxicity against a broad spectrum of tumor types. PT administration also induced prominent growth inhibition in multiple syngeneic and xenograft mouse models in vivo. Despite its higher potency, it showed no apparent toxicity toward nontumor cells and normal organs. Also, treatment with PT attenuated cellular motility and focal adhesion in vitro as well as lung metastasis in vivo. Metabolome and proteome analyses revealed that PT severely depleted the level of aspartate, disrupted tumor-associated metabolism of nucleotide synthesis and glycosylation, and downregulated major oncoproteins associated with proliferation and metastasis. These findings indicate the promising potential of PT as a potent ETCC1 inhibitor to target the metabolic vulnerability of tumor cells.

Glutamine Modulates Expression and Function of Glucose 6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase via NRF2 in Colon Cancer Cells

Nucleotide pools need to be constantly replenished in cancer cells to support cell proliferation. The synthesis of nucleotides requires glutamine and 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate produced from ribose-5-phosphate via the oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway (ox-PPP). Both PPP and glutamine also play a key role in maintaining the redox status of cancer cells. Enhanced glutamine metabolism and increased glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) expression have been related to a malignant phenotype in tumors. However, the association between G6PD overexpression and glutamine consumption in cancer cell proliferation is still incompletely understood. In this study, we demonstrated that both inhibition of G6PD and glutamine deprivation decrease the proliferation of colon cancer cells and induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Moreover, we unveiled that glutamine deprivation induce an increase of G6PD expression that is mediated through the activation of the nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (NRF2). This crosstalk between G6PD and glutamine points out the potential of combined therapies targeting oxidative PPP enzymes and glutamine catabolism to combat colon cancer.

Glutamine metabolism: from proliferating cells to cardiomyocytes

Glutamine is a major energy source for rapidly dividing cells, such as hematopoietic stem cells and cancer cells. Reliance on glutamine is therefore regarded as a metabolic hallmark of proliferating cells. Moreover, reprogramming glutamine metabolism by various factors, including tissue type, microenvironment, pro-oncogenes, and tumor suppressor genes, can facilitate stem cell fate decisions, tumor recurrence, and drug resistance. However, the significance of glutamine metabolism in cardiomyocytes, an end-differentiated cell type, is not fully understood. Existing evidence suggests important roles of glutamine metabolism in the development of cardiovascular diseases. In this review, we have focused on glutaminolysis and its regulatory network in proliferating cells. We have summarized current findings about the role of glutamine utilization in cardiomyocytes and have discussed possibilities of targeting glutamine metabolism for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.

Fueling influenza and the immune response: Implications for metabolic reprogramming during influenza infection and immunometabolism

Recent studies support the notion that glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation are rheostats in immune cells whose bioenergetics have functional outputs in terms of their biology. Specific intrinsic and extrinsic molecular factors function as molecular potentiometers to adjust and control glycolytic to respiratory power output. In many cases, these potentiometers are used by influenza viruses and immune cells to support pathogenesis and the host immune response, respectively. Influenza virus infects the respiratory tract, providing a specific environmental niche, while immune cells encounter variable nutrient concentrations as they migrate in response to infection. Immune cell subsets have distinct metabolic programs that adjust to meet energetic and biosynthetic requirements to support effector functions, differentiation, and longevity in their ever-changing microenvironments. This review details how influenza coopts the host cell for metabolic reprogramming and describes the overlap of these regulatory controls in immune cells whose function and fate are dictated by metabolism. These details are contextualized with emerging evidence of the consequences of influenza-induced changes in metabolic homeostasis on disease progression.

Intracellular glutamine level determines vascular smooth muscle cell-derived thrombogenicity

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The everolimus-eluting stent (EES), one of the effective stents for in-stent restenosis (ISR), has a lower incidence of stent thrombosis; however, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. This study aimed to identify the effects of everolimus on vascular metabolism and thrombogenicity and examine their mechanistic link.

METHODS

EESs and bare-metal stents were implanted in rabbit iliac arteries with smooth muscle cell (SMC)-rich neointima induced by endothelial denudation. Four weeks after stent implantation, the stented arteries were examined for histological analysis and metabolomics. Additionally, everolimus effects in coronary artery SMCs metabolism, tissue factor (TF) expression, and procoagulant activity were assessed in vitro.

RESULTS

EES-implanted arteries showed decreased neointima formation, less SMCs infiltration, and reduced TF expression. Concomitantly, they were metabolically characterized by increased levels of metabolites in amino acids, such as glutamine. Similarly, everolimus increased intracellular glutamine levels, decreased TF expression, and reduced procoagulant activity in SMCs in vitro. On the contrary, exogenous glutamine administration also increased intracellular glutamine level, decreased TF expression, and reduced procoagulant activity despite enhanced mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Intracellular glutamine level is likely to determine vascular SMC-related thrombogenicity regardless of mTOR pathway activity. Therefore, increased intracellular glutamine level might contribute partially to the beneficial effect of EES use on stent thrombosis.

