Pharmacokinetic determination of ephedrine in HerbaEphedraeand Wu Tou Tang decoctions in rats using ultra performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

Development and validation of GC-MS method for determination of methcathinone and its main metabolite in mice plasma and brain tissue after SPE: Pharmacokinetic and distribution study

Only focusing on the plasma levels is inadequate for the full consideration of the physiological disposition of illicit drugs in vivo. Therefore, we conducted the inclusive study on the in vivo dynamic process of intraperitoneal administration of methcathinone (MET), a well-known member of the synthetic cathinone derivatives, which is structurally similar to amphetamine analogs. This study described a validated, selective and sensitive GC-MS method for the simultaneous quantification of MET and its main metabolite, ephedrine (EPD), in the plasma and brain tissue of mice, after solid phase extraction (SPE). Ephedrine-d3 was used as an internal standard (IS). The developed method was validated following US-FDA guidelines within a concentration range of 5-1000 ng/mL for both drugs (r2 > 0.998) in the mice plasma and brain. The recoveries of MET and EPD from the mice plasma and brain ranged from 108.5 to 112.1%. The intra- and inter-day RSDs were ≤ 11.0 %. The proposed method was applied, for the first time, to investigate the pharmacokinetic (PK) and distribution study of MET and EPD following intraperitoneal administration of MET (1.4 mg/kg) to Swiss albino mice. The results exhibited that the C_max and T_max of MET in mice plasma was 517.1 ng/mL and 15 min as compared to 3.6 ng/mL and 2 h of EPD. Moreover, MET rapidly passed the blood brain barrier with C_max of 1444.5 ng/mL achieved at 15 min, whereas, EPD monitored C_max of 43.6 ng/mL at 4 h in mice brain. The highest concentration of MET in the mice brain followed by plasma was reported, with a necessity to perform more detailed clinical investigations.

The Chinese Medicine Wu-Tou Decoction Relieves Neuropathic Pain by Inhibiting Hippocampal Microglia Activation

The comorbidity between the nociceptive and mental syndromes adds to the refractoriness of neuropathic pain (NP). Wu-Tou decoction (WTD) has been prescribed for chronic pain for thousands of years in China. Recently, we reported that WTD was helpful for hippocampus and co-curative for the nociceptive, depressive and anxiety behaviors in the spinal cord ligation (SNL) mice. However, the mechanism underlying the rescue of hippocampus, as well as the roles hippocampus assumed in co-curation remain unexplored. In this study, we validated that in SNL mice, the long-lasting damages to limbic system were mainly limited to hippocampus. In addition, hippocampal neurons were proven sensitive to harms induced by microglia and rescued by WTD, which in sum indicated hippocampal microglia as the critical modulator of co-curation. To validate this hypothesis the hippocampal microglia were mal-activated in shamed mice, in which the atrophy of hippocampus and the development of NP syndromes were consolidated and proven rescued by WTD. On the contrary, in the SNL mice, the failure to control hippocampal microglia was sufficient to void all the rescues mediated by WTD. In sum, our study points out that the effective modulation of microglia in hippocampus is of pivotal importance for the co-curation by WTD.

Evidence that CA3 is Underling the Comorbidity Between Pain and Depression and the Co-curation by Wu-Tou decoction in Neuropathic Pain

In neuropathic pain (NP), the atrophy of hippocampus contributes to the comorbidity between pain, depression and the cognitive deficits. However, the exact mechanism underling the comorbidity, the effective control of the degenerations in hippocampus and the remission of the accompanied depressive symptoms are still lacking. Wu-Tou decoction (WTD) has been prescribed for inflammatory pain for thousands of years. In this study, we manifested the effects of WTD on the pain, depression and anxiety co-curative symptoms of NP. Moreover, we reported that WTD rescued the mal-regulated BDNF and TNF-α in hippocampal CA3 alone, which is proven contributing to the pain and induced psychiatric symptoms. Finally, analysis of biochemistry, morphology and electrophysiology exhibited the potential mechanism of WTD in CA3. We found that, in the late stage of SNL condition, WTD mediated the rescue of the down-regulated glutamate as well as its pre-synaptic vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLuT1) and the post-synaptic α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors in CA3. In sum, the targeted mediation of glutamatergic system in CA3 suggest that WTD may be responsible for the remission of the hypo-functioned CA3 glutamatergic neurons and further contribute to the co-curative effects of WTD.

