Evaluation of potential for toxicity from subacute inhalation of tire and road wear particles in rats

Unveiling the environmental impact of tire wear particles and the associated contaminants: A comprehensive review of environmental and health risk

This review offers a novel perspective on the environmental fate and ecotoxicological effects of tire wear particles (TWPs), ubiquitous environmental contaminants ranging in size from micrometers to millimeters (averaging 10-100 micrometers). These particles pose a growing threat due to their complex chemical composition and potential toxicity. Human exposure primarily occurs through inhalation, ingesting contaminated food and water, and dermal contact. Our review delves into the dynamic interplay between TWP composition, transformation products (TPs), and ecological impacts, highlighting the importance of considering both individual chemical effects and potential synergistic interactions. Notably, our investigation reveals that degradation products of certain chemicals, such as diphenylguanidine (DPG) and diphenylamine (DPA), can be more toxic than the parent compounds, underscoring the need to fully understand these contaminants' environmental profile. Furthermore, we explore the potential human health implications of TWPs, emphasizing the need for further research on potential respiratory, cardiovascular, and endocrine disturbances. Addressing the challenges in characterizing TWPs, assessing their environmental fate, and understanding their potential health risks requires a multidisciplinary approach. Future research should prioritize standardized TWP characterization and leachate analysis methods, conduct field studies to enhance ecological realism, and utilize advanced analytical techniques to decipher complex mixture interactions and identify key toxicants. By addressing these challenges, we can better mitigate the environmental and health risks associated with TWPs and ensure a more sustainable future.

Airway contraction and cytokine release in isolated rat lungs induced by wear particles from the road and tire interface and road vehicle brakes

The dominant road traffic particle sources are wear particles from the road and tire interface, and from vehicle brake pads. The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of road and brake wear particles on pulmonary function and biomarkers in isolated perfused rat lungs. Particles were sampled from the studded tire wear of three road pavements containing different rock materials in a road simulator; and from the wear of two brake pad materials using a pin-on-disk machine. Isolated rat lungs inhaled the coarse and fine fractions of the sampled particles resulting in an estimated total particle lung dose of 50 μg. The tidal volume (TV) was measured during the particle exposure and the following 50 min. Perfusate and BALF were analyzed for the cytokines TNF, CXCL1 and CCL3. The TV of lungs exposed to rock materials was significantly reduced after 25 min of exposure compared to the controls, for quartzite already after 4 min. The particles of the heavy-duty brake pads had no effect on the TV. Brake particles resulted in a significant elevation of CXCL1 in the perfusate. Brake particles showed significant elevations of all three measured cytokines, and quartzite showed a significant elevation of TNF in BALF. The study shows that the toxic effect on lungs exposed to airborne particles can be investigated using measurements of tidal volume. Furthermore, the study shows that the choice of rock material in road pavements has the potential to affect the toxicity of road wear PM10.

Toxicity and health effects of ultrafine particles: Towards an understanding of the relative impacts of different transport modes

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) has been associated with a wide range of adverse health effects, but it is still unclear how particles from various transport modes differ in terms of toxicity and associations with different human health outcomes. This literature review aims to summarize toxicological and epidemiological studies of the effect of ultrafine particles (UFPs), also called nanoparticles (NPs, <100 nm), from different transport modes with a focus on vehicle exhaust (particularly comparing diesel and biodiesel) and non-exhaust as well as particles from shipping (harbor), aviation (airport) and rail (mainly subway/underground). The review includes both particles collected in laboratory tests and the field (intense traffic environments or collected close to harbor, airport, and in subway). In addition, epidemiological studies on UFPs are reviewed with special attention to studies aimed at distinguishing the effects of different transport modes. Results from toxicological studies indicate that both fossil and biodiesel NPs show toxic effects. Several in vivo studies show that inhalation of NPs collected in traffic environments not only impacts the lung, but also triggers cardiovascular effects as well as negative impacts on the brain, although few studies compared NPs from different sources. Few studies were found on aviation (airport) NPs, but the available results suggest similar toxic effects as traffic-related particles. There is still little data related to the toxic effects linked to several sources (shipping, road and tire wear, subway NPs), but in vitro results highlighted the role of metals in the toxicity of subway and brake wear particles. Finally, the epidemiological studies emphasized the current limited knowledge of the health impacts of source-specific UFPs related to different transport modes. This review discusses the necessity of future research for a better understanding of the relative potencies of NPs from different transport modes and their use in health risk assessment.