Glutamine Metabolism in Cancer

Metabolism is a fundamental process for all cellular functions. For decades, there has been growing evidence of a relationship between metabolism and malignant cell proliferation. Unlike normal differentiated cells, cancer cells have reprogrammed metabolism in order to fulfill their energy requirements. These cells display crucial modifications in many metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis and glutaminolysis, which include the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, the electron transport chain (ETC), and the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) [1]. Since the discovery of the Warburg effect, it has been shown that the metabolism of cancer cells plays a critical role in cancer survival and growth. More recent research suggests that the involvement of glutamine in cancer metabolism is more significant than previously thought. Glutamine, a nonessential amino acid with both amine and amide functional groups, is the most abundant amino acid circulating in the bloodstream [2]. This chapter discusses the characteristic features of glutamine metabolism in cancers and the therapeutic options to target glutamine metabolism for cancer treatment.

First-in-Human PET Imaging and Estimated Radiation Dosimetry of l-[5-11C]-Glutamine in Patients with Metastatic Colorectal Cancer

Altered metabolism is a hallmark of cancer. In addition to glucose, glutamine is an important nutrient for cellular growth and proliferation. Noninvasive imaging via PET may help facilitate precision treatment of cancer through patient selection and monitoring of treatment response. l-[5-¹¹C]-glutamine (¹¹C-glutamine) is a PET tracer designed to study glutamine uptake and metabolism. The aim of this first-in-human study was to evaluate the radiologic safety and biodistribution of ¹¹C-glutamine for oncologic PET imaging. Methods: Nine patients with confirmed metastatic colorectal cancer underwent PET/CT imaging. Patients received 337.97 ± 44.08 MBq of ¹¹C-glutamine. Dynamic PET acquisitions that were centered over the abdomen or thorax were initiated simultaneously with intravenous tracer administration. After the dynamic acquisition, a whole-body PET/CT scan was acquired. Volume-of-interest analyses were performed to obtain estimates of organ-based absorbed doses of radiation. Results: ¹¹C-glutamine was well tolerated in all patients, with no observed safety concerns. The organs with the highest radiation exposure included the bladder, pancreas, and liver. The estimated effective dose was 4.46E-03 ± 7.67E-04 mSv/MBq. Accumulation of ¹¹C-glutamine was elevated and visualized in lung, brain, bone, and liver metastases, suggesting utility for cancer imaging. Conclusion: PET using ¹¹C-glutamine appears safe for human use and allows noninvasive visualization of metastatic colon cancer lesions in multiple organs. Further studies are needed to elucidate its potential for other cancers and for monitoring response to treatment.

Glutamine deficiency promotes stemness and chemoresistance in tumor cells through DRP1-induced mitochondrial fragmentation

Glutamine is essential for maintaining the TCA cycle in cancer cells yet they undergo glutamine starvation in the core of tumors. Cancer stem cells (CSCs), responsible for tumor recurrence are often found in the nutrient limiting cores. Our study uncovers the molecular basis and cellular links between glutamine deprivation and stemness in the cancer cells. We showed that glutamine is dispensable for the survival of ovarian and colon cancer cells while it is required for their proliferation. Glutamine starvation leads to the metabolic reprogramming in tumor cells with enhanced glycolysis and unaltered oxidative phosphorylation. Production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in glutamine limiting condition induces MAPK-ERK1/2 signaling pathway to phosphorylate dynamin-related protein-1(DRP1) at Ser616. Moreover, p-DRP1 promotes mitochondrial fragmentation and enhances numbers of CD44 and CD117/CD45 positive CSCs. Besides the established features of cancer stem cells, glutamine deprivation induces perinuclear localization of fragmented mitochondria and reduction in proliferation rate which are usually observed in CSCs. Treatment with glutaminase inhibitor (L-DON) mimics the effects of glutamine starvation without altering cell survival in in vitro as well as in in vivo model. Interestingly, the combinatorial treatment of L-DON with DRP1 inhibitor (MDiVi-1) reduces the stem cell population in tumor tissue in mouse model. Collectively our data suggest that glutamine deficiency in the core of tumors can increase the cancer stem cell population and the combination therapy with MDiVi-1 and L-DON is a useful approach to reduce CSCs population in tumor.

Imaging of Actively Proliferating Bacterial Infections by Targeting the Bacterial Metabolic Footprint with d-[5-11C]-Glutamine

Since most d-amino acids (DAAs) are utilized by bacterial cells but not by mammalian eukaryotic hosts, recently DAA-based molecular imaging strategies have been extensively explored for noninvasively differentiating bacterial infections from the host's inflammatory responses. Given glutamine's pivotal role in bacterial survival, cell growth, biofilm formation, and even virulence, here we report a new positron emission tomography (PET) imaging approach using d-5-[11C]glutamine (d-[5-11C]-Gln) for potential clinical assessment of bacterial infection through a comparative study with its l-isomer counterpart, l-[5-11C]-Gln. In both control and infected mice, l-[5-11C]-Gln had substantially higher uptake levels than d-[5-11C]-Gln in most organs except the kidneys, showing the expected higher use of l-[5-11C]-Gln by mammalian tissues and more efficient renal excretion of d-[5-11C]-Gln. Importantly, our work demonstrates that PET imaging with d-[5-11C]-Gln is capable of detecting infections induced by both Escherichia coli (E. coli) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in a dual-infection murine myositis model with significantly higher infection-to-background contrast than with l-[5-11C]-Gln (in E. coli, 1.64; in MRSA, 2.62, p = 0.0004). This can be attributed to the fact that d-[5-11C]-Gln is utilized by bacteria while being more efficiently cleared from the host tissues. We confirmed the bacterial infection imaging specificity of d-[5-11C]-Gln by comparing its uptake in active bacterial infections versus sterile inflammation and with 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluoroglucose ([18F]FDG). These results together demonstrate the translational potential of PET imaging with d-[5-11C]-Gln for the noninvasive detection of bacterial infectious diseases in humans.

