N-acetylcysteine on oxidative damage in diabetic rats

Tannic acid- and N-acetylcysteine-chitosan-modified magnetic nanoparticles reduce hepatic oxidative stress in prediabetic rats

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) modified with tannic acid (TA) have shown remarkable success as an antioxidant and antimicrobial therapeutic agent. Herein, we report a synthetic procedure for the preparation of silica-coated MNPs modified with N-acetylcysteine-modified chitosan and TA. This was achieved by free-radical grafting of NAC onto chitosan (CS), a layer-by-layer technique for modifying negatively charged MNP@SiO2 nanoparticles with positively charged CS-NAC, and crosslinking CS with TA. The antioxidant and metabolic effects of MNP@SiO2-CS-NAC and MNP@SiO2-CS-NAC-TA nanoparticles were tested in a model of prediabetic rats with hepatic steatosis, the hereditary hypertriglyceridemic rats (HHTg). The particles exhibited significant antioxidant properties in the liver, increasing the activity of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), decreasing the concentration of the lipoperoxidation product malondialdehyde (MDA), and improving the antioxidant status determined as the ratio of reduced to oxidized glutathione; in particular, TA increased some antioxidant parameters. MNPs carrying antioxidants such as NAC and TA could thus represent a promising therapeutic agent for the treatment of various diseases accompanied by increased oxidative stress.

Akt Signaling and Nitric Oxide Synthase as Possible Mediators of the Protective Effect of N-acetyl-L-cysteine in Prediabetes Induced by Sucrose

The aim of this work was to evaluate possible mechanisms involved in the protective effect of N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) on hepatic endocrine-metabolic, oxidative stress, and inflammatory changes in prediabetic rats. For that, normal male Wistar rats (60 days old) were fed for 21 days with 10% sucrose in their drinking water and 5 days of NAC administration (50 mg/kg, i.p.) and thereafter, we determined: serum glucose, insulin, transaminases, uric acid, and triglyceride levels; hepatic fructokinase and glucokinase activities, glycogen content, lipogenic gene expression; enzymatic and non-enzymatic oxidative stress, insulin signaling pathway, and inflammatory markers. Results showed that alterations evinced in sucrose-fed rats (hypertriglyceridemia, hyperinsulinemia, and high liver fructokinase activity together with increased liver lipogenic gene expression and oxidative stress and inflammatory markers) were prevented by NAC administration. P-endothelial nitric oxide synthase (P-eNOS)/eNOS and pAKT/AKT ratios, decreased by sucrose ingestion, were restored after NAC treatment. In conclusion, the results suggest that NAC administration improves glucose homeostasis, oxidative stress, and inflammation in prediabetic rats probably mediated by modulation of the AKT/NOS pathway. Administration of NAC may be an effective complementary strategy to alleviate or prevent oxidative stress and inflammatory responses observed in type 2 diabetes at early stages of its development (prediabetes).

N-Acetylcysteine and Its Immunomodulatory Properties in Humans and Domesticated Animals

N-acetylcysteine (NAC), an acetylated derivative of the amino acid L-cysteine, has been widely used as a mucolytic agent and antidote for acetaminophen overdose since the 1960s and the 1980s, respectively. NAC possesses antioxidant, cytoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and mucolytic properties, making it a promising therapeutic agent for a wide range of diseases in both humans and domesticated animals. Oxidative stress and inflammation play a major role in the onset and progression of all these diseases. NAC's primary role is to replenish glutathione (GSH) stores, the master antioxidant in all tissues; however, it can also reduce levels of pro-inflammatory tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-∝) and interleukins (IL-6 and IL-1β), inhibit the formation of microbial biofilms and destroy biofilms, and break down disulfide bonds between mucin molecules. Many experimental studies have been conducted on the use of NAC to address a wide range of pathological conditions; however, its effectiveness in clinical trials remains limited and studies often have conflicting results. The purpose of this review is to provide a concise overview of promising NAC usages for the treatment of different human and domestic animal disorders.

N-acetylcysteine improves diabetic associated erectile dysfunction in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice by inhibiting oxidative stress

Oxidative stress appears to play a role in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus erectile dysfunction (DMED). This study aimed to investigate the effect of N‐acetylcysteine (NAC) on DMED in streptozotocin‐induced diabetic mice and to explore potential mechanisms. In the present study, we show that an erectile dysfunction is present in the streptozotocin‐induced mouse model of diabetes as indicated by decreases in intracavernous pressure responses to electro‐stimulation as well as from results of the apomorphine test of erectile function. After treatment of NAC, the intracavernous pressure was increased. In these DMED mice, oxidative stress and inflammatory responses were significantly reduced within the cavernous microenvironment, while activity of antioxidant enzymes in this cavernous tissue was enhanced after NAC treatment. These changes protected mitochondrial stress damage and a significant decreased in apoptosis within the cavernous tissue of DMED mice. This appears to involve activation of the nuclear factor erythroid 2‐like‐2 (Nrf2) signalling pathway, as well as suppression of the mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) p38/ NF‐κB pathway within cavernous tissue. In conclusion, NAC can improve erectile function through inhibiting oxidative stress via activating Nrf2 pathways and reducing apoptosis in streptozotocin‐induced diabetic mice. NAC might provide a promising therapeutic strategy for individuals with DMED.

