Free radicals and antioxidants at a glance using EPR spectroscopy

Advancements in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy: A comprehensive tool for pharmaceutical research

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy has long been established across various scientific disciplines for characterizing organic radicals, organometallic complexes, protein structures and dynamics, polymerization processes, and radical degradation phenomena. Despite its extensive utility in these areas, EPR spectroscopy's application within pharmaceutical science has historically been constrained, primarily due to factors such as high equipment costs, a steep learning curve, complex spectral deconvolution and analysis, and a traditional lack of emphasis on single-electron chemistry in pharmaceutical research. This review aims to provide a thorough examination of EPR spectroscopy's applications in analyzing a wide array of para-magnetic species relevant to pharmaceutical research. We detail how EPR spectroscopy can be employed to assess free radical scavenging properties in pharmaceutical compounds, elucidate drug mechanisms of action, and explore pharmacokinetics. Additionally, we investigate the role of free radicals in drug-induced toxicity and drug-membrane interactions, while also covering the application of EPR spectroscopy in drug delivery research, advanced studies of metallodrugs, and monitoring of oxygen levels in biological systems through EPR oximetry. The recent advancements in the miniaturization of EPR spectro meters have paved the way for their application in on-site and in-line mo nitoring during the manufacturing process and quality control of pharmaceutical substances and final drug formulations due to being the only direct and non-invasive detection technique for radical detection. Through these discussions, we highlight the substantial contributions of EPR spectroscopy to the advancement of pharmaceutical sciences.

Hepatotoxic Evaluation of N-(2-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-Propylpentanamide: A Novel Derivative of Valproic Acid for the Treatment of Cancer

Valproic acid (VPA) is a drug that has various therapeutic applications; however, it has been associated with liver damage. Furthermore, it is interesting to propose new compounds derived from VPA as N-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-2-propylpentanamide (HO-AAVPA). The HO-AAVPA has better antiproliferative activity than the VPA in different cancer cell lines. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the liver injury of HO-AAVPA by acute treatment (once administration) and repeated doses for 7 days under intraperitoneal administration. The median lethal dose value (LD50) was determined in rats and mice (females and males) using OECD Guideline 425. In the study, male rats were randomly divided into 4 groups (n = 7), G1: control (without treatment), G2: vehicle, G3: VPA (500 mg/kg), and G4: HO-AAVPA (708 mg/kg, in equimolar ratio to VPA). Some biomarkers related to hepatotoxicity were evaluated. In addition, macroscopic and histological studies were performed. The LD50 value of HO-AAVPA was greater than 2000 mg/kg. Regarding macroscopy and biochemistry, the HO-AAVPA does not induce liver injury according to the measures of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, and catalase activities. Comparing the treatment with HO-AAVPA and VPA did not show a significant difference with the control group, while malondialdehyde and glutathione-reduced levels in the group treated with HO-AAVPA were close to those of the control (p ≤ 0.05). The histological study shows that liver lesions caused by HO-AAVPA were less severe compared with VPA. Therefore, it is suggested that HO-AAVPA does not induce hepatotoxicity at therapeutic doses, considering that in the future it could be proposed as an antineoplastic drug.

Emerging Evidence of the Significance of Thioredoxin-1 in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Aging

The United States is undergoing a demographic shift towards an older population with profound economic, social, and healthcare implications. The number of Americans aged 65 and older will reach 80 million by 2040. The shift will be even more dramatic in the extremes of age, with a projected 400% increase in the population over 85 years old in the next two decades. Understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms of ageing is crucial to reduce ageing-associated disease and to improve the quality of life for the elderly. In this review, we summarized the changes associated with the ageing of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and what is known about some of the key underlying cellular and molecular pathways. We focus here on the effects of reactive oxygen species and the thioredoxin redox homeostasis system on ageing biology in HSCs and the HSC microenvironment. We present additional data from our lab demonstrating the key role of thioredoxin-1 in regulating HSC ageing.