Wu-Tou Decoction in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Integrating Network Pharmacology and In Vivo Pharmacological Evaluation

Purpose: This study aimed to explore underlying action mechanism of Wu-Tou decoction (WTD) in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) through network pharmacology prediction and experimental verification. Methods: Chemical compounds and human target proteins of WTD as well as RA-related human genes were obtained from TCM Database @ Taiwan, PubChem and GenBank, respectively. Subsequently, molecular networks and canonical pathways presumably involved in the treatment of WTD on RA were generated by ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) software. Furthermore, experimental validation was carried out with MIP-1β-induced U937 cell model and collagen induced arthritis (CIA) rat model. Results: CCR5 signaling pathway in macrophages was shown to be the top one shared signaling pathway associated with both cell immune response and cytokine signaling. In addition, protein kinase C (PKC) δ and p38 in this pathway were treated as target proteins of WTD in RA. In vitro experiments indicated that WTD inhibited MIP-1β-induced production of TNF-α, MIP-1α, and RANTES as well as phosphorylation of CCR5, PKC δ, and p38 in U937 cells. WTD treatment maintained the inhibitory effects on production of TNF-α and RANTES in MIP-1β-induced U937 cells after CCR5 knockdown. In vivo experiments demonstrated that WTD ameliorated symptoms in CIA rats, decreased the levels of IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, TNF-α, MIP-1α, MIP-2, RANTES, and IP-10 in serum of CIA rats, as well as mRNA levels of MIP-1α, MIP-2, RANTES, and IP-10 in ankle joints of CIA rats. Furthermore, WTD also lowered the phosphorylation levels of CCR5, PKC δ and p38 in both ankle joints and macrophages in ankle joints from CIA rats. Conclusion: It was demonstrated in this research that WTD played a role in inhibiting inflammatory response in RA which was closely connected with the modulation effect of WTD on CCR5 signaling pathway in macrophages.

Effects of herbal drugs in Mahuang decoction and their main components on intestinal transport characteristics of Ephedra alkaloids evaluated by a Caco-2 cell monolayer model

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Mahuang decoction, Ephedra combined with Cassia twig, Bitter apricot kernel and Prepared licorice, has been widely used as a multi-herb prescription in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Many modern pharmacological studies have shown that the compatibility application of these four herbs has promising therapeutic effects on respiratory infection, acute glomerulonephritis and chronic renal failure. However, the underlying principles for governing the formulation of Mahuang decoction remain unknown. In this study, we used a Caco-2 cell monolayer model to explicate the possible compatibility mechanism of Mahuang decoction from the perspective of intestinal absorption.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Firstly, the apical-to-basolateral and basolarteral-to-apical transport of the main characteristic active alkaloids in Ephedra, l-ephedrine (LEP), d-pseudoephedrine (DPEP) and l-methylephedrine (LMEP), as a single compound, was investigated. Secondly, the influence of main components in Cassia twig, Bitter apricot kernel and Prepared licorice on the transport of LEP, DPEP and LMEP was investigated. Finally, the bidirectional transport of these three alkaloids in single Ephedra extract, in Mahuang decoction and in drug pair extracts, such as Ephedra-Cassia twig, Ephedra-Bitter apricot kernel, Ephedra-Prepared licorice, was assessed.

RESULTS

The investigated LEP, DPEP and LMEP could transport through the Caco-2 cell monolayer at a high level, with the efflux ratio (ER) of 1.41, 1.33 and 1.30, respectively, when the cells were treated with each single compound solution. In the presence of verapamil, the permeability from apical side to basolateral side (PAB) of the three alkaloids increased significantly (P<0.05), and their ERs decreased. The treatment of cells with Mahuang decoction and the drug pair extracts from Ephedra-Cassia twig, Ephedra-Bitter apricot kernel and Ephedra-Prepared licorice appreciably decreased PAB of LEP, DPEP and LMEP with increased ERs, compared to the treatment with single Ephedra extract. When concomitant administration with herbal drugs and their main ingredients (including cinnamaldehyde-cinnamyl alcohol-cinnamic acid group, volatile oil from Cassia twig, liquiritin-glycyrrhizic acid group from Prepared licorice, Cassia twig extract, Bitter apricot kernel extract and Prepared licorice extract), was adopted, PAB of LEP, DPEP and LMEP were reduced significantly and the ERs of the corresponding compounds were promoted appreciably. Only amygdalin (from Bitter apricot kernel) had little influence on the transport of Ephedra alkaloids.

CONCLUSION

The findings indicate that LEP, DPEP and LMEP in Ephedra extract have similar absorption as in the pure solution of each compound. The intestinal absorption of LEP, DPEP and LMEP is through passive diffusion and these compounds may be P-gp substrates. The compatibility application of Cassia twig, Bitter apricot kernel and Prepared licorice, and their main components except amygdalin can suppress the absorption of the three main Ephedra alkaloids across the Caco-2 cell monolayer. On the basis of our results, Cassia twig, Bitter apricot kernel and Prepared licorice in Mahuang decoction decrease the absorption of Ephedra alkaloids, which may alleviate the drastic diaphoretic function and toxicity of Ephedra.