Control of Tire Wear Particulate Matter through Tire Tread Prescription

This study aims to analyze tire wear particulate matter (TWP) from tread rubber with different formulations and to compare the concentration of TWP with different wear devices. The TWP generated during the abrasion of truck and bus radial (TBR) tires were examined, and the effect of using different types of rubber and carbon black (CB) were investigated. When natural rubber (NR) was solely used as the tire tread rubber material, there was a higher concentration of 5-10 µm TWP. However, when the tread formulation consisted of NR mixed with butadiene rubber, the TWP concentration decreased. Changing the type of CB also reduced the amount of TWP in the 2.5 µm size range. The TWP concentration in the specimens increased with increasing speed and vertical load. The TWP generated during the abrasion tests using wear testers and tire simulators exhibited similar trends. These findings suggest that modifying tire tread formulations can effectively control the distribution and amount of TWP generation.

A Review of Road Traffic-Derived Non-Exhaust Particles: Emissions, Physicochemical Characteristics, Health Risks, and Mitigation Measures

Implementation of regulatory standards has reduced exhaust emissions of particulate matter from road traffic substantially in the developed world. However, nonexhaust particle emissions arising from the wear of brakes, tires, and the road surface, together with the resuspension of road dust, are unregulated and exceed exhaust emissions in many jurisdictions. While knowledge of the sources of nonexhaust particles is fairly good, source-specific measurements of airborne concentrations are few, and studies of the toxicology and epidemiology do not give a clear picture of the health risk posed. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge, with a strong focus on health-related research, highlighting areas where further research is an essential prerequisite for developing focused policy responses to nonexhaust particles.

Applying Existing Particle Paradigms to Inhaled Microplastic Particles

Ambient particulate pollution originating from plastic contaminates air, including indoor and urban environments. The recent discovery of ambient microplastic (MP) particles of a size capable of depositing in the thoracic region of the airway, if inhaled, has raised concern for public exposure and health impacts following lessons learned from other particle domains. Current microplastic exposure estimates are relatively low compared to total ambient particulate matter, but optimal analytical techniques and therefore data for risk and health impact assessments are lacking. In the absence of such an evidence base, this paper explores paradigms, metrics and dose-response curves developed in other particle domains as a starting point for predicting whether microplastic are of concern. Bio-persistence, presence of reactive sites and soluble toxicants are likely key properties in microplastic toxicity, but these are not measured in environmental studies and hence are challenging to interpret in exposure. Data from a MP inhalation study in rats is available but the study was conducted using conditions that do not replicate the known human health effects of PM_2.5 or surrogate exposures: compromised, aged animal models are recommended to investigate potential parallels between MPs and PM_2.5. One of these parallels is provided by tire wear particles (TWP), which form part of current ambient PM and are sometimes regarded as microplastic. A connection to epidemiological studies where PM filters are still available is recommended and consequently analytical advances are required. In summary, established particle domains and existing paradigms provide valuable insight and data that can be used to predict MP toxicity, and direct study design and key properties to consider in this emerging field.

Static modelling of the material flows of micro- and nanoplastic particles caused by the use of vehicle tyres

The emissions of tyre wear particles (TWPs) into the environment are increasing and have negative impacts on the environment and human health. The aim of this study was therefore to establish a mass balance for vehicle tyres und TWP emissions in Austria using static material flow analysis, which enabled a quantification of mass flows of rubber including carbon black as the most mass-relevant tyre filler. Vehicle-specific and mileage-dependent emission factors were used to calculate the TWP emissions. The results for the year 2018 indicate that 80% of the tyre rubber remained in use, while 14% was re-treaded, recycled, incinerated or exported as end-of-life tyres and 6% was emitted as TWPs to air, soil or surface water. Of these 21,200 t/y released and dissipative lost TWPs, 6% were microscale, with a possible size between 0.1 and 10 μm, and 0.3% were nanoscale below 0.1 μm. The mass balance on the substance level shows that the TWPs contained 5,500 t/y of carbon black emitted in the form of airborne TWPs (6%) or entering in the soil or surface waters (47% each). Regarding air pollution from road vehicles, about 3,600 t/y were non-exhaust emissions, including tyre, brake and road-surface wear, which contributed to 9% of total dust emissions across Austria. Scenario analysis for 2050 with regard to e-mobility and the European Green Deal reveals that non-exhaust emissions can only be significantly reduced by a general reduction of the mileage or an environmentally friendly tyre design. This modelling approach provides a solid basis for decision makers in traffic planning as well as for chemical risk assessment. However, dynamic models with higher temporal and spatial resolution are needed to predict future mass flows of TWPs and their environmental fate, including their degradation products and possible accumulation effects.