Dynamic Visualization of Free Radicals at Single Oxygen Bubbles using Chemiluminescence

The generation of free radicals is a key process in the formation and the collapse of the bubbles in water, however, the direct and dynamic observation of the radicals in this process at single bubbles has never been achieved. Here, the hydroxyl (OH^. ) and oxygen (O₂ ^.- ) radicals at single oxygen bubbles are continuously traced using chemiluminescence (CL), in which these radicals at the bubble react with the surrounding luminol in the solution emitting the light. Varied increase trends of luminescence are observed in the generation of a bubble, floating, short parking at the water/air interface and the final explosion, revealing the complexity in the distribution of radicals at the bubble unprecedentedly. Despite more radicals are observed at the bubble generated at a deep position under the water for the stabilization, almost the same amount of radicals are included in the bubbles that is independent on the water pressure during the production of the bubble. This rich information collected from the dynamic study of bubbles illustrates the complicated generation and distribution process of radicals at the bubbles, and will facilitate the understanding of the function about the bubbles.

Vitamin C (Ascorbate) and Redox Topics in Cancer

Significance: Vitamin C (ascorbate), in regard to its effectiveness against malignancies, has had a controversial history in cancer treatment. It has been shown that in vitro and in vivo anticancer efficacy of ascorbate relies on its pro-oxidant effect mainly from an increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). A growing understanding of its anticancer activities and pharmacokinetic properties has prompted scientists to re-evaluate the significance of ascorbate in cancer treatment. Recent Advances: A recent resurge in ascorbate research emerged after discovering that, at high doses, ascorbate preferentially kills Kirsten-Ras (K-ras)- and B-raf oncogene (BRAF)-mutant cancer cells. In addition, some of the main hallmarks of cancer cells, such as redox homeostasis and oxygen-sensing regulation (through inhibition of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha [HIF-1α] activity), are affected by vitamin C. Critical Issues: Currently, there is no clear consensus from the literature in regard to the beneficial effects of antioxidants. Results from both human and animal studies provide no clear evidence about the benefit of antioxidant treatment in preventing or suppressing cancer development. Since pro-oxidants may affect both normal and tumor cells, the extremely low toxicity of ascorbate represents a main advantage. This guarantees the safe inclusion of ascorbate in clinical protocols to treat cancer patients. Future Directions: Current research could focus on elucidating the wide array of reactions between ascorbate and reactive species, namely ROS, reactive nitrogen species as well as reactive sulfide species, and their intracellular molecular targets. Unraveling these mechanisms could allow researchers to assess what could be the optimal combination of ascorbate with standard treatments.

EPR Study of KO2 as a Source of Superoxide and •BMPO-OH/OOH Radical That Cleaves Plasmid DNA and Detects Radical Interaction with H2S and Se-Derivatives

Superoxide radical anion (O₂^•−) and its derivatives regulate numerous physiological and pathological processes, which are extensively studied. The aim of our work was to utilize KO₂ as a source of O₂^•− and the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spin trapping 5-tert-butoxycarbonyl-5-methyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide (BMPO) technique for the preparation of ^•BMPO-OOH and/or ^•BMPO-OH radicals in water solution without DMSO. The method distinguishes the interactions of various compounds with ^•BMPO-OOH and/or ^•BMPO-OH radicals over time. Here, we show that the addition of a buffered BMPO-HCl mixture to powdered KO₂ formed relatively stable ^•BMPO-OOH and ^•BMPO-OH radicals and H₂O₂, where the ^•BMPO-OOH/OH ratio depended on the pH. At a final pH of ~6.5–8.0, the concentration of ^•BMPO-OOH radicals was ≥20 times higher than that of ^•BMPO-OH, whereas at pH 9.0–10.0, the ^•BMPO-OH radicals prevailed. The ^•BMPO-OOH/OH radicals effectively cleaved the plasmid DNA. H₂S decreased the concentration of ^•BMPO-OOH/OH radicals, whereas the selenium derivatives 1-methyl-4-(3-(phenylselanyl) propyl) piperazine and 1-methyl-4-(4-(phenylselanyl) butyl) piperazine increased the proportion of ^•BMPO-OH over the ^•BMPO-OOH radicals. In conclusion, the presented approach of using KO₂ as a source of O₂^•−/H₂O₂ and EPR spin trap BMPO for the preparation of ^•BMPO-OOH/OH radicals in a physiological solution could be useful to study the biological effects of radicals and their interactions with compounds.