SOX1 Is a Backup Gene for Brain Neurons and Glioma Stem Cell Protection and Proliferation

Failed neuroprotection leads to the initiation of several diseases. SOX1 plays many roles in embryogenesis, oncogenesis, and male sex determination, and can promote glioma stem cell proliferation, invasion, and migration due to its high expression in glioblastoma cells. The functional versatility of the SOX1 gene in malignancy, epilepsy, and Parkinson's disease, as well as its adverse effects on dopaminergic neurons, makes it an interesting research focus. Hence, we collate the most important discoveries relating to the neuroprotective effects of SOX1 in brain cancer and propose hypothesis worthy of SOX1's role in the survival of senescent neuronal cells, its roles in fibroblast cell proliferation, and cell fat for neuroprotection, and the discharge of electrical impulses for homeostasis. Increase in electrical impulses transmitted by senescent cells affects the synthesis of neurotransmitters, which will modify the brain cell metabolism and microenvironment.

Cancer Cell Metabolites: Updates on Current Tracing Methods

Cancer is the second leading cause of death-1 in 6 deaths globally is due to cancer. Cancer metabolism is a complex and one of the most actively researched area in cancer biology. Metabolic reprogramming in cancer cells entails activities that involve several enzymes and metabolites to convert nutrient into building blocks that alter energy metabolism to fuel rapid cell division. Metabolic dependencies in cancer generate signature metabolites that have key regulatory roles in tumorigenesis. In this minireview, we highlight recent advances in the popular methods ingrained in biochemistry research such as stable and flux isotope analysis, as well as radioisotope labeling, which are valuable in elucidating cancer metabolites. These methods together with analytical tools such as chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectrometry have helped to bring about exploratory work in understanding the role of important as well as obscure metabolites in cancer cells. Information obtained from these analyses significantly contribute in the diagnosis and prognosis of tumors leading to potential therapeutic targets for cancer therapy.

A powerful drug combination strategy targeting glutamine addiction for the treatment of human liver cancer

The dependency of cancer cells on glutamine may be exploited therapeutically as a new strategy for treating cancers that lack druggable driver genes. Here we found that human liver cancer was dependent on extracellular glutamine. However, targeting glutamine addiction using the glutaminase inhibitor CB-839 as monotherapy had a very limited anticancer effect, even against the most glutamine addicted human liver cancer cells. Using a chemical library, we identified V-9302, a novel inhibitor of glutamine transporter ASCT2, as sensitizing glutamine dependent (GD) cells to CB-839 treatment. Mechanically, a combination of CB-839 and V-9302 depleted glutathione and induced reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in apoptosis of GD cells. Moreover, this combination also showed tumor inhibition in HCC xenograft mouse models in vivo. Our findings indicate that dual inhibition of glutamine metabolism by targeting both glutaminase and glutamine transporter ASCT2 represents a potential novel treatment strategy for glutamine addicted liver cancers.

Take Advantage of Glutamine Anaplerosis, the Kernel of the Metabolic Rewiring in Malignant Gliomas

Glutamine is a non-essential amino acid that plays a key role in the metabolism of proliferating cells including neoplastic cells. In the central nervous system (CNS), glutamine metabolism is particularly relevant, because the glutamine-glutamate cycle is a way of controlling the production of glutamate-derived neurotransmitters by tightly regulating the bioavailability of the amino acids in a neuron-astrocyte metabolic symbiosis-dependent manner. Glutamine-related metabolic adjustments have been reported in several CNS malignancies including malignant gliomas that are considered ‘glutamine addicted’. In these tumors, glutamine becomes an essential amino acid preferentially used in energy and biomass production including glutathione (GSH) generation, which is crucial in oxidative stress control. Therefore, in this review, we will highlight the metabolic remodeling that gliomas undergo, focusing on glutamine metabolism. We will address some therapeutic regimens including novel research attempts to target glutamine metabolism and a brief update of diagnosis strategies that take advantage of this altered profile. A better understanding of malignant glioma cell metabolism will help in the identification of new molecular targets and the design of new therapies.

Metabolic Signaling Cascades Prompted by Glutaminolysis in Cancer

Simple Summary

Within the last few years, accumulating evidences suggest the involvement of altered metabolisms in human diseases including cancer. Metabolism is defined as the sum of biochemical processes in living organisms that produce and consume energy. Tumor growth requires restructuring of cellular metabolism to meet the increasing demand for building blocks to support the ever-increasing cancer cell numbers. The principle of perturbed metabolism in tumors is known for 50–60 years, it regains greater appreciation within the last few years with the realization that there is interdependency between metabolism and all aspects of cellular function including regulation and control of cell growth. Tumor cells do not need stimulation signals from the surrounding environment to promote cell proliferation; in some cases, the tumor cells can generate their own growth signals. In order to support the continuous tumor cell growth even under stressful conditions, a change in metabolism is necessary to fulfill the continuous demand for energy and building blocks. A better understanding of the relationship between tumor environment and altered cell metabolisms will provide valuable insights to design innovative approaches to limit the supply of energy and macromolecules for the treatment of cancer including melanoma.