N-acetylcysteine alleviates high fat diet-induced hepatic steatosis and liver injury via regulating intestinal microecology in mice

N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a well-accepted antioxidant, has been shown to protect against high fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity-associated non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in mice. However, the underlying mechanism(s) of the beneficial...

Ameliorative effect of N-acetylcysteine against glyphosate-induced hepatotoxicity in adult male albino rats: histopathological, biochemical, and molecular studies

Glyphosate (GLP) is the most commonly used herbicide that presents many hazards to the environment and living organisms. The present study aimed to explore hepatotoxic properties of GLP on adult albino rats, and the ability of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) to ameliorate these toxic effects. Thirty mature male albino rats were distributed into 3 groups (10 rats/group): Group I (C) a negative control, Group II (GLP) orally administered Roundup 0.8503 ml/kg/day which contain GLP (375 mg/kg) (1/10 of LD50) by gavage needle, and Group III (NAC+ GLP) received NAC (160 mg/kg, 1h before Roundup) by gavage needle and Roundup (0.8503 ml/kg) orally for 6 weeks. Blood and liver samples were collected and processed for biochemical, histopathological, ultrastructural, and immunohistochemical investigations. Group II displayed a significant elevation of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, as well as overexpression of apoptotic markers. The total antioxidant capacity "TAC" and mRNA expression of NRF2 were significantly decreased. Concerning the histopathological findings, there were various degenerative changes as the hepatocytes showed hydropic swelling with nuclear pyknosis. These alterations were confirmed ultrastructurally as most of the cytoplasmic organelles were lost and the mitochondria appeared to deteriorate. Immunohistochemical results showed intense immunoreactivity against proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and caspase-3. NAC administration before GLP partially ameliorates these alterations. ALT, AST, and MDA levels as well as expression of apoptotic markers were significantly reduced. TAC and mRNA expression of NRF2 were significantly increased. Histopathological alterations were partially improved as the hepatocytes returned normal and ultrastructurally they showed nearly normal cytoplasmic organelles. Additionally, the intense expression of PCNA and caspase-3 was significantly reduced. We concluded that NAC can ameliorate most of the adverse effects of GLP exposure through its antioxidant property and free radicals scavenging capacity.

Does Short-Term and Low-Dose N-Acetylcysteine Affect Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in The Liver Tissues of Diabetic Rats?

Diabetes mellitus is a serious chronic disease in which the oxidant-antioxidant balance is impaired, causing many complications, including hepatopathy. In this study, the effects of short-term and low-dose N-acetylcysteine (NAC) administration on the biochemical, proinflammatory, and oxidative stress parameters in the liver tissue of diabetic rats were investigated. Twenty-four adult male Wistar albino rats weighing approximately 250-300 g were divided into 4 groups (n = 6): Control, Streptozotosin (STZ)-induced diabetes (DM), NAC treatment (60 mg/kg), and STZ-induced diabetes treated with NAC (DM+NAC; 60 mg/kg). NAC treatment was administered intraperitoneally as a single daily dose for 7 days. At the end of the experiment (3 weeks), blood and liver samples were collected for biochemical parameter analysis. Lipid peroxidation, antioxidant parameters, and nitric oxide (NOx) levels were determined by spectrophotometric method. Tissue inflammation parameters were evaluated by ELISA. Lipid peroxidation, proinflammatory cytokines, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) values increased significantly with diabetes. NAC treatment significantly decreased serum ALT and AST levels and proinflammatory cytokines in the diabetic group. Liver glutathione (GSH) and NOx levels increased significantly in the DM+NAC group (p < 0.05). While NAC treatment reduced lipid peroxidation in the liver, it improved the inflammatory response and antioxidant status. The beneficial effect of NAC treatment may be due to its antioxidant activity and the resulting increased level of GSH. The results show that low-dose and short-term NAC treatment had a positive effect on oxidative damage and inflammation in liver tissue. NAC can be used as a potential antioxidant in diabetes to prevent hepatopathy.

Impacts of n-acetyl cysteine on gibberellic acid-induced testicular dysfunction through regulation of inflammatory cytokines, steroid and antioxidant activity

In agriculture, gibberellic acid (GA3) is commonly used with extreme dangers for public health. The current research evaluates the improving effects of n-acetyl cysteine (NAC, 150 mg/kg bw) co-administered with GA3 (55 mg/kg bw) mediated testicular injury. Twenty-four male albino rats were split into 4 groups: Negative control (CNT), NAC group, positive GA3 group and protective group, co-administered NAC plus GA3. On day 21, rats were anesthetised then euthanised by decapitation. Blood samples were collected; testicular samples were taken for semen analysis, serum chemistry, RNA extraction, histological and antioxidants markers examination. Our results revealed a significant decline p < .05 of catalase level and total antioxidant capacity. There was a substantial rise of MDA concentration in GA3-treated rats along with a considerable decrease of the antioxidant markers (SOD, GSH) and serum male reproductive hormones. In GA3-treated rats, an overexpression of the inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β) and anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 with boost mRNA expression of nuclear factor-kappa (NF_k B) were confirmed. There was downregulation of steroidogenesis genes and decrease in sperm quality and concentration with an increase in sperm abnormalities, all were reported in GA3-treated rats. NAC treatment significantly increased the antioxidant state, testicular function beside structural germ cell and seminiferous tubules histology accompanied by upsurge of steroidogenic mRNA expressions (P450scc and 3β-HSD) and downregulated the pro-inflammatory cytokines mRNA expression (TNF-α, IL-1β). These results confirm the antioxidant capability of NAC and afford robust evidence about the ameliorative effect of the NAC to attenuate the testicular injury induced by GA3 through modulation of the antioxidant defence system, steroidogenic and pro-inflammatory cytokines mRNA expression.