Tyre and road wear particles (TRWP) - A review of generation, properties, emissions, human health risk, ecotoxicity, and fate in the environment

In this paper, the current knowledge on tyre and road wear particles (TRWP) is compiled regarding all environmental and health aspects. TRWP generated on roads during driving processes contribute to airborne non-exhaust emissions and are discussed in connection with the microplastic pollution. The major amount of TRWP consists of coarser heterogenous particles released to road surface, soils and aquatic compartments. The extensive compilation of annual emissions of tyre wear for numerous countries shows per-capita-masses ranging from 0.2 to 5.5 kg/(cap*a). Ecotoxicological studies revealed effects on aquatic organisms, but test concentrations and materials do not reflect environmental conditions. Contribution of tyre wear to PM10 accounts for up to approx. 11 mass %. A recent thorough risk assessment indicates the risk for human health via inhalation to be low, but no information is available on the risk caused by intake via the food chain. Data on degradation is scarce and most studies do not use realistic materials and conditions. The only published degradation study performed under environmental conditions implies a half-life of tyre rubber particles in soils of 16 months. For truck tyres, which mainly contain natural rubber, shorter periods were observed under optimum conditions in laboratory tests. Concentrations of tyre wear compiled from environmental monitoring studies show highly variable concentrations in road runoff, road dust, roadside soils, river sediments and river water, with a general decrease following the transport paths. However, the behaviour of TRWP in freshwater referring to transport, degradation, and sedimentation is still unclarified. Environmental monitoring of TRWP is still hampered by challenges for analytics. Thus, data on environmental concentrations is rare and has mainly exemplary character. Further research is needed with regard to emission factors, development of analytical methods for environmental matrices, long-period monitoring, fate in surface waters and soils, (eco)toxicological impacts and degradation under realistic conditions.

Variation of the chemical composition of street dust in a highly industrialized city in the interval of ten years

Street dust can be re-suspended into the atmosphere by wind and vehicle passage in an urban area. Street dust is affecting the environmental quality of the atmosphere and human health. A detailed study was conducted to determine the changes in concentrations of heavy metals and magnetic susceptibility by comparison of samples of street dust obtained in the years 2008 and 2018 at the same localities. An amount of dust per m² of road area was highly variable for individual localities (47 g/m² - 1.37 kg/m²), with arithmetic mean (229.7 ± 85.97 g/m²) in the year 2018. Silt particles in street dust (<0.063 mm) represented approx. 15-20%, sand particles approx. 63-70% and gravel 10-20%. Iron (5-6%) has significant concentrations in street dust. The highest concentrations are represented by the series Mn ˃ Zn ˃ Cr ˃ Cu ˃ Pb ˃ Ni. Comparison of metal concentrations in the years 2008 and 2018 showed a comparable level of iron and a lower level of lead. The significant enrichment was found for Cu, Cr and Zn expressed by enrichment factor in the range from 5 to 20. High values of magnetic susceptibility of street dust are caused by metallurgy. Metals except Cu are bound in magnetic particles and have a high correlation coefficient with magnetic susceptibility.