Abstract

Aberrant glutamatergic signaling has been implicated in altered metabolic activity and the demand to synthesize biomass in several types of cancer including melanoma. In the last decade, there has been a significant contribution to our understanding of metabolic pathways. An increasing number of studies are now emphasizing the importance of glutamate functioning as a signaling molecule and a building block for cancer progression. To that end, our group has previously illustrated the role of glutamatergic signaling mediated by metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (GRM1) in neoplastic transformation of melanocytes in vitro and spontaneous development of metastatic melanoma in vivo. Glutamate, the natural ligand of GRM1, is one of the most abundant amino acids in humans and the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Elevated levels of glutaminolytic mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates, especially glutamate, have been reported in numerous cancer cells. Herein, we highlight and critically review metabolic bottlenecks that are prevalent during tumor evolution along with therapeutic implications of limiting glutamate bioavailability in tumors.

Glutamine-β-cyclodextrin for targeted doxorubicin delivery to triple-negative breast cancer tumors via the transporter ASCT2

Chemotherapy is the primary therapy for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and the tumor-targeted delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs is necessary to minimize their side effects on normal tissues. TNBC cells display addictions to glutamine in culture, and the levels of the glutamine transporter, alanine-serine-cysteine transporter 2 (ASCT2), are elevated in many types of cancer. However, glutamine- or ASCT2-based carriers have not been used in tumor-targeted drug delivery. In this study, a novel derivative of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD), glutamine-β-cyclodextrin (GLN-CD), was developed by conjugating glutamine with the 6-hydroxy of β-CD, and GLN-CD was then used to prepare doxorubicin (DOX) inclusion complexes (DOX@GLN-CD) for TNBC treatment. GLN-CD and glutamine have similar ASCT2-binding sites, and GLN-CD has the potential to enter cells through ASCT2-dependent facilitated diffusion. An increase in the degree of substitution did not promote binding between GLN-CD and ASCT2. GLN-CD and DOX formed inclusion complexes at a molar ratio of 1 : 1. DOX@GLN-CD specifically accumulated in TNBC cells, including MDA-MB-231 and BT549 cells, where it subsequently induced G2/M blockade and apoptosis, but hardly affected nontumorigenic MCF10A cells. l-γ-Glutamyl-p-nitroanilide (GPNA), which is a specific inhibitor of ASCT2, antagonistically decreased the cellular uptake of DOX@GLN-CD by TNBC cells, which further confirmed the role of ASCT2 in DOX@GLN-CD transport. In vivo, DOX@GLN-CD accumulated specifically in tumors, achieved improved outcomes and minimized the toxic effects on main organs at the same dose as DOX. As a novel derivative of β-CD, GLN-CD is an effective carrier that can specifically deliver DOX to TNBC cells via targeting ASCT2 and minimize its uptake by normal cells.

Initial evaluation of (4S)-4-(3-[18F]fluoropropyl)-L-glutamate (FSPG) PET/CT imaging in patients with head and neck cancer, colorectal cancer, or non-Hodgkin lymphoma

Purpose

(4S)-4-(3-[¹⁸F]Fluoropropyl)-l-glutamic acid ([¹⁸F]FSPG) measures system x_C⁻ transporter activity and shows promise for oncologic imaging. We present data on tumor uptake of this radiopharmaceutical in human subjects with head and neck cancer (HNC), colorectal cancer (CRC), and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL).

Methods

A total of 15 subjects with HNC (n = 5), CRC (n = 5), or NHL (n = 5) were recruited (mean age 66.2 years, range 44–87 years). 301.4 ± 28.1 MBq (8.1 ± 0.8 mCi) of [¹⁸F]FSPG was given intravenously to each subject, and 3 PET/CT scans were obtained 0–2 h post-injection. All subjects also had a positive [¹⁸F]FDG PET/CT scan within 1 month prior to the [¹⁸F]FSPG PET scan. Semi-quantitative and visual comparisons of the [¹⁸F]FSPG and [¹⁸F]FDG scans were performed.

Results

[¹⁸F]FSPG showed strong uptake in all but one HNC subject. The lack of surrounding brain uptake facilitated tumor delineation in the HNC patients. [¹⁸F]FSPG also showed tumor uptake in all CRC subjects, but variable uptake in the NHL subjects. While the absolute [¹⁸F]FDG SUV values were comparable or higher than [¹⁸F]FSPG, the tumor-to-background SUV ratios were greater with [¹⁸F]FSPG than [¹⁸F]FDG.

Conclusions

[¹⁸F]FSPG PET/CT showed promising results across 15 subjects with 3 different cancer types. Concordant visualization was mostly observed between [¹⁸F]FSPG and [¹⁸F]FDG PET/CT images, with some inter- and intra-individual uptake variability potentially reflecting differences in tumor biology. The tumor-to-background ratios were greater with [¹⁸F]FSPG than [¹⁸F]FDG in the cancer types evaluated. Future studies based on larger numbers of subjects and those with a wider array of primary and recurrent or metastatic tumors are planned to further evaluate the utility of this novel tracer.