Effects of N-acetylcysteine on kidney tissue, matrix metalloproteinase-2, irisin and oxidative stress in a diabetes mellitus model

DM mellitus (DM) is a prevalent chronic disease; diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a primary cause of chronic kidney disease. Oxidation, energy imbalance, and enzyme and cytokine changes contribute to the development and progression of DN. We investigated the possible effects of the antioxidant, N-acetylcysteine (NAC), on kidney morphology, apoptosis, matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) activity, irisin levels and oxidative stress in an experimental DM model. We used four equal groups of Wistar albino male rats: control, DM, DM + NAC and NAC. Kidney tissues were evaluated for oxidation state, MMP-2, irisin, caspase-3 and histopathology. In the DM group, total oxidant status level, MMP-2 and caspase-3 immunoreactivity were increased, irisin immunoreactivity and total antioxidant status (TAS) were decreased and histological damage was evident. In the DM + NAC group, all changes were significantly improved. NAC exhibited protective effects against DN.

Role of N-Acetylcysteine in the Treatment of Acute Nonacetaminophen, Nonalcoholic and Nonviral Hepatitis: A Meta-analysis

Introduction

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) has been extensively investigated for the use in acetaminophen and alcoholic hepatitis and is indicated in acetaminophen overdose. Studies assessing the effect of NAC on other forms of acute hepatitis in adult patients are limited and therefore here we aimed at evaluating the effect of NAC on survival in nonacetaminophen, nonalcoholic and nonviral hepatitis in adults.

Methods

A comprehensive literature search up to September 2019 was completed for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing NAC to placebo in the management of acute nonacetaminophen, nonalcoholic and nonviral hepatitis. Studies with insufficient data, non-RCT or nonprospective design, paediatric studies and studies with no comparator were excluded. Study selection, quality assessment and data extraction were independently performed by two co-authors. Primary outcome was survival. Secondary outcomes were an increase in infection rate. We used random model Mantel–Haenszel meta-analysis with Cochrane risk of bias to assess the quality of included studies. The recommendation was presented using the GRADE framework.

Results

Seven out of 42 retrieved studies were included. Study population included patients with post-liver transplant, postsurgical, hypoxia-induced, ischemic and other nonalcoholic hepatitis. There was no difference in overall survival between NAC and placebo (odds ratio [OR] 0.95 [0.55 to 1.62]) in seven studies including 1033 patients. Furthermore, there was no difference in the rate of infection between NAC and placebo (OR 0.87 [0.43 to 1.79]). Random model analysis was used to adjust the effect of statistically significant heterogeneity in both analyses (P = 0.02). Lack of blinding in one study was found as a possible source of heterogeneity.

Conclusions

NAC does not improve overall survival or the rate of infection in patients with acute nonacetaminophen, nonalcoholic and nonviral hepatitis as compared to placebo and should not be recommended in such setting which may even delay a transplant evaluation (level of evidence: 2a, GRADE of recommendation: B).

Evidence for a Beneficial Effect of Oral N-acetylcysteine on Functional Outcomes and Inflammatory Biomarkers in Patients with Acute Ischemic Stroke

PURPOSE

Numerous preclinical studies have demonstrated the potential neuroprotective effects of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) in the treatment of brain ischemia. Accordingly, the present study aimed to assess the potential therapeutic effects of oral NAC in patients with acute ischemic stroke.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial study, 68 patients with acute ischemic stroke with the onset of symptoms less than 24 hours were randomly assigned to either the NAC-treated group or placebo-treated group. NAC and matched placebo were administrated by a 72-hour oral protocol (initially 4 grams loading dose and after on, 4 g in 4 equal divided doses for more 2 days). The primary outcomes were quantification of any neurologic deficit by the use of the National Institute of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score and functional disability by the use of the modified Rankin scale (mRS) at 90 days after stroke. Additionally, serum levels of markers of oxidative stress and inflammation as a main mechanism of its action were assessed at baseline and the end of 3-day treatment protocol.

RESULTS

NAC-treated patients in comparison with placebo-treated patients showed a significantly lower mean NIHSS scores at day 90 after stroke. A favorable functional outcome which was defined as an mRS score of 0 or 1, also in favor of NAC compared to placebo was noted on day 90 after stroke (57.6% in the NAC-treated group compared with 28.6% in the placebo-treated group). Further, compared to the placebo, NAC treatment significantly decreased serum levels of proinflammatory biomarkers such as interleukin 6 (IL-6), soluble intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1), nitric oxide (NO), malondialdehyde (MDA), and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) and significantly increased serum levels of anti-oxidant biomarkers such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and total thiol groups (TTG).

