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Molero Y, Bakshi AS, Gripenberg J. Illicit Drug Use Among Gym-Goers: a Cross-sectional Study of Gym-Goers in Sweden. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2017; 3:31. [PMID: 28853020 PMCID: PMC5574837 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-017-0098-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The use of anabolic-androgenic steroids has increased among gym-goers, and it has been proposed that this may be part of a polysubstance use pattern that includes the use of illicit drugs. Still, epidemiological data on illicit drug use among gym-goers of both genders are meager. The aim of the present study was thus to examine the use of illicit drugs and its correlates in a large sample of men and women who engaged in weight training at gyms across Sweden. METHODS In this cross-sectional study, a total of 1969 gym-goers who engaged in weight training in 54 gyms across Sweden were invited to fill in a questionnaire. The questionnaire included 25 items on background variables, weight training frequency, use of illicit drugs and doping substances, and non-medical use of benzodiazepines. RESULTS Of the gym-goers, 19.6% reported having ever used illicit drugs, 6.5% reported use during the past 12 months, and 2.1% during the past 30 days. The most commonly used drug was cannabis, followed by cocaine, amphetamine, and ecstasy. Almost 40% of those who reported drug use had used more than one drug. Male participants and participants between 20 and 39 years of age made up the majority of users. Furthermore, 5.1% of the reported drug users had ever used a doping substance. There was an almost threefold higher odds (OR = 2.99, 95% CI = 1.16-7.66, p < 0.023) of doping use among people who had reported drug use as compared to non-users. CONCLUSIONS Training at gyms is typically considered a health-promoting behavior. However, our results revealed a slightly higher prevalence of illicit drug use among gym attendees as compared to the general population. Our findings may have captured an underrecognized group of young adult males who engage in weightlifting and use illicit drugs recreationally and/or as training aids. Developing knowledge is imperative in orientating preventive efforts among at-risk gym-goers. TRIAL REGISTRATION ISRCTN11655041.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmina Molero
- STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, & Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm County Council, Norra Stationsgatan 69, SE-1113-64, Stockholm, Sweden.
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Ann-Sofie Bakshi
- STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, & Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm County Council, Norra Stationsgatan 69, SE-1113-64, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Johanna Gripenberg
- STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, & Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm County Council, Norra Stationsgatan 69, SE-1113-64, Stockholm, Sweden
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Halliburton AE, Fritz MS. Health beliefs as a key determinant of intent to use anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) among high-school football players: implications for prevention. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 2017; 23:269-280. [PMID: 30270959 PMCID: PMC6156000 DOI: 10.1080/02673843.2017.1344928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) is problematic for youth because of negative effects such as reduced fertility, increased aggression and exposure to toxic chemicals. An effective programme for addressing this problem is Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS). This secondary analysis expands prior research by identifying prominent mechanisms of change and highlighting key longitudinal processes that contributed to the success of ATLAS. The current sample consists of high-school football players (N = 1.068; M age = 15.25) who began ATLAS in grades nine through eleven and participated in booster sessions for two years post-baseline. Knowledge of AAS effects, belief in media ads, reasons not to use AAS, perceived severity of and susceptibility to AAS effects and ability to resist drug offers were critical mediators of the relations between ATLAS and outcomes. Modern applications of the ATLAS programme are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Matthew S. Fritz
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
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Use of doping agents and symptoms of eating disorders among male and female patients in drug addiction treatment. NORDIC STUDIES ON ALCOHOL AND DRUGS 2017. [DOI: 10.2478/nsad-2013-0025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Aims This study investigates the prevalence of use of doping agents and symptoms of eating disorders among patients in drug addiction treatment. The aim is also to look for characteristics of the groups reporting the use of doping agents or symptoms of eating disorders. Design A survey including questions on exercise, the use of doping agents and Eating Disorder Inventory-2 was administered in a Norwegian drug addiction facility. The study included 109 patients in residential drug treatment, 30 females and 79 males (ranging from 17 to 50 years old). Results –Symptoms of eating disorders were reported by 33 percent of the females and 7.6 percent of the males. Previous use of doping agents (anabolic-androgenic steroids in particular) was reported by 40.5 percent of the men and 20 percent of the women. The results are discussed in light of the theory on emotion regulation, gender and cultural expectations, drug treatment as a liminal phase and similarities to drug addiction. Conclusions The symptoms of eating disorders and the use of doping agents are prevalent in this sample of male and female drug addicts in treatment. Drug treatment facilities should be aware of this and take the appropriate actions regarding attention, screening and treatment.