Influence of glycosphingolipids on cancer cell energy metabolism

A growing number of studies describe a connection between glycosphingolipids (GSLs) and glutamine metabolism, glucose metabolism and mitochondrial dysfunction in cancer cells. Since deregulated cell energy metabolism is one of cancer cells hallmarks, investigating this connection is an important step in the development of anti-cancer therapies. GSL species are often aberrantly regulated in human cancers. They cluster in signaling platforms in the plasma membrane and organelle membranes in so called glycosphingolipid enriched microdomains (GEMs), thereby regulating cell signaling pathways. The most important glutamine transporter for epithelial cells, alanine-serine-cysteine transporter 2 (ASCT2) locates in GEMs and is regulated by GEM composition. The accumulation of glucosylceramide and lactosylceramide in mitochondria associated ER membranes (MAMs) leads to increased oxidative phosphorylation. This increases mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and influences mitochondrial dynamics. Here, we review current knowledge about deregulated GSL species in cancer, GSL influence on glutamine and glucose metabolism. In addition, the role of GSLs in MAMs, oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and mitochondrial dynamics with a special focus on mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling is discussed. mTOR seems to play a pivotal role in the connection between GSLs and glutamine metabolism as well as in mitochondrial signaling.

(2S,4R)-4-[18F]Fluoroglutamine as a PET Indicator for Bone Marrow Metabolism Dysfunctional: from Animal Experiments to Clinical Application

PURPOSE

Previous reports confirmed that (2S,4R)-4-[¹⁸F]Fluoroglutamine ([¹⁸F]GLN) accumulated in bone and bone marrow. This study investigates the potential of using [¹⁸F]GLN positron emission tomography (PET) to monitor changes of bone marrow activity after chemotherapy (myelosuppression).

PROCEDURES

Bone marrow inhibition model in mice was induced by an intravenous injection of chemotherapy drug (doxorubicin or rituximab) and the inhibition was confirmed by routine blood cell counts. Bone uptakes of these four radiotracers (2-deoxy-2-[¹⁸F]fluoro-D-glucose, [¹⁸F]GLN, 3'-dexoy-3'-[¹⁸F]fluorothymidine ([¹⁸F]FLT), and sodium [¹⁸F]fluoride) in the mice were measured after i.v. injection and dissection of femur and tibia, and the uptakes in bone-only (BO) and bone marrow (BM) were obtained after separating bone from bone marrow. Additionally, six volunteers were recruited and evaluated with [¹⁸F]GLN. The PET-/CT-guided volumes of interests (VOI) in cervical, thoracic, lumbar vertebra, and skull cortical bone were defined as bone marrow or bone for evaluation, respectively.

RESULTS

[¹⁸F]GLN showed a relatively high bone marrow uptake in mice (up to 9.5 ± 1.3 % ID/g) at 1 h after injection, which was 2.1 times that of [¹⁸F]FLT. The [¹⁸F]GLN uptakes in the bone marrow were substantially inhibited by chemotherapy drug. The decrease of [¹⁸F]GLN's bone marrow uptake was consistent with the reduction of white blood cells (myelosuppression). For [¹⁸F]GLN/PET imaging in humans, the SUV_mean value of bone marrow (1 h after i.v. injection) was between 3.1 and 3.6 in the healthy volunteers (n = 3), and between 1.8 and 2.2 (n = 3) (P < 0.001) in myelosuppression patients, showing a clear reduction of bone marrow uptake.

CONCLUSIONS

Dissection experiments in mice showed that [¹⁸F]GLN displayed relatively high bone marrow uptake, and the uptake was sensitive to bone marrow inhibition induced by doxorubicin/rituximab. The same conclusion was confirmed [¹⁸F]GLN/PET imaging in humans. Therefore, [¹⁸F]GLN/PET imaging may be a useful tool to assess reduction of bone marrow activity in cancer patients, who may be at risk of myelosuppression after chemotherapy.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Approved by Institutional Review Board of Peking University Cancer Hospital (No. 2017KT38). Registered 18 August 2017.

Metabolic Evaluation of MYCN-Amplified Neuroblastoma by 4-[18F]FGln PET Imaging

PURPOSE

This study aims to explore whether 4-(2S,4R)-[¹⁸F]fluoroglutamine (4-[¹⁸F]FGln) positron emission tomography (PET) imaging is helpful in identifying and monitoring MYCN-amplified neuroblastoma by enhanced glutamine metabolism.

PROCEDURES

Cell uptake studies and dynamic small-animal PET studies of 4-[¹⁸F]FGln and 2-deoxy-2-[¹⁸F]fluoro-D-glucose ([¹⁸F]FDG) were conducted in human MYCN-amplified (IMR-32 and SK-N-BE (2) cells) and non-MYCN-amplified (SH-SY5Y cell) neuroblastoma cells and animal models. Subsequently, short hairpin RNA (shRNA) knockdown of alanine-serine-cysteine transporter 2 (ASCT2/SLC1A5) in IMR-32 cells and xenografts were investigated in vitro and in vivo. Western blot (WB), real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and immunofluorescence (IF) assays were used to measure the prevalence of ASCT2, Ki-67, and c-Caspase 3, respectively.