Uncovering pharmacological mechanisms of Wu-tou decoction acting on rheumatoid arthritis through systems approaches: drug-target prediction, network analysis and experimental validation

Wu-tou decoction (WTD) has been extensively used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Due to lack of appropriate methods, pharmacological mechanisms of WTD acting on RA have not been fully elucidated. In this study, a list of putative targets for compositive compounds containing in WTD were predicted by drugCIPHER-CS. Then, the interaction network of the putative targets of WTD and known RA-related targets was constructed and hub nodes were identified. After constructing the interaction network of hubs, four topological features of each hub, including degree, node betweenness, closeness and k-coreness, were calculated and 79 major hubs were identified as candidate targets of WTD, which were implicated into the imbalance of the nervous, endocrine and immune (NEI) systems, leading to the main pathological changes during the RA progression. Further experimental validation also demonstrated the preventive effects of WTD on inflammation and joint destruction in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) rats and its regulatory effects on candidate targets both in vitro and in vivo systems. In conclusion, we performed an integrative analysis to offer the convincing evidence that WTD may attenuate RA partially by restoring the balance of NEI system and subsequently reversing the pathological events during RA progression.

A study on the effective substance of the Wu-tou formula based on the metabonomic method using UPLC-Q-TOF-HDMS

To elucidate the mechanisms of five single herbs in the Wu-tou Formula, the treatment effects were evaluated on AIA rats based on the pathological variation, serum biochemical parameters and using a metabonomic method.

RECENT ADVANCES IN ULTRA-HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY FOR THE ANALYSIS OF TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE

Traditional Chinese medicine has been widely used for the prevention and treatment of various diseases for thousands of years in China. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) is a relatively new technique offering new possibilities. This paper reviews recent developments in UHPLC in the separation and identification, fingerprinting, quantification, and metabolism of traditional Chinese medicine. Recently, the combination of UHPLC with MS has improved the efficiency of the analysis of these materials.

Anti-hypotensive treatment and endothelin blockade synergistically antagonize exercise fatigue in rats under simulated high altitude

Rapid ascent to high altitude causes illness and fatigue, and there is a demand for effective acute treatments to alleviate such effects. We hypothesized that increased oxygen delivery to the tissue using a combination of a hypertensive agent and an endothelin receptor A antagonist drugs would limit exercise-induced fatigue at simulated high altitude. Our data showed that the combination of 0.1 mg/kg ambrisentan with either 20 mg/kg ephedrine or 10 mg/kg methylphenidate significantly improved exercise duration in rats at simulated altitude of 4,267 m, whereas the individual compounds did not. In normoxic, anesthetized rats, ephedrine alone and in combination with ambrisentan increased heart rate, peripheral blood flow, carotid and pulmonary arterial pressures, breathing rate, and vastus lateralis muscle oxygenation, but under inspired hypoxia, only the combination treatment significantly enhanced muscle oxygenation. Our results suggest that sympathomimetic agents combined with endothelin-A receptor blockers offset altitude-induced fatigue in rats by synergistically increasing the delivery rate of oxygen to hypoxic muscle by concomitantly augmenting perfusion pressure and improving capillary conductance in the skeletal muscle. Our findings might therefore serve as a basis to develop an effective treatment to prevent high-altitude illness and fatigue in humans.

Recent developments in the field of the determination of constituents of TCMs in body fluids of animals and human

Although traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) play important role in drug discovery and human health, the actual value of TCMs has not been fully recognized worldwide due to its complex components and uncontrollable quality. For the modernization and globalization of TCMs, it is important to establish selective, sensitive and feasible analytical methods for determination and quantification of bioactive components of TCMs in body fluids primarily due to the low concentration, the complex nature of the biological matrices, and multi-components and their metabolites present in biological fluids. The present review summarizes the current extraction techniques, chromatographic separation and spectroscopic (especially mass spectrometric) analysis methods and new trends on the analysis of bioactive components and metabolites of TCMs in biological fluids. In addition, the importance of establishment of pharmacokinetics and bioavailability profiles and simultaneous determination of multi-active components in TCMs is discussed to provide proper examples of analytical methods for pharmacological and clinical studies of TCMs.

A systems biology-based investigation into the pharmacological mechanisms of wu tou tang acting on rheumatoid arthritis by integrating network analysis

Aim. To investigate pharmacological mechanisms of Wu Tou Tang acting on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) by integrating network analysis at a system level. Methods and Results. Drug similarity search tool in Therapeutic Targets Database was used to screen 153 drugs with similar structures to compositive compounds of each ingredient in Wu Tou Tang and to identify 56 known targets of these similar drugs as predicted molecules which Wu Tou Tang affects. The recall, precision, accuracy, and F1-score, which were calculated to evaluate the performance of this method, were, respectively, 0.98, 0.61, 59.67%, and 0.76. Then, the predicted effector molecules of Wu Tou Tang were significantly enriched in neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction and calcium signaling pathway. Next, the importance of these predicted effector molecules was evaluated by analyzing their network topological features, such as degree, betweenness, and k-coreness. We further elucidated the biological significance of nine major candidate effector molecules of Wu Tou Tang for RA therapy and validated their associations with compositive compounds in Wu Tou Tang by the molecular docking simulation. Conclusion. Our data suggest the potential pharmacological mechanisms of Wu Tou Tang acting on RA by combining the strategies of systems biology and network pharmacology.