CONCLUSION

The pattern of results suggests that oral NAC administration early after an acute ischemic stroke is associated with a better outcome profile in terms of acute neurological deficit and disability grade compared to placebo. NAC may improve neurological outcomes of patients with stroke at least in part by its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

In vitro toxic evaluation of two gliptins and their main impurities of synthesis

Background

The presence of impurities in some drugs may compromise the safety and efficacy of the patient’s treatment. Therefore, establishing of the biological safety of the impurities is essential. Diabetic patients are predisposed to tissue damage due to an increased oxidative stress process; and drug impurities may contribute to these toxic effects. In this context, the aim of this work was to study the toxicity, in 3 T3 cells, of the antidiabetic agents sitagliptin, vildagliptin, and their two main impurities of synthesis (S1 and S2; V1 and V2, respectively).

Methods

MTT reduction and neutral red uptake assays were performed in cytotoxicity tests. In addition, DNA damage (measured by comet assay), intracellular free radicals (by DCF), NO production, and mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔψM) were evaluated.

Results

Cytotoxicity was observed for impurity V2. Free radicals generation was found at 1000 μM of sitagliptin and 10 μM of both vildagliptin impurities (V1 and V2). A decrease in NO production was observed for all vildagliptin concentrations. No alterations were observed in ΔψM or DNA damage at the tested concentrations.

Conclusions

This study demonstrated that the presence of impurities might increase the cytotoxicity and oxidative stress of the pharmaceutical formulations at the concentrations studied.

Supplementation with N-Acetyl Cysteine Affects Motor and Cognitive Function in Young but Not Old Mice

BACKGROUND

N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) is a thiolic antioxidant that is thought to increase cellular glutathione (GSH) by augmenting the concentration of available cysteine, an essential precursor to GSH production. Manipulating redox status can affect brain function, and NAC intake has been associated with improving brain function in models of neurodegenerative diseases.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of the study was to determine if short-term dietary supplementation with NAC could ameliorate functional impairment associated with aging.

METHODS

C57BL/6J male mice aged 6, 12, or 24 mo were fed a control diet or the control diet supplemented with 0.3% NAC for a total of 12 wk. After 4 wk of dietary supplementation, mice began a series of behavioral tests to measure spontaneous activity (locomotor activity test), psychomotor performance (bridge-walking and coordinated running), and cognitive capacity (Morris water maze and discriminated active avoidance). The performance of the mice on these tests was analyzed through the use of analyses of variance with Age and Diet as factors.

RESULTS

Supplementation of NAC improved peak motor performance in a coordinated running task by 14% (P < 0.05), and increased the time spent around the platform by 24% in a Morris water maze at age 6 mo. However, the supplementation had no to minimal effect on the motor and cognitive functions of 12- and 24-mo-old mice.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this preclinical study support the claim that NAC has nootropic properties in 6-mo-old mice, but suggest that it may not be useful for improving motor and cognitive impairments in older mice.

N-Acetylcysteine alleviates gut dysbiosis and glucose metabolic disorder in high-fat diet-fed mice

BACKGROUND

N-Acetylcysteine (NAC), an antioxidative reagent for clinical diseases, shows potential in the treatment of diabetes and other metabolic diseases. However, it is unknown how NAC modulates the gut microbiota of mice with metabolic syndrome. The aim of the present study was to demonstrate the preventive effect of NAC on intestinal dysbiosis and glucose metabolic disorder.

METHODS

Mice (C57BL/6J strain) were fed either a normal chow diet (NCD), NCD plus NAC, a high-fat diet (HFD), or HFD plus NAC for 5 months, after which glucose levels, circulating endotoxins and key metabolism-related proteins were determined. Fecal samples were analyzed by 16S rRNA sequencing. A novel analysis was performed to predict functional changes in gut microbiota. In addition, Spearman's correlation analysis was performed between metabolic biomarkers and bacterial abundance.

RESULTS

Treatment with NAC significantly reversed the glucose intolerance, fasting glucose concentrations, and gains in body weight and plasma endotoxin in HFD-fed mice. Further, NAC upregulated occludin and mucin glycoprotein levels in the proximal colon of HFD-treated mice. Noticeably, NAC promoted the growth of beneficial bacteria (i.e. Akkermansia, Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus and Allobaculum) and decreased populations of diabetes-related genera, including Desulfovibrio and Blautia. In addition, NAC may affect the metabolic pathways of intestinal bacteria, including lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis, oxidative stress, and bacterial motility. Finally, the modified gut microbiota was closely associated with the metabolic changes in NAC-treated HFD-fed mice.

CONCLUSIONS

N-Acetylcysteine may be a potential drug to prevent glucose metabolic disturbances by reshaping the structure of the gut microbiota.