RESULTS

IMR-32 and SK-N-BE (2) cells showed high glutamine uptake in vitro (31.6 ± 1.7 and 21.6 ± 6.6 %ID/100 μg). In the in vivo study, 4-[¹⁸F]FGln was localized in IMR-32, SK-N-BE (2), and SH-SY5Y tumors with a high uptake (6.6 ± 0.3, 5.6 ± 0.2, and 3.7 ± 0.1 %ID/g). The maximum uptake (tumor-to-muscle, T/M) of the IMR-32 and SK-N-BE (2) tumors (3.71 and 2.63) was significantly higher than that of SH-SY5Y (1.54) tumors (P < 0.001, P < 0.001). The maximum uptake of 4-[¹⁸F]FGln in IMR-32 and SK-N-BE (2) tumors was 2.3-fold and 2.1-fold higher than that of [¹⁸F]FDG, respectively. Furthermore, in the in vitro and in vivo studies, the maximum uptake of 4-[¹⁸F]FGln in shASCT2-IMR-32 cells and tumors was 2.1-fold and 2.5-fold lower than that of the shControl-IMR-32. No significant difference in [¹⁸F]FDG uptake was found between shASCT2-IMR-32 and shControl-IMR-32 cells and tumors.

CONCLUSION

4-[¹⁸F]FGln PET can provide a valuable clinical tool in the assessment of metabolic glutamine uptake in MYCN-amplified neuroblastoma. ASCT2-targeted therapy may provide a supplementary method in MYCN-amplified neuroblastoma treatment.

CD38 is involved in cell energy metabolism via activating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in cervical cancer cells

In contrast to normal cells, cancer cells typically undergo metabolic reprogramming. Studies have shown that oncogenes play an important role in this metabolic reprogramming. CD38 is a multifunctional transmembrane protein that is expressed abnormally in a variety of tumor types. To investigate the effect and possible mechanism of CD38 in cervical cancer cells and to provide a new therapeutic target for the treatment of cervical cancer, the present study identified that CD38 is involved in regulating cell metabolism in cervical cancer cells. Liquid chromatography‑tandem mass spectrometry and bioinformatic analyses revealed that differentially abundant proteins in CD38‑overexpressed cervical cancer cells (CaSki‑CD38 and HeLa‑CD38) are predominantly involved in glycolytic pathways, oxidative phosphorylation and the NAD/NADH metabolic process. Further experiments using an ATP test kit and lactate test kit revealed that CD38 promotes glucose consumption, increases lactate accumulation and increases ATP production. In addition, CD38 increases the phosphorylation of phosphatidylserine/threonine kinase (AKT), mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and phosphatidylinositol‑4,5‑bisphosphate 3‑kinase (PI3K), which play a key role in tumor metabolism. Furthermore, it was found that the energy metabolism of cervical cancer cells was inhibited following treatment with the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin. In conclusion, the results of the present study suggested that CD38 regulates the metabolism of cervical cancer cells by regulating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, which may be a candidate target for the treatment of cervical cancer.

Biomarker selection and imaging design in cancer: A link with biochemical pathways for imminent engineering

Malignant cells reprogram metabolic pathways to meet the demands of growth and proliferation. These altered manners of metabolism are now identified as hallmarks of cancer. Studies have revealed tumor cells alter specific pathways such as glycolysis, fatty acid synthesis and amino acid synthesis to support their proliferation. In this review, we provide a theoretical framework to understand metabolic reprogramming and the mechanisms accompanying distorted metabolism to tumor progression. How these alterations will be assisting in cancer diagnostics and advances in standard techniques in marker identification and imagining are also discussed.

Design, synthesis and evaluation of a novel glutamine derivative (2S,4R)-2-amino-4-cyano-4-[18F]fluorobutanoic acid

A new glutamine derivative (2S,4R)-2-amino-4-cyano-4-[¹⁸F]fluorobutanoic acid (2S,4R)-4-[¹⁸F]FCABA ([18F]1) and its labeled precursor can be converted into (2S,4R)-4-[¹⁸F]FGln and (2S,4R)4-[¹⁸F]FGlu by changing the labeling conditions.

Glutamine Metabolism in Brain Tumors

Altered metabolism is a hallmark of cancer cells. Tumor cells rewire their metabolism to support their uncontrolled proliferation by taking up nutrients from the microenvironment. The amino acid glutamine is a key nutrient that fuels biosynthetic processes including ATP generation, redox homeostasis, nucleotide, protein, and lipid synthesis. Glutamine as a precursor for the neurotransmitter glutamate, and plays a critical role in the normal functioning of the brain. Brain tumors that grow in this glutamine/glutamate rich microenvironment can make synaptic connections with glutamatergic neurons and reprogram glutamine metabolism to enable their growth. In this review, we examine the functions of glutamate/glutamine in the brain and how brain tumor cells reprogram glutamine metabolism. Altered glutamine metabolism can be leveraged to develop non-invasive imaging strategies and we review these imaging modalities. Finally, we examine if targeting glutamine metabolism could serve as a therapeutic strategy in brain tumors.