Wear and Tear of Tyres: A Stealthy Source of Microplastics in the Environment

Wear and tear from tyres significantly contributes to the flow of (micro-)plastics into the environment. This paper compiles the fragmented knowledge on tyre wear and tear characteristics, amounts of particles emitted, pathways in the environment, and the possible effects on humans. The estimated per capita emission ranges from 0.23 to 4.7 kg/year, with a global average of 0.81 kg/year. The emissions from car tyres (100%) are substantially higher than those of other sources of microplastics, e.g., airplane tyres (2%), artificial turf (12–50%), brake wear (8%) and road markings (5%). Emissions and pathways depend on local factors like road type or sewage systems. The relative contribution of tyre wear and tear to the total global amount of plastics ending up in our oceans is estimated to be 5–10%. In air, 3–7% of the particulate matter (PM_2.5) is estimated to consist of tyre wear and tear, indicating that it may contribute to the global health burden of air pollution which has been projected by the World Health Organization (WHO) at 3 million deaths in 2012. The wear and tear also enters our food chain, but further research is needed to assess human health risks. It is concluded here that tyre wear and tear is a stealthy source of microplastics in our environment, which can only be addressed effectively if awareness increases, knowledge gaps on quantities and effects are being closed, and creative technical solutions are being sought. This requires a global effort from all stakeholders; consumers, regulators, industry and researchers alike.

Road Environments: Impact of Metals on Human Health in Heavily Congested Cities of Poland

Road dust as a by-product of exhaust and non-exhaust emissions can be a major cause of systemic oxidative stress and multiple disorders. Substantial amounts of road dust are repeatedly resuspended, in particular at traffic lights and junctions where more braking is involved, causing potential threat to pedestrians, especially children. In order to determine the degree of contamination in the heavily traffic-congested cities of Poland, a total of 148 samples of road dust (RD), sludge from storm drains (SL) and roadside soil (RS) were collected. Sixteen metals were analysed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in all samples. Chemical evaluation followed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed that road environments have been severely contaminated with traffic-related elements. Concentration of copper in all road-environment samples is even higher, exceeding even up to 15 times its average concentrations established for the surrounding soils. Non-carcinogenic health risk assessment revealed that the hazard index (HI) for children in all road-environment samples exceeds the safe level of 1. Therefore, greater attention should be paid to potential health risks caused by the ingestion of traffic-related particles during outdoor activities.

Health effects of carbon-containing particulate matter: focus on sources and recent research program results

Air pollution is a complex mixture of gas-, vapor-, and particulate-phase materials comprised of inorganic and organic species. Many of these components have been associated with adverse health effects in epidemiological and toxicological studies, including a broad spectrum of carbonaceous atmospheric components. This paper reviews recent literature on the health impacts of organic aerosols, with a focus on specific sources of organic material; it is not intended to be a comprehensive review of all the available literature. Specific emission sources reviewed include engine emissions, wood/biomass combustion emissions, biogenic emissions and secondary organic aerosol (SOA), resuspended road dust, tire and brake wear, and cooking emissions. In addition, recent findings from large toxicological and epidemiological research programs are reviewed in the context of organic PM, including SPHERES, NPACT, NERC, ACES, and TERESA. A review of the extant literature suggests that there are clear health impacts from emissions containing carbon-containing PM, but difficulty remains in apportioning responses to certain groupings of carbonaceous materials, such as organic and elemental carbon, condensed and gas phases, and primary and secondary material. More focused epidemiological and toxicological studies, including increased characterization of organic materials, would increase understanding of this issue.

Use of a deuterated internal standard with pyrolysis-GC/MS dimeric marker analysis to quantify tire tread particles in the environment

Pyrolysis(pyr)-GC/MS analysis of characteristic thermal decomposition fragments has been previously used for qualitative fingerprinting of organic sources in environmental samples. A quantitative pyr-GC/MS method based on characteristic tire polymer pyrolysis products was developed for tread particle quantification in environmental matrices including soil, sediment, and air. The feasibility of quantitative pyr-GC/MS analysis of tread was confirmed in a method evaluation study using artificial soil spiked with known amounts of cryogenically generated tread. Tread concentration determined by blinded analyses was highly correlated (r2 ≥ 0.88) with the known tread spike concentration. Two critical refinements to the initial pyrolysis protocol were identified including use of an internal standard and quantification by the dimeric markers vinylcyclohexene and dipentene, which have good specificity for rubber polymer with no other appreciable environmental sources. A novel use of deuterated internal standards of similar polymeric structure was developed to correct the variable analyte recovery caused by sample size, matrix effects, and ion source variability. The resultant quantitative pyr-GC/MS protocol is reliable and transferable between laboratories.