Beneficial effects of N-acetylcysteine on hepatic oxidative stress in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Diabetes is one of the leading diseases worldwide and, thus, finding new therapeutic alternatives is essential. The development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease is a notable diabetic complication. Therefore, antioxidant therapy became a leading topic in the world of diabetes research. The objective of this present study was to evaluate the effects of antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) administration on serum biochemical parameters and oxidative stress parameters in hepatic tissue of the diabetic rats. Thirty-two animals were divided in 4 groups (n = 8): G1, normal rats; G2, normal rats + NAC; G3, diabetic rats; and G4, diabetic rats + NAC. Diabetes was induced in diabetic groups through streptozotocin. NAC administration was effective in improving hyperglycemia and hypoinsulinemia, as well as reducing serum alanine-aminotransferase and urea, hepatic triglycerides accumulation, and oxidative stress biomarkers in the diabetic liver, as well as improving the activity of hepatic antioxidant enzymes. This effect was likely due to NAC’s ability of restoring intracellular glutathione, an important compound for the antioxidant defense, as well as due to NAC’s direct antioxidant properties. Thus, NAC administration was useful for reducing hepatic oxidative stress and decreased the deposit of triacylglycerols, minimizing diabetic hepatic damage, making it a promising therapeutic adjuvant in the future.

N-Acetyl-l-Cysteine treatment efficiently prevented pre-diabetes and inflamed-dysmetabolic liver development in hypothalamic obese rats

AIM

Hypothalamic obese rats are characterized by pre-diabetes, dyslipidemia, hyperadiposity, inflammation and, liver dysmetabolism with oxidative stress (OS), among others. We studied endocrine-metabolic dysfunctions and, liver OS and inflammation in both monosodium l-glutamate (MSG)-neonatally damaged and control litter-mate (C) adult male rats, either chronically treated with N-Acetyl-l-Cysteine since weaned (C-NAC and MSG-NAC) or not.

METHODOLOGY

We evaluated circulating TBARS, glucose, insulin, triglycerides, uric acid (UA) and, aspartate and alanine amino-transferase; insulin sensitivity markers (HOMA indexes, Liver Index of Insulin Sensitivity -LISI-) were calculated and liver steps of the insulin-signaling pathway were investigated. Additionally, we monitored liver OS (protein carbonyl groups, GSH and iNOS level) and inflammation-related markers (COX-2 and TNFα protein content; gene expression level of Il1b, Tnfα and Pai-1); and carbohydrate and lipid metabolic functions (glucokinase/fructokinase activities and, mRNA levels of Srebp1c, Fas and Gpat).

KEY FINDINGS

Chronic NAC treatment in MSG rats efficiently decreased the high circulating levels of triglycerides, UA, transaminases and TBARS, as well as peripheral (high insulinemia and HOMA indexes) and liver (LISI and the P-AKT:AKT and P-eNOS:eNOS protein ratio values) insulin-resistance. Moreover, NAC therapy in MSG rats prevented liver dysmetabolism by decreasing local levels of OS and inflammation markers. Finally, NAC-treated MSG rats retained normal liver glucokinase and fructokinase activities, and Srebp1c, Fas and Gpat (lipogenic genes) expression levels.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our study strongly supports that chronic oral antioxidant therapy (NAC administration) prevented the development of pre-diabetes, dyslipidemia, and inflamed-dysmetabolic liver in hypothalamic obese rats by efficiently decreasing high endogenous OS.

Effect of N-Acetylcysteine on Dyslipidemia and Carbohydrate Metabolism in STZ-Induced Diabetic Rats

Background

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is characterized by insulin-deficient production leading to hyperglycemia, which is associated with diabetic complications such as cardiovascular diseases. Antioxidants have been proving a good alternative to diabetic complications, with N-acetylcysteine (NAC) having antioxidant characteristics. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of NAC on the lipid profile and the atherogenic index (AI) in streptozotocin- (STZ-) induced diabetic rats.

Method

32 male Wistar rats (60 days of age) weighting ±250 g were randomly distributed into four groups (n = 8): CTRL: control rats; CTRL+NAC: control rats treated with NAC; DM: diabetic rats; DM+NAC: diabetic rats treated with NAC. T1DM was induced using STZ (60 mg/kg, ip; single dose), and NAC (25 mg/kg/day) was administrated by gavage, for 37 days. The animals received chow and water ad libitum. After the experimental period, blood and cardiac tissue samples were collected to analyze energetic metabolism, lipid profile, and AI.

Results

NAC decreased (p < 0.01) glycemia, energy intake, carbohydrate, and protein consumption in diabetic rats (DM+NAC), when compared with DM, while the alimentary efficiency was improved (p < 0.01) in treated diabetic rats (DM+NAC). Diabetic rats treated with NAC decreased (p < 0.01) lipid profile and AI in diabetic rats (DM+NAC) when compared to DM.

Conclusion

NAC improves lipid profile and decreases AI in STZ-induced diabetic rats.

Amelioration of oxidative stress using N-acetylcysteine in canine parvoviral enteritis

Previously, antioxidants have not been evaluated for treatment of parvoviral diarrhea in dogs. In this study, antioxidant potential of N‐acetylcysteine (NAC) in dogs infected with canine parvovirus with a nonblinded randomized clinical trial has been carried out. A total 18 parvo‐infected dogs were randomly divided into two groups: nine parvo‐infected dogs were treated with supportive treatment and nine parvo‐infected dogs were treated with NAC along with supportive treatment. Simultaneously, nine healthy dogs were kept as healthy control. In parvo‐infected dogs, marked hemoconcentration, leucopenia, neutropenia and oxidative stress were noticed compared to healthy dogs. The NAC treatment progressively improved the leukocyte, neutrophil, monocyte, and eosinophil counts over the time in parvovirus‐infected dogs compared to dogs that received only supportive treatment. In addition, NAC treatment significantly improved glutathione S‐transferase (GST) activity and decreased nitrite plus nitrate (NOx) and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations on day 3 and 5 compared to supportive treatment in parvo‐infected dogs. However, supportive treatment alone failed to ameliorate oxidative stress in the infected dogs till day 5. The results of this study suggest that NAC represents a potential additional treatment option that could be considered to improve the health condition and minimize the duration of hospitalization in case of canine parvoviral diarrhea.