The Role of Metabolic Plasticity in Blood and Brain Stem Cell Pathophysiology

Our understanding of intratumoral heterogeneity in cancer continues to evolve, with current models incorporating single-cell signatures to explore cell-cell interactions and differentiation state. The transition between stem and differentiation states in nonneoplastic cells requires metabolic plasticity, and this plasticity is increasingly recognized to play a central role in cancer biology. The insights from hematopoietic and neural stem cell differentiation pathways were used to identify cancer stem cells in leukemia and gliomas. Similarly, defining metabolic heterogeneity and fuel-switching signals in nonneoplastic stem cells may also give important insights into the corresponding molecular mechanisms controlling metabolic plasticity in cancer. These advances are important, because metabolic adaptation to anticancer therapeutics is rooted in this inherent metabolic plasticity and is a therapeutic challenge to be overcome.

Warburg and Krebs and related effects in cancer

Warburg and coworkers' observation of altered glucose metabolism in tumours has been neglected for several decades, which, in part, was because of an initial misinterpretation of the basis of their finding. Following the realisation that genetic alterations are often linked to metabolism, and that the tumour micro-environment imposes different demands on cancer cells, has led to a reinvestigation of cancer metabolism in recent years. Increasing our understanding of the drivers and consequences of the Warburg effect in cancer and beyond will help to identify new therapeutic strategies as well as to identify new prognostic and therapeutic biomarkers. Here we discuss the initial findings of Warburg and coworkers regarding cancer cell glucose metabolism, how these studies came into focus again in recent years following the discovery of metabolic oncogenes, and the therapeutic potential that lies within targeting the altered metabolic phenotype in cancer. In addition, another essential nutrient in cancer metabolism, glutamine, will be discussed.

We're Not "DON" Yet: Optimal Dosing and Prodrug Delivery of 6-Diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine

The broadly active glutamine antagonist 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine (DON) has been studied for 60 years as a potential anticancer therapeutic. Clinical studies of DON in the 1950s using low daily doses suggested antitumor activity, but later phase I and II trials of DON given intermittently at high doses were hampered by dose-limiting nausea and vomiting. Further clinical development of DON was abandoned. Recently, the recognition that multiple tumor types are glutamine-dependent has renewed interest in metabolic inhibitors such as DON. Here, we describe the prior experience with DON in humans. Evaluation of past studies suggests that the major impediments to successful clinical use included unacceptable gastrointestinal (GI) toxicities, inappropriate dosing schedules for a metabolic inhibitor, and lack of targeted patient selection. To circumvent GI toxicity, prodrug strategies for DON have been developed to enhance delivery of active compound to tumor tissues, including the CNS. When these prodrugs are administered in a low daily dosing regimen, appropriate for metabolic inhibition, they are robustly effective without significant toxicity. Patients whose tumors have genetic, metabolic, or imaging biomarker evidence of glutamine dependence should be prioritized as candidates for future clinical evaluations of novel DON prodrugs, given either as monotherapy or in rationally directed pharmacologic combinations. Mol Cancer Ther; 17(9); 1824-32. ©2018 AACR.

The Pleiotropic Effects of Glutamine Metabolism in Cancer

Metabolic programs are known to be altered in cancers arising from various tissues. Malignant transformation can alter signaling pathways related to metabolism and increase the demand for both energy and biomass for the proliferating cancerous cells. This scenario is further complexed by the crosstalk between transformed cells and the microenvironment. One of the most common metabolic alterations, which occurs in many tissues and in the context of multiple oncogenic drivers, is the increased demand for the amino acid glutamine. Many studies have attributed this increased demand for glutamine to the carbon backbone and its role in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle anaplerosis. However, an increasing number of studies are now emphasizing the importance of glutamine functioning as a proteogenic building block, a nitrogen donor and carrier, an exchanger for import of other amino acids, and a signaling molecule. Herein, we highlight the recent literature on glutamine’s versatile role in cancer, with a focus on nitrogen metabolism, and therapeutic implications of glutamine metabolism in cancer.

Can Metabolic Pathways Be Therapeutic Targets in Rheumatoid Arthritis?

The metabolic rewiring of tumor cells and immune cells has been viewed as a promising source of novel drug targets. Many of the molecular pathways implicated in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) directly modify synovium metabolism and transform the resident cells, such as the fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS), and the synovial tissue macrophages (STM), toward an overproduction of enzymes, which degrade cartilage and bone, and cytokines, which promote immune cell infiltration. Recent studies have shown metabolic changes in stromal and immune cells from RA patients. Metabolic disruption in the synovium provide the opportunity to use in vivo metabolism-based imaging techniques for patient stratification and to monitor treatment response. In addition, these metabolic changes may be therapeutically targetable. Thus, resetting metabolism of the synovial membrane offers additional opportunities for disease modulation and restoration of homeostasis in RA. In fact, rheumatologists already use the antimetabolite methotrexate, a chemotherapy agent, for the treatment of patients with inflammatory arthritis. Metabolic targets that do not compromise systemic homeostasis or corresponding metabolic functions in normal cells could increase the drug armamentarium in rheumatic diseases for combination therapy independent of systemic immunosuppression. This article summarizes what is known about metabolism in synovial tissue cells and highlights chemotherapies that target metabolism as potential future therapeutic strategies for RA.