Environmental risk of nanomaterials and nanoparticles and EPR technique as an effective tool to study them-a review

Nanotechnologies and different types of nanomaterials belong in present day to intensively studied materials due to their unique properties and diverse potential applications in, e.g., electronics, medicine, or display technologies. Together with the investigation of their desired beneficial properties, a need to investigate and evaluate their influence on the environment and possible harmful effects towards living organisms is growing. This review summarizes possible toxic effects of nanomaterials on environment and living organisms, focusing on the possible bioaccumulation in organisms, toxicity, and its mechanisms. The main goal of this review is to refer to potential environmental risks rising from the use of nanomaterials and the necessity to deal with the possible toxic effects considering the growing interest in the wide-scale utilization of these materials. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy as the only analytical technique capable of detecting radical species enables detection, quantification, and monitoring of the generation of short-lived radicals often coupled with toxic effects of nanomaterials, which makes it an important method in the process of nanotoxicity mechanism determination.

Oxidative stress biomarkers in the preterm infant

Oxidative stress (OS) plays a key role in the pathophysiology of preterm infants. Accurate assessment of OS remains an analytical challenge that has been partially addressed during the last few decades. A plethora of approaches have been developed to assess preterm biofluids to demonstrate a link postnatally with preterm OS, giving rise to a set of widely employed biomarkers. However, the vast number of different analytic methods and lack of standardization hampers reliable comparison of OS-related biomarkers. In this chapter, we discuss approaches for the study of OS in prematurity with respect to methodologic considerations, the metabolic source of different biomarkers and their role in clinical studies.

Formation and Stabilization of Gold Nanoparticles in Bovine Serum Albumin Solution

The formation and growth of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were investigated in pH 7 buffer solution of bovine serum albumin (BSA) at room temperature. The processes were monitored by UV-Vis, circular dichroism, Raman and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopies. TEM microscopy and dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements were used to evidence changes in particle size during nanoparticle formation and growth. The formation of AuNPs at pH 7 in the absence of BSA was not observed, which proves that the albumin is involved in the first step of Au(III) reduction. Changes in the EPR spectral features of two spin probes, CAT16 and DIS3, with affinity for BSA and AuNPs, respectively, allowed us to monitor the particle growth and to demonstrate the protective role of BSA for AuNPs. The size of AuNPs formed in BSA solution increases slowly with time, resulting in nanoparticles of different morphologies, as revealed by TEM. Raman spectra of BSA indicate the interaction of albumin with AuNPs through sulfur-containing amino acid residues. This study shows that albumins act as both reducing agents and protective corona of AuNPs.

Redox Signaling by Reactive Electrophiles and Oxidants

The concept of cell signaling in the context of nonenzyme-assisted protein modifications by reactive electrophilic and oxidative species, broadly known as redox signaling, is a uniquely complex topic that has been approached from numerous different and multidisciplinary angles. Our Review reflects on five aspects critical for understanding how nature harnesses these noncanonical post-translational modifications to coordinate distinct cellular activities: (1) specific players and their generation, (2) physicochemical properties, (3) mechanisms of action, (4) methods of interrogation, and (5) functional roles in health and disease. Emphasis is primarily placed on the latest progress in the field, but several aspects of classical work likely forgotten/lost are also recollected. For researchers with interests in getting into the field, our Review is anticipated to function as a primer. For the expert, we aim to stimulate thought and discussion about fundamentals of redox signaling mechanisms and nuances of specificity/selectivity and timing in this sophisticated yet fascinating arena at the crossroads of chemistry and biology.

Aromatic Regions Govern the Recognition of NADPH Oxidase Inhibitors as Diapocynin and its Analogues

Oxidative stress is related to the pathogenesis and progress of several human diseases. NADPH oxidase (NOX), and mainly the NOX2 isoform, produces superoxide anions (O₂^•- ). To date, it is known that NOX2 can be inhibited by preventing the assembly of its subunits, p47phox and p22phox. In this work, we analyzed the binding to NOX2 of the apocynin dimer, diapocynin (C1), a known NOX2 inhibitor, and of 18 designed compounds (C2-C19) which have chemical relationships to C1, by in silico methods employing a p47phox structure from the Protein Data Bank (PDB code: 1WLP). C1 and six of the designed compounds were recognized in the region where p22phox binds to p47phox and makes π-π interactions principally with W193, W263, and Y279, which form an aromatic-rich region. C8 was chosen as the best compound according to the in silico studies and was synthesized and evaluated in vitro. C8 was able to prevent the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) similar to C1. In conclusion, targeting the aromatic region of p47phox through π-interactions is important for inhibiting NOX activity.

Labile iron potentiates ascorbate-dependent reduction and mobilization of ferritin iron

Ascorbate mobilizes iron from equine spleen ferritin by two separate processes. Ascorbate alone mobilizes ferritin iron with an apparent K_{m (ascorbate)} ≈1.5mM. Labile iron >2μM, complexed with citrate (10mM), synergises ascorbate-dependent iron mobilization by decreasing the apparent K_{m (ascorbate)} to ≈270μM and raising maximal mobilization rate by ≈5-fold. Catalase reduces the apparent K_m(ascorbate) for both ascorbate and ascorbate+iron dependent mobilization by ≈80%. Iron mobilization by ascorbate alone has a higher activation energy (E_a=45.0±5.5kJ/mole) than when mediated by ascorbate with labile iron (10μM) (E_a=13.7±2.2kJ/mole); also mobilization by iron-ascorbate has a three-fold higher pH sensitivity (pH range 6.0-8.0) than with ascorbate alone. Hydrogen peroxide inhibits ascorbate's iron mobilizing action. EPR and autochemiluminescence studies show that ascorbate and labile iron within ferritin enhances radical formation, whereas ascorbate alone produces negligible radicals. These findings suggest that iron catalysed single electron transfer reactions from ascorbate, involving ascorbate or superoxide and possibly ferroxidase tyrosine radicals, accelerate iron mobilization from the ferroxidase centre more than EPR silent, bi-dentate two-electron transfers. These differing modes of electron transference from ascorbate mirror the known mono and bidentate oxidation reactions of dioxygen and hydrogen peroxide with di-ferrous iron at the ferroxidase centre. This study implies that labile iron, at physiological pH, complexed with citrate, synergises iron mobilization from ferritin by ascorbate (50-4000μM). This autocatalytic process can exacerbate oxidative stress in ferritin-containing inflamed tissue.

Antioxidative Activity of Colostrum and Human Milk: Effects of Pasteurization and Storage

OBJECTIVES

Milk banks collect, pasteurize, and freeze/store human milk. The processing may alter redox properties of milk, but the effects have not been fully examined.

METHODS

We collected 10 mature milk and 10 colostrum samples and applied a battery of biochemical assays and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy to inspect changes that milk undergoes with pasteurization and 30 days storage at -20°C.

RESULTS

Pasteurization and storage of raw milk did not affect total nonenzymatic antioxidative capacity, but specific components and features were altered. Urate radical and ascorbyl radical emerge as products of exposure of milk to hydroxyl radical-generating system. Processing shifted the load of antioxidative activity from ascorbate to urate and lowered the capacity of milk to diminish hydroxyl radical. Pasteurization caused a significant drop in the activity of 2 major antioxidative enzymes-superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase, whereas freezing/storage of raw milk affected only superoxide dismutase. Colostrum showed drastically higher total nonenzymatic antioxidative capacity, hydroxyl radical scavenging ability, and glutathione reductase activity compared with mature milk.

CONCLUSIONS

Pasteurization and storage affect nonenzymatic and enzymatic antioxidative agents in human milk. It appears that nonenzymatic antioxidative systems in colostrum and milk are different. The effects of processing may be partially compensated by fortification/spiking with ascorbate before use.

Physiological and pathophysiological reactive oxygen species as probed by EPR spectroscopy: the underutilized research window on muscle ageing

Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) play crucial roles in triggering, mediating and regulating physiological and pathophysiological signal transduction pathways within the cell. Within the cell, ROS efflux is firmly controlled both spatially and temporally, making the study of ROS dynamics a challenging task. Different approaches have been developed for ROS assessment; however, many of these assays are not capable of direct identification or determination of subcellular localization of different ROS. Here we highlight electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy as a powerful technique that is uniquely capable of addressing questions on ROS dynamics in different biological specimens and cellular compartments. Due to their critical importance in muscle functions and dysfunction, we discuss in some detail spin trapping of various ROS and focus on EPR detection of nitric oxide before highlighting how EPR can be utilized to probe biophysical characteristics of the environment surrounding a given stable radical. Despite the demonstrated ability of EPR spectroscopy to provide unique information on the identity, quantity, dynamics and environment of radical species, its applications in the field of muscle physiology, fatiguing and ageing are disproportionately infrequent. While reviewing the limited examples of successful EPR applications in muscle biology we conclude that the field would greatly benefit from more studies exploring ROS sources and kinetics by spin trapping, protein dynamics by site-directed spin labelling, and membrane dynamics and global redox changes by spin probing EPR approaches.

Dermal Exposure to Cumene Hydroperoxide: Assessing Its Toxic Relevance and Oxidant Potential

Cumene hydroperoxide (CHP) is a high production volume chemical that is used to generate phenol and acetone. Dermal exposure to CHP was hypothesized to result in systemic tissue toxicity, production of free radicals, and consequent decrease in plasma antioxidant levels. To evaluate the hypothesis and characterize the toxicity of CHP, male and female B6C3F1/N mice and F344/N rats were exposed to varying doses of CHP applied topically for 14 or 90 days. No significant changes in survival or body weight of mice and rats were observed following 14 days of exposure. However, 90 days of CHP exposure at the high dose (12 mg/kg) triggered a significant decrease (-15%) in the body weight of the male rat group only. Irritation of the skin was observed at the site of application and was characterized by inflammation and epidermal hyperplasia. In treated animals, histology of liver tissue, free radical generation, and antioxidant levels in blood plasma were not significantly changed as compared to the corresponding controls. Consistent with the lack of systemic damage, no increase in micronucleated erythrocytes was seen in peripheral blood. In conclusion, topical CHP application caused skin damage only at the application site and did not cause systemic tissue impairment.

The relationship of physicochemical properties to the antioxidative activity of free amino acids in Fenton system

Herein we compared antioxidative activities (AA) of 25 free L-amino acids (FAA) against Fenton system-mediated hydroxyl radical (HO(•)) production in aqueous solution, and examined the relation between AA and a set of physicochemical properties. The rank order according to AA was: Trp > norleucine > Phe, Leu > Ile > His >3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, Arg > Val > Lys, Tyr, Pro > hydroxyproline > α-aminobutyric acid > Gln, Thr, Ser > Glu, Ala, Gly, Asn, Asp. Sulfur-containing FAA generated different secondary reactive products, which were discriminated by the means of electron paramagnetic resonance spin-trapping spectroscopy. AA showed a general positive correlation with hydrophobicity. However, when taken separately, uncharged FAA exhibited strong positive correlation of AA with hydrophobicity whereas charged FAA showed negative or no significant correlation depending on the scale applied. A general strong negative correlation was found between AA and polarity. Steric parameters and hydration numbers correlated positively with AA of nonpolar side-chain FAA. In addition, a decrease of temperature which promotes hydrophobic hydration resulted in increased AA. This implies that HO(•)-provoked oxidation of FAA is strongly affected by hydrophobic hydration. Our findings are important for the understanding of oxidation processes in natural and waste waters.

Radical intermediates in photoinduced reactions on TiO2 (an EPR spin trapping study)

The radical intermediates formed upon UVA irradiation of titanium dioxide suspensions in aqueous and non-aqueous environments were investigated applying the EPR spin trapping technique. The results showed that the generation of reactive species and their consecutive reactions are influenced by the solvent properties (e.g., polarity, solubility of molecular oxygen, rate constant for the reaction of hydroxyl radicals with the solvent). The formation of hydroxyl radicals, evidenced as the corresponding spin-adducts, dominated in the irradiated TiO₂ aqueous suspensions. The addition of ¹⁷O-enriched water caused changes in the EPR spectra reflecting the interaction of an unpaired electron with the ¹⁷O nucleus. The photoexcitation of TiO₂ in non-aqueous solvents (dimethylsulfoxide, acetonitrile, methanol and ethanol) in the presence of 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide spin trap displayed a stabilization of the superoxide radical anions generated via electron transfer reaction to molecular oxygen, and various oxygen- and carbon-centered radicals from the solvents were generated. The character and origin of the carbon-centered spin-adducts was confirmed using nitroso spin trapping agents.

Extracellular iron diminishes anticancer effects of vitamin C: an in vitro study

In vitro studies have shown that hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) produced by high-concentration ascorbate and cell culture medium iron efficiently kills cancer cells. This provided the rationale for clinical trials of high-dose intravenous ascorbate-based treatment for cancer. A drawback in all the in vitro studies was their failure to take into account the in vivo concentration of iron to supplement cell culture media which are characterized by low iron content. Here we showed, using two prostate cancer cell lines (LNCaP and PC-3) and primary astrocytes, that the anticancer/cytotoxic effects of ascorbate are completely abolished by iron at physiological concentrations in cell culture medium and human plasma. A detailed examination of mechanisms showed that iron at physiological concentrations promotes both production and decomposition of H₂O₂. The latter is mediated by Fenton reaction and prevents H₂O₂ accumulation. The hydroxyl radical, which is produced in the Fenton reaction, is buffered by extracellular proteins, and could not affect intracellular targets like H₂O₂. These findings show that anticancer effects of ascorbate have been significantly overestimated in previous in vitro studies, and that common cell culture media might be unsuitable for redox research.

Mechanisms of ascorbyl radical formation in human platelet-rich plasma

Recently, many clinical reports have suggested that the ascorbyl free radical (Asc^∙) can be treated as a noninvasive, reliable, real-time marker of oxidative stress, but its generation mechanisms in human blood have rarely been discussed. In this study, we used upstream substances, enzyme inhibitors, and free radical scavengers to delineate the mechanisms of Asc^∙ formation in human platelet-rich plasma (PRP). Our results show that the doublet signal was detected in PRP samples by using electron spin resonance, and the hyperfine splitting of the doublet signal was a^H = 1.88 gauss and g-factor = 2.00627, which was determined to be the Asc^∙. We observed that the inhibitors of NADPH oxidase (NOX), cyclooxygenase (COX), lipoxygenase (LOX), cytochrome P450 (CYP450), mitochondria complex III, and nitric oxide synthase (NOS), but not xanthine oxidase, diminished the intensity of the Asc^∙ signal dose dependently. All enzyme inhibitors showed no obvious antioxidant activity during a Fenton reaction assay. In summary, the obtained data suggest that Asc^∙ formation is associated with NOX, COX, LOX, CYP450, eNOS, and mitochondria in human PRP.

The effect of alcohols on red blood cell mechanical properties and membrane fluidity depends on their molecular size

The role of membrane fluidity in determining red blood cell (RBC) deformability has been suggested by a number of studies. The present investigation evaluated alterations of RBC membrane fluidity, deformability and stability in the presence of four linear alcohols (methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol) using ektacytometry and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. All alcohols had a biphasic effect on deformability such that it increased then decreased with increasing concentration; the critical concentration for reversal was an inverse function of molecular size. EPR results showed biphasic changes of near-surface fluidity (i.e., increase then decrease) and a decreased fluidity of the lipid core; rank order of effectiveness was butanol > propanol > ethanol > methanol, with a significant correlation between near-surface fluidity and deformability (r = 0.697; p<0.01). The presence of alcohol enhanced the impairment of RBC deformability caused by subjecting cells to 100 Pa shear stress for 300 s, with significant differences from control being observed at higher concentrations of all four alcohols. The level of hemolysis was dependent on molecular size and concentration, whereas echinocytic shape transformation (i.e., biconcave disc to crenated morphology) was observed only for ethanol and propanol. These results are in accordance with available data obtained on model membranes. They document the presence of mechanical links between RBC deformability and near-surface membrane fluidity, chain length-dependence of the ability of alcohols to alter RBC mechanical behavior, and the biphasic response of RBC deformability and near-surface membrane fluidity to increasing alcohol concentrations.

Ethers and esters derived from apocynin avoid the interaction between p47phox and p22phox subunits of NADPH oxidase: evaluation in vitro and in silico

NOX (NADPH oxidase) plays an important role during several pathologies because it produces the superoxide anion (O₂^•−), which reacts with NO (nitric oxide), diminishing its vasodilator effect. Although different isoforms of NOX are expressed in ECs (endothelial cells) of blood vessels, the NOX2 isoform has been considered the principal therapeutic target for vascular diseases because it can be up-regulated by inhibiting the interaction between its p47phox (cytosolic protein) and p22phox (transmembrane protein) subunits. In this research, two ethers, 4-(4-acetyl-2-methoxy-phenoxy)-acetic acid (1) and 4-(4-acetyl-2-methoxy-phenoxy)-butyric acid (2) and two esters, pentanedioic acid mono-(4-acetyl-2-methoxy-phenyl) ester (3) and heptanedioic acid mono-(4-acetyl-2-methoxy-phenyl) ester (4), which are apocynin derivatives were designed, synthesized and evaluated as NOX inhibitors by quantifying O₂^•− production using EPR (electron paramagnetic resonance) measurements. In addition, the antioxidant activity of apocynin and its derivatives were determined. A docking study was used to identify the interactions between the NOX2′s p47phox subunit and apocynin or its derivatives. The results showed that all of the compounds exhibit inhibitory activity on NOX, being 4 the best derivative. However, neither apocynin nor its derivatives were free radical scavengers. On the other hand, the in silico studies demonstrated that the apocynin and its derivatives were recognized by the polybasic SH3A and SH3B domains, which are regions of p47phox that interact with p22phox. Therefore this experimental and theoretical study suggests that compound 4 could prevent the formation of the complex between p47phox and p22phox without needing to be activated by MPO (myeloperoxidase), this being an advantage over apocynin.

PGC1α and mitochondrial metabolism--emerging concepts and relevance in ageing and neurodegenerative disorders

PGC1α is a transcriptional coactivator that is a central inducer of mitochondrial biogenesis in cells. Recent work highlighted that PGC1α can also modulate the composition and functions of individual mitochondria. Therefore, it is emerging that PGC1α is controlling global oxidative metabolism by performing two types of remodelling: (1) cellular remodelling through mitochondrial biogenesis, and (2) organelle remodelling through alteration in the intrinsic properties of mitochondria. The elevated oxidative metabolism associated with increased PGC1α activity could be accompanied by an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are primarily generated by mitochondria. However, increasing evidence suggests that this is not the case, as PGC1α is also a powerful regulator of ROS removal by increasing the expression of numerous ROS-detoxifying enzymes. Therefore, PGC1α, by controlling both the induction of mitochondrial metabolism and the removal of its ROS by-products, would elevate oxidative metabolism and minimize the impact of ROS on cell physiology. In this Commentary, we discuss how the biogenesis and remodelling of mitochondria that are elicited by PGC1α contribute to an increase in oxidative metabolism and the preservation of ROS homeostasis. Finally, we examine the importance of these findings in ageing and neurodegenerative disorders, conditions that are associated with impaired mitochondrial functions and ROS balance.

Methods for assessing mitochondrial function in diabetes

A growing body of research is investigating the potential contribution of mitochondrial function to the etiology of type 2 diabetes. Numerous in vitro, in situ, and in vivo methodologies are available to examine various aspects of mitochondrial function, each requiring an understanding of their principles, advantages, and limitations. This review provides investigators with a critical overview of the strengths, limitations and critical experimental parameters to consider when selecting and conducting studies on mitochondrial function. In vitro (isolated mitochondria) and in situ (permeabilized cells/tissue) approaches provide direct access to the mitochondria, allowing for study of mitochondrial bioenergetics and redox function under defined substrate conditions. Several experimental parameters must be tightly controlled, including assay media, temperature, oxygen concentration, and in the case of permeabilized skeletal muscle, the contractile state of the fibers. Recently developed technology now offers the opportunity to measure oxygen consumption in intact cultured cells. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy provides the most direct way of assessing mitochondrial function in vivo with interpretations based on specific modeling approaches. The continuing rapid evolution of these technologies offers new and exciting opportunities for deciphering the potential role of mitochondrial function in the etiology and treatment of diabetes.

Converting low dose radiation to redox signaling

In contrast to the damaging effects of high doses, low dose radiation (UV, gamma) has been reported to provoke constructive changes in plants. However, the mechanisms by which plants recognize and respond to low dose radiation are not understood. We have shown recently that polygalacturonic acid, cell wall polysaccharide, converts the highly reactive product of radiation - hydroxyl radical into superoxide which may be further dismutated to hydrogen peroxide. Superoxide has been proposed to act as a signaling molecule, while hydrogen peroxide is known to be the key species in redox signaling cascades which are involved in the regulation of various physiological processes. Hence we propose that polygalacturonic acid may operate as radiation-signaling convertor. The outlined principles of radiation-sensing could also be valid for mammalian cells, with some other molecules mediating the conversion.