The Effects of Subchronic Methionine Overload Administered Alone or Simultaneously with L-cysteine or N-acetyl-L-cysteine on Body Weight, Homocysteine Levels and Biochemical Parameters in the Blood of Male Wistar Rats

Hyperhomocysteinemia (HHC), both basal and after methionine load, may occur due to genetic disorders or deficiencies of nutrients that affect the remethylation or trans-sulphuration pathways during methionine metabolism. HHC is involved in the pathogenesis of many illnesses as a result of its prooxidative effect and its impairment of antioxidative protection. The aim was to examine the effects of subchronic methionine overload on the body weight and standard biochemical parameters in rat serum and to examine whether simultaneous subchronic intraperotoneal administration of methionine alone or together with L-cysteine or N-acetyl-cysteine resulted in a change in the body weight and biochemical parameters in the rat serum. The research was conducted during a three-week period (male Wistar albino rats, n=36, body weight of approximately 160 g, age of 15-20 days), and the animals were divided into a control group and three experimental groups of 8-10 animals each: a) control group (0.9% sodium chloride 0.1-0.2 ml/day); b) methionine (0.8 mmol/kg/bw/day) (MET group); c) methionine (0.8 mmol/kg/bw/day) + L-cysteine (7 mg/kg/bw/day) (L-cys+MET group); and d) methionine (0.8 mmol/kg/bw/day) + N-acetyl-L-cysteine (50 mg/kg/bw/day) (NAC+MET group). In addition to the body weight monitoring, the levels of total homocysteine and the standard biochemical parameters in blood samples (plasma or serum) were determined. The results indicated that monitoring the homocysteine levels and standard biochemical parameters in blood could be used for analysis and could provide an excellent guideline for distinguishing between toxic and non-toxic doses of methionine intake, which may be meaningful for clinical applications.

A minireview on N-acetylcysteine: An old drug with new approaches

N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a cysteine pro-drug and glutathione precursor has been used in therapeutic practices for several decades, as a mucolytic agent and for the treatment of numerous disorders including paracetamol intoxication. There is a growing interest concerning the beneficial effects of NAC against the early stages of toxicity-induced by pesticides. Nevertheless, the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic and clinical applications of NAC are not fully understood. In this review we aimed to focus on the protective effects of NAC against oxidative stress caused by pesticide in many organs. The possible mechanisms of action may be associated to its antioxidant properties. The anti-oxidative activity of NAC has been attributed to the fast reaction with free radicals as well as the restitution of reduced glutathione (GSH).

Antioxidant treatment ameliorates experimental diabetes-induced depressive-like behaviour and reduces oxidative stress in brain and pancreas

Studies have shown a relationship between diabetes mellitus (DM) and the development of major depressive disorder. Alterations in oxidative stress are associated with the pathophysiology of both diabetes mellitus and major depressive disorder. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of antioxidants N-acetylcysteine and deferoxamine on behaviour and oxidative stress parameters in diabetic rats. To this aim, after induction of diabetes by a single dose of alloxan, Wistar rats were treated with N-acetylcysteine or deferoxamine for 14 days, and then depressive-like behaviour was evaluated. Oxidative stress parameters were assessed in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, nucleus accumbens and pancreas. Diabetic rats displayed depressive-like behaviour, and treatment with N-acetylcysteine reversed this alteration. Carbonyl protein levels were increased in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and pancreas of diabetic rats, and both N-acetylcysteine and deferoxamine reversed these alterations. Lipid damage was increased in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala and pancreas; however, treatment with N-acetylcysteine or deferoxamine reversed lipid damage only in the hippocampus and pancreas. Superoxide dismutase activity was decreased in the amygdala, nucleus accumbens and pancreas of diabetic rats. In diabetic rats, there was a decrease in catalase enzyme activity in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, nucleus accumbens and pancreas, but an increase in the hippocampus. Treatment with antioxidants did not have an effect on the activity of antioxidant enzymes. In conclusion, animal model of diabetes produced depressive-like behaviour and oxidative stress in the brain and periphery. Treatment with antioxidants could be a viable alternative to treat behavioural and biochemical alterations induced by diabetes.

Similarities and differences between alpha-tocopherol and gamma-tocopherol in amelioration of inflammation, oxidative stress and pre-fibrosis in hyperglycemia induced acute kidney inflammation

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a major chronic disease which increases global health problems. Diabetes-induced renal damage is associated with inflammation and fibrosis. Alpha (AT) and gamma-tocopherols (GT) have shown antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in inflammation-mediated injuries. The primary aim of this study was to investigate effects of AT and GT supplementations on hyperglycemia induced acute kidney inflammation in alloxan induced diabetic mice with different levels of fasting blood glucose (FBG).