Initial experience in synthesis of (2S,4R)-4-[18 F]fluoroglutamine for clinical application

We report initial experience in synthesis of (2S,4R)-4-[¹⁸ F]fluoroglutamine, [¹⁸ F]FGln, which has been used as a tool for monitoring glutamine metabolism in cancer patients. [¹⁸ F]FGln was prepared by a fully automated PET-MF-2V-IT-I synthesizer under GMP-compliant conditions for routine clinical studies. The total radiosynthesis time was about 65 minutes, the decay-corrected radiochemical yield was 18.0 ± 4.2% (n = 59; failure n = 15), and the radiochemical purity was greater than 90%. In some situations, the yields were low (less than 5%), and the most likely cause of this problem is the initial fluorination step; the fluoride ion might not have been fully activated. In other occasions, low final radiochemical purity was often associated with the failure of the second step-removal of protection groups by anhydrous trifluoroacetic acid. A trace amount of water led to production of undesired 4-[¹⁸ F]fluoroglutamic acid. Knowledge learned from the successes and failures of synthesis may be helpful to identify critical steps and pitfalls for preparation of this clinically useful metabolic probe, [¹⁸ F]FGln, for imaging glutamine utilization in tumor of cancer patients.

Competition for nutrients and its role in controlling immune responses

Changes in cellular metabolism are associated with the activation of diverse immune subsets. These changes are fuelled by nutrients including glucose, amino acids and fatty acids, and are closely linked to immune cell fate and function. An emerging concept is that nutrients are not equally available to all immune cells, suggesting that the regulation of nutrient utility through competitive uptake and use is important for controlling immune responses. This review considers immune microenvironments where nutrients become limiting, the signalling alterations caused by insufficient nutrients, and the importance of nutrient availability in the regulation of immune responses.

Immune cells adapt distinct metabolic strategies to accommodate specific functions associated with cell types or differentiation stages. Here in this review the authors discuss the nutrients, sensors, and mediators of such a metabolic adaption in nutrient-limiting immune microenvironments such as tumors or infections.

Effects of glutamine deprivation on oxidative stress and cell survival in breast cell lines

Background

Tumourigenic cells modify metabolic pathways in order to facilitate increased proliferation and cell survival resulting in glucose- and glutamine addiction. Previous research indicated that glutamine deprivation resulted in potential differential activity targeting tumourigenic cells more prominently. This is ascribed to tumourigenic cells utilising increased glutamine quantities for enhanced glycolysis- and glutaminolysis. In this study, the effects exerted by glutamine deprivation on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, mitochondrial membrane potential, cell proliferation and cell death in breast tumourigenic cell lines (MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, BT-20) and a non-tumourigenic breast cell line (MCF-10A) were investigated.

Results

Spectrophotometry demonstrated that glutamine deprivation resulted in decreased cell growth in a time-dependent manner. MCF-7 cell growth was decreased to 61% after 96 h of glutamine deprivation; MDA-MB-231 cell growth was decreased to 78% cell growth after 96 h of glutamine deprivation, MCF-10A cell growth was decreased 89% after 96 h of glutamine deprivation and BT-20 cell growth decreased to 86% after 24 h of glutamine deprivation and remained unchanged until 96 h of glutamine deprivation. Glutamine deprivation resulted in oxidative stress where superoxide levels were significantly elevated after 96 h in the MCF-7- and MDA-MB-231 cell lines. Time-dependent production of hydrogen peroxide was accompanied by aberrant mitochondrial membrane potential. The effects of ROS and mitochondrial membrane potential were more prominently observed in the MCF-7 cell line when compared to the MDA-MB-231-, MCF-10A- and BT-20 cell lines. Cell cycle progression revealed that glutamine deprivation resulted in a significant increase in the S-phase after 72 h of glutamine deprivation in the MCF-7 cell line. Apoptosis induction resulted in a decrease in viable cells in all cell lines following glutamine deprivation. In the MCF-7 cells, 87.61% of viable cells were present after 24 h of glutamine deprivation.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that glutamine deprivation resulted in decreased cell proliferation, time-dependent- and cell line-dependent ROS generation, aberrant mitochondrial membrane potential and disrupted cell cycle progression. In addition, the estrogen receptor positive MCF-7 cell line was more prominently affected. This study contributes to knowledge regarding the sensitivity of breast cancer cells and non-tumorigenic cells to glutamine deprivation.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s40659-019-0224-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Synthesis and preliminary evaluation of a novel glutamine derivative: (2S,4S)4-[18F]FEBGln

We report the preparation of a novel glutamine derivative, (2S,4S)-2,5-diamino-4-(4-(2-fluoroethoxy)benzyl)-5-oxopentanoic acid, (2S, 4S)4-[¹⁸F]FEBGln ([¹⁸F]4), through efficient organic and radiosyntheses. In vitro assays of [¹⁸F]4 using MCF-7 cells showed that it entered cells via multiple amino acid transporter systems including system L and ASC2 transporters but not through the system A transporter. [¹⁸F]4 showed promising properties for tumor imaging and may serve as a lead compound for further optimizing and targeting the system L transporter associated with enhanced glutamine metabolism in cancer cells.