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Elkins RL, King K, Nabors L, Vidourek R. School and Parent Factors Associated With Steroid Use Among Adolescents. THE JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH 2017; 87:159-166. [PMID: 28147454 DOI: 10.1111/josh.12482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Steroid use among adolescents is an increasing health concern. Literature examining factors related to steroid use is limited. METHODS We investigated steroid use among 9th through 12th grade adolescents in the Greater Cincinnati area. A total of 38,414 adolescents completed the PRIDE Questionnaire. Associations between demographics, school factors, parent factors, sport participation, and steroid use were examined. RESULTS A total of 2.6% of adolescents reported using steroids in the past year. Most prevalent was steroid use among male, Junior/Senior, African-American, and Hispanic adolescents. Rates of steroid use differed significantly based on school and parent factors, but not sport participation. Adolescents who reported attendance at schools that frequently set and enforced rules for drug use or whose parents frequently set rules for drug use were at decreased odds for steroid use. School communication about drug use was negatively associated with steroid use. CONCLUSIONS School administration and staff, as well as parents, are uniquely positioned to deter steroid use among adolescents. Findings suggest that limiting steroid screening to student athletes might miss a substantial proportion of the population at risk. Thus, broad-based screening and prevention programs may be more effective than programs targeting student athletes alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L Elkins
- Northern Kentucky University, Kinesiology and Health, HC 107, Nunn Drive, Highland Height, KY 41099
| | - Keith King
- University of Cincinnati, Health Promotion & Education, 2600 Clifton Ave, Recreation Center 6319B, Cincinnati, OH 45221
| | - Laura Nabors
- University of Cincinnati, Health Promotion & Education, 2600 Clifton Ave, Recreation Center 6319B, Cincinnati, OH 45221
| | - Rebecca Vidourek
- University of Cincinnati, Health Promotion & Education, 2600 Clifton Ave, Recreation Center 6319B, Cincinnati, OH 45221
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Molero Y, Gripenberg J, Bakshi AS. Effectiveness and implementation of a community-based prevention programme targeting anabolic androgenic steroid use in gyms: study protocol of a quasi-experimental control group study. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2016; 8:36. [PMID: 27891233 PMCID: PMC5114785 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-016-0062-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Background During the past decades, concerns about increased anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use among recreational sportspeople have been raised, yet there is a paucity of AAS prevention efforts targeting this group. Accordingly, doping prevention efforts aimed at gyms have been recommended. The overall objective of the present project is to examine a prevention programme named 100% Pure Hard Training (100% PHT), which targets AAS use among recreational sportspeople training in gyms. Specifically, the project aims to: 1) assess the prevalence of AAS, and its associations with alcohol, illicit drugs, and nutritional supplements use; 2) examine whether 100% PHT can decrease AAS use in gyms, and 3) provide insights into which factors facilitate and/or impede implementation of the programme. Methods/design The intervention group consists of 27 gyms, and 27 gyms serve as controls. Intervention gyms take part in 100% PHT, a community-based programme involving several components: (a) training of key stakeholders (i.e., gym staff, gym owners, local police, and municipal prevention coordinators) regarding AAS use; (b) developing an action plan for AAS prevention for each gym; (c) certification of gyms that follow 100% PHT; (d) cooperative relationship between stakeholders; (e) annual follow-up of gyms. The project consists of two studies: Study A will examine the prevalence of AAS use and the effectiveness of 100% PHT (aims 1 and 2), and data for Study A will be collected using questionnaires distributed to gym attendees at two assessment points: baseline (pre-intervention) and follow-up (post-intervention). Study B will evaluate the implementation of 100% PHT (aim 3), and semi-structured interviews with participating stakeholders will be carried out post-intervention. Discussion Knowledge gained from the present project can be used to develop community-based doping prevention efforts aimed at recreational sportspeople training in gyms. Furthermore, it can provide insights into which factors are important for successful implementation of AAS prevention programmes that target gyms. Results are also expected to yield information on the prevalence of AAS use as well as associations between the use of AAS and other licit and illicit substances, including nutritional supplements, among recreational sportspeople. Trial registration The study was registered retrospectively at isrctn.com (Identifier: ISRCTN11655041; Registration date: 3 November 2016;). Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13102-016-0062-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmina Molero
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden ; Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Johanna Gripenberg
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ann-Sofie Bakshi
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, STAD, Centre for Psychiatry Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Darke S, Torok M, Duflou J. Sudden or Unnatural Deaths Involving Anabolic-androgenic Steroids. J Forensic Sci 2014; 59:1025-8. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.12424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Revised: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 05/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shane Darke
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre; University of New South Wales; Sydney NSW 2052 Australia
| | - Michelle Torok
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre; University of New South Wales; Sydney NSW 2052 Australia
| | - Johan Duflou
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre; University of New South Wales; Sydney NSW 2052 Australia
- Department of Forensic Medicine; South Western Sydney Local Health District; PO Box 90 Glebe NSW 2037 Australia
- School of Medical Sciences; University of New South Wales; Sydney NSW 2052 Australia
- Sydney Medical School; University of Sydney; NSW 2008 Australia
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Nøkleby H, Skårderud F. Body Practices Among Male Drug Abusers. Meanings of Workout and use of Doping Agents in a Drug Treatment Setting. Int J Ment Health Addict 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11469-013-9434-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
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Hakansson A, Mickelsson K, Wallin C, Berglund M. Anabolic androgenic steroids in the general population: user characteristics and associations with substance use. Eur Addict Res 2012; 18:83-90. [PMID: 22286840 DOI: 10.1159/000333037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2011] [Accepted: 09/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To analyse correlates of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) use in the general male population. DESIGN A national household survey. PARTICIPANTS Individuals aged 15-64 years in Sweden. MEASUREMENTS AAS use and potential correlates of AAS use, including demographic data, financial situation, physical training, and substance use. In hierarchical logistic regression analyses, lifetime users of AAS (n = 240) were compared to all nonusers (n = 13,920) and to nonusers who reported that they had been offered AAS (n = 487). RESULTS AAS use was most strongly associated with a lifetime history of illicit drug use and the misuse of prescription drugs. When controlling for substance use, AAS was associated with physical training and lower education. Illicit drug use and misuse of prescription drugs separated AAS users from nonusers who had been offered AAS. No associations were seen with AUDIT scores for risk alcohol drinking. CONCLUSIONS In this general population survey in men, lifetime use of AAS appears to share common characteristics with illicit substance use. Both substance use variables and physical training remained associated with AAS use when controlling for one another.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Hakansson
- Division of Psychiatry, Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
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Leifman H, Rehnman C, Sjöblom E, Holgersson S. Anabolic androgenic steroids--use and correlates among gym users--an assessment study using questionnaires and observations at gyms in the Stockholm region. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2011; 8:2656-74. [PMID: 21845151 PMCID: PMC3155322 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph8072656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Revised: 06/19/2011] [Accepted: 06/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to estimate the prevalence of anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use and offers to use among gym users in Stockholm County (Sweden), and to conduct a comparison of concordance in estimates of AAS and supplements at gyms between two data collection methods. A questionnaire was distributed to members at 36 training facilities and 1,752 gym users participated in the study. An observation study was conducted as covert participant observations at 64 gyms. According to the questionnaire, 3.9% of men reported life time