MATERIALS/METHODS

Diabetes was induced by injection of alloxan monohydrate (150 mg/kg, i.p) in ICR mice (5.5-week-old, male) and mice were subdivided according to their FBG levels and treated with different diets for 2 weeks; CON: non-diabetic mice, m-DMC: diabetic control mice with mild FBG levels (250 mg/dl ≤ FBG ≤ 450 mg/dl), m-AT: m-DM mice fed AT supplementation (35 mg/kg diet), m-GT: m-DM mice with GT supplementation (35 mg/kg diet), s-DMC: diabetic control mice with severe FBG levels (450 mg/dl < FBG), s-AT: s-DM mice with AT supplementation, s-GT: s-DM mice with GT supplementation.

RESULTS

Both AT and GT supplementations showed similar beneficial effects on NFκB associated inflammatory response (phosphorylated inhibitory kappa B-α, interleukin-1β, C-reactive protein, monocyte chemotactic protein-1) and pre-fibrosis (tumor growth factor β-1 and protein kinase C-II) as well as an antioxidant emzyme, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in diabetic mice. On the other hands, AT and GT showed different beneficial effects on kidney weight, FBG, and oxidative stress associated makers (malondialdehyde, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase) except HO-1. In particular, GT significantly preserved kidney weight in m-DM and improved FBG levels in s-DM and malondialdehyde and catalase in m- and s-DM, while AT significantly attenuated FBG levels in m-DM and improved glutathione peroxidase in m- and s-DM.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that AT and GT with similarities and differences would be considered as beneficial nutrients to modulate hyperglycemia induced acute renal inflammation. Further research with careful approach is needed to confirm beneficial effects of tocopherols in diabetes with different FBG levels for clinical applications.

Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Hepatic Diseases: Therapeutic Possibilities of N-Acetylcysteine

Liver disease is highly prevalent in the world. Oxidative stress (OS) and inflammation are the most important pathogenetic events in liver diseases, regardless the different etiology and natural course. N-acetyl-l-cysteine (the active form) (NAC) is being studied in diseases characterized by increased OS or decreased glutathione (GSH) level. NAC acts mainly on the supply of cysteine for GSH synthesis. The objective of this review is to examine experimental and clinical studies that evaluate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory roles of NAC in attenuating markers of inflammation and OS in hepatic damage. The results related to the supplementation of NAC in any form of administration and type of study are satisfactory in 85.5% (n = 59) of the cases evaluated (n = 69, 100%). Within this percentage, the dosage of NAC utilized in studies in vivo varied from 0.204 up to 2 g/kg/day. A standard experimental design of protection and treatment as well as the choice of the route of administration, with a broader evaluation of OS and inflammation markers in the serum or other biological matrixes, in animal models, are necessary. Clinical studies are urgently required, to have a clear view, so that, the professionals can be sure about the effectiveness and safety of NAC prescription.

Monosodium glutamate-induced oxidative kidney damage and possible mechanisms: a mini-review

Animal studies suggest that chronic monosodium glutamate (MSG) intake induces kidney damage by oxidative stress. However, the underlying mechanisms are still unclear, despite the growing evidence and consensus that α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, glutamate receptors and cystine-glutamate antiporter play an important role in up-regulation of oxidative stress in MSG-induced renal toxicity. This review summaries evidence from studies into MSG-induced renal oxidative damage, possible mechanisms and their importance from a toxicological viewpoint.

Do poly(epsilon-caprolactone) lipid-core nanocapsules induce oxidative or inflammatory damage after in vivo subchronic treatment?

Among the toxicity mechanisms linked to nanoparticles (NPs), oxidative stress (OS) and inflammation are, in general, presumed to mediate their toxicological responses.

Bmi-1 plays a critical role in protection from renal tubulointerstitial injury by maintaining redox balance

To determine whether Bmi-1 deficiency could lead to renal tubulointerstitial injury by mitochondrial dysfunction and increased oxidative stress in the kidney, 3-week-old Bmi-1^-/- mice were treated with the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC, 1 mg mL⁻¹) in their drinking water, or pyrro-quinoline quinone (PQQ, 4 mg kg⁻¹ diet) in their diet for 2 weeks, and their renal phenotypes were compared with vehicle-treated Bmi1^-/- and wild-type mice. Bmi-1 was knocked down in human renal proximal tubular epithelial (HK2) cells which were treated with 1 mm NAC for 72 or 96 h, and their phenotypes were compared with control cells. Five-week-old vehicle-treated Bmi-1^-/- mice displayed renal interstitial fibrosis, tubular atrophy, and severe renal function impairment with decreased renal cell proliferation, increased renal cell apoptosis and senescence, and inflammatory cell infiltration. Impaired mitochondrial structure, decreased mitochondrial numbers, and increased oxidative stress occurred in Bmi-1^-/- mice; subsequently, this caused DNA damage, the activation of TGF-β1/Smad signaling, and the imbalance between extracellular matrix synthesis and degradation. Oxidative stress-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition of renal tubular epithelial cells was enhanced in Bmi-1 knocked down HK2 cells. All phenotypic alterations caused by Bmi-1 deficiency were ameliorated by antioxidant treatment. These findings indicate that Bmi-1 plays a critical role in protection from renal tubulointerstitial injury by maintaining redox balance and will be a novel therapeutic target for preventing renal tubulointerstitial injury.

Redispersible liposomal-N-acetylcysteine powder for pulmonary administration: development, in vitro characterization and antioxidant activity

Liposomal dry powders of N-acetylcysteine (SD-NAC-Lip) were developed for pulmonary administration. Liposomes were prepared by reverse phase evaporation and spray dried using lactose (10%, w/w) as drying adjuvant. The powders were characterized according to process yield, drug content, residual water content, particle size distribution, morphology and redispersion behavior. In vitro aerosol performance was evaluated using an eight-stage Andersen Cascade Impactor. Moreover, in vitro antioxidant activity was determined by measuring thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS) present in the lungs of healthy Wistar rats after induction of oxidation by iron/EDTA. The spray-drying process had a high yield (71%±2), drug content (mg/g) according to the expected value, moisture content below 9%, geometric mean diameter under 3μm with span value lower than 1. Spherical particles were observed by scanning electron microscopy. Liposomal dry-powders were able to recover the nanometric size of the original dispersion after their redispersion in aqueous medium, as shown by laser diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. Furthermore, the powders presented aerodynamic diameter of about 7μm and respirable fraction above 30%, indicating suitable properties for pulmonary use. The encapsulation of N-acetylcysteine in liposomes was essential to maintain its in vitro antioxidant activity after the drying process. In addition, the powder containing the encapsulated drug had better in vitro antioxidant activity than the liquid and solid formulations containing the non-encapsulated drug, which makes it a good candidate for the treatment of pulmonary diseases associated with oxidative stress.

Targeting inflammation: new therapeutic approaches in chronic kidney disease (CKD)

Chronic inflammation and oxidative stress, features that are closely associated with nuclear factor (NF-κB) activation, play a key role in the development and progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Several animal models and clinical trials have clearly demonstrated the effectiveness of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) or angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) therapy to improve glomerular/tubulointerstitial damage, reduce proteinuria, and decrease CKD progression, but CKD treatment still represents a clinical challenge. Bardoxolone methyl, a first-in-class oral Nrf-2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) agonist that until recently showed considerable potential for the management of a range of chronic diseases, had been shown to improve kidney function in patients with advanced diabetic nephropathy (DN) with few adverse events in a phase 2 trial, but a large phase 3 study in patients with diabetes and CKD was halted due to emerging toxicity and death in a number of patients. Instead, palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) a member of the fatty acid ethanolamine family, is a novel non-steroidal, kidney friendly anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic agent with a well-documented safety profile, that may represent a potential candidate in treating CKD probably by a combination of pharmacological properties, including some activity at the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α). The aim of this review is to discuss new therapeutic approaches for the treatment of CKD, with particular reference to the outcome of two therapies, bardoxolone methyl and PEA, to improve our understanding of which pharmacological properties are responsible for the anti-inflammatory effects necessary for the effective treatment of renal disease.

The role of antioxidants and other agents in alleviating hyperglycemia mediated oxidative stress and injury in liver

Several antioxidants and agents having similar antioxidant effects are known to exert beneficial effects in ameliorating the injurious effects of hyperglycemia on liver in different diabetic in vitro and in vivo models. The review deals with some of the agents which have been shown to exert protective effects on liver against hyperglycemic insult and the various mechanisms involved. The different classes of agents which protect the diabetic liver or decrease the severity of hyperglycemia mediated injury include flavonoids, catechins, and other polyphenolic compounds, curcumin and its derivatives, certain vitamins, hormones and drugs, trace elements, prototypical antioxidants and amino acids. Some of the pronounced changes mediated by the antioxidants in liver exposed to hyperglycemia include decreased oxidative stress, and alterations in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Other mechanisms through which the agents ameliorate hyperglycemia mediated liver injury include decrease in oxidative DNA and protein damage, restoration of mitochondrial structural and functional integrity, decrease in inflammation and improved insulin signaling. Thus, antioxidants may prove to be an important mode of defense in maintaining normal hepatic functions in diabetes.

Oxidative stress, anti-oxidant therapies and chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a common and serious problem that adversely affects human health, limits longevity and increases costs to health-care systems worldwide. Its increasing incidence cannot be fully explained by traditional risk factors. Oxidative stress is prevalent in CKD patients and is considered to be an important pathogenic mechanism. Oxidative stress develops from an imbalance between free radical production often increased through dysfunctional mitochondria formed with increasing age, type 2 diabetes mellitus, inflammation, and reduced anti-oxidant defences. Perturbations in cellular oxidant handling influence downstream cellular signalling and, in the kidney, promote renal cell apoptosis and senescence, decreased regenerative ability of cells, and fibrosis. These factors have a stochastic deleterious effect on kidney function. The majority of studies investigating anti-oxidant treatments in CKD patients show a reduction in oxidative stress and many show improved renal function. Despite heterogeneity in the oxidative stress levels in the CKD population, there has been little effort to measure patient oxidative stress levels before the use of any anti-oxidants therapies to optimize outcome. This review describes the development of oxidative stress, how it can be measured, the involvement of mitochondrial dysfunction and the molecular pathways that are altered, the role of oxidative stress in CKD pathogenesis and an update on the amelioration of CKD using anti-oxidant therapies.