Drug addiction and parental rearing style: a controlled study

Associations between alexithymia, parental rearing styles, and frequency of drug use in male methamphetamine dependence patients

BACKGROUND

Alexithymia, which is characterized by difficulty identifying and describing feelings, is a stable personality trait and it has been associated with early life experiences. Methamphetamine dependence patients with high level of alexithymia may be particularly vulnerable to engaging in more frequent methamphetamine use. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate whether alexithymia was associated with frequency of methamphetamine use. Additionally, the current study sought to examine early-life factors associated with the development of alexithymia, i.e., parental rearing styles.

METHOD

Participants were 108 non-injecting methamphetamine dependent patients from a male compulsory detoxification center. The level of alexithymia was assessed by Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20(TAS-20). In addition, we applied Egna Minneu av. Bardndosnauppforstran (EMBU) to assess the parental rearing styles, including the dimensions of warmth, rejection, punishment/strictness, overinvolvement, overprotection, and favoring.

RESULTS

The total score of TAS-20 was positively correlated with frequency of methamphetamine use (r = 0.26, p < 0.01). Specifically, except for externally oriented thinking, difficulty identifying feelings (r = 0.23, p < 0.05) and difficulty describing feelings (r = 0.25, p < 0.05) were positively correlated with frequency of methamphetamine use. Multiple linear regression showed that more maternal rejection (B = 0.59, p = 0.002), or less maternal warmth (B = -0.22, p = 0.004) was associated with higher levels of alexithymia. Ordinal logistic regression showed that for every 1 score increase in the total score of TAS-20, there was a 1.06 times risk of a one level increase in the level of methamphetamine use frequency (OR = 1.06, p = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

These results have major implications for understanding the role of alexithymia in craving and addiction, while providing a further and explicit entry point for addiction treatment. Moreover, more attention should be focused on parenting in relation to early experiences.

Overprotective Parenting and Peer Victimization in Extremely Low Birth Weight Survivors

Extremely low birth weight (ELBW; <1000g) survivors are at increased risk for experiencing both peer victimization and overprotective parenting. This study investigated if overprotective parenting moderated associations between peer victimization and psychopathology among ELBW adult survivors who have been followed since birth. Participants included 81 (31 male, 50 female) adults born with an extremely low birth weight from Ontario, Canada. The participants were predominately Caucasian. The experience of peer victimization and overprotective parenting prior to age 16 was self-reported at age 22-26 years. Peer victimization was reported using the Childhood Experiences of Violence Questionnaire and overprotective parenting was reported using the Parental Bonding Instrument. Current anxiety disorder and alcohol or substance use disorder was assessed using the MINI International Neuropsychiatric Interview at age 29-36 years. The experience of overprotective parenting moderated the association between peer victimization and risk for an anxiety disorder in adulthood (OR=2.35, 95%CI, 1.01-5.50). If the ELBW survivor reported having an overprotective parent, peer victimization was associated with increased risk for having an anxiety disorder in adulthood (OR=2.45, 95%CI, 1.13-5.30). In contrast, this association was not significant in the absence of an overprotective parent (OR=1.04, 95%CI, 0.73-1.49). Future research should further investigate if parental support and encouragement of children's independence may be important for reducing the negative effects of peer victimization among ELBW survivors.

Exposure to overprotective parenting and psychopathology in extremely low birth weight survivors

BACKGROUND

Extremely low birth weight (ELBW; <1,000 g) infants are the most vulnerable babies and are at higher risk for experiencing overprotective