use of AAS, 1.4% use during the past 12 months and 0.4% AAS use during past 30 days. Not only were there similar patterns found in the two methods, i.e., similar age and gender distributions for AAS use, but analyses of concordance showed that gyms with a higher prevalence of self-reported AAS-use and supplement use (questionnaire) showed a significantly higher proportion of observer-assessed AAS users. Analyses of individual predictors showed that AAS users were almost always young men, regular weight trainers and more often users of drugs and nutritional supplements. The higher prevalence of AAS use among gym users than in the general population makes the former an appropriate target group for AAS prevention. The connection between supplements, drugs and AAS use suggests that effective AAS prevention need to focus on several risk factors for AAS use. The clear resemblance in estimates between the observation and questionnaire data strengthen the credibility of the two methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Håkan Leifman
- STAD, Stockholm Centre for Psychiatric Research and Education, Karolinska Institutet and Stockholm County Council Health Care Provision, Box 6031, 113 60 Stockholm, Sweden; E-Mails: (C.R.); (E.S.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: ; ; Tel.: +46-8-12345502; Fax: +46-8-12345509
| | - Charlotta Rehnman
- STAD, Stockholm Centre for Psychiatric Research and Education, Karolinska Institutet and Stockholm County Council Health Care Provision, Box 6031, 113 60 Stockholm, Sweden; E-Mails: (C.R.); (E.S.)
| | - Erika Sjöblom
- STAD, Stockholm Centre for Psychiatric Research and Education, Karolinska Institutet and Stockholm County Council Health Care Provision, Box 6031, 113 60 Stockholm, Sweden; E-Mails: (C.R.); (E.S.)
| | - Stefan Holgersson
- Department of Management and Engineering (IEI), Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden; E-Mail:
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Dodge T, Hoagland MF. The use of anabolic androgenic steroids and polypharmacy: a review of the literature. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011; 114:100-9. [PMID: 21232881 PMCID: PMC3062678 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2010] [Revised: 11/08/2010] [Accepted: 11/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A review of the literature was conducted to examine the relationship between the use of anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use and the use of other drugs. METHODS Studies published between the years of 1995 and 2010 were included in the review. RESULTS The use of AAS is positively associated with use of alcohol, illicit drugs and legal performance enhancing substances. In contrast, the relationship between AAS and the use of tobacco and cannabis is mixed. CONCLUSION Results of the review indicate that the relationship between AAS use and other substance use depends on the type of substance studied. Implications for treatment and prevention are discussed. Suggestions for future research are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonya Dodge
- Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, USA.
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Greydanus DE, Patel DR. Sports doping in the adolescent: the Faustian conundrum of Hors de Combat. Pediatr Clin North Am 2010; 57:729-50. [PMID: 20538154 DOI: 10.1016/j.pcl.2010.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The drive toward success in sports and the need for a cosmetically acceptable appearance have driven many adolescents to take a wide variety of so-called doping substances. The consumption of these chemicals in the hope and hype of improved sports performance, fueled by the easing of government restrictions on their proof of safety and efficacy, has resulted in an explosion of so-called ergogenic products available to our youth. Agents that have been used include anabolic steroids, anabolic-like agents, designer steroids, creatine, protein and amino acid supplements, minerals, antioxidants, stimulants, blood doping, erythropoietin, beta-blockers, and others. The use of these agents has considerable potential to cause physical and psychological damage. Use and misuse of drugs in this sports doping process should be discouraged. This discussion reviews some of the agents that are currently being used. Clinicians providing sports medicine care to youth, whether through anticipatory guidance or direct sports medicine management, should educate their young patients about the hype and hyperbole of these products that may keep them out instead of in the game at considerable financial cost to the unwary consumer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald E Greydanus
- Department of Pediatrics & Human Development, Michigan State University College of Human Medicine, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-1284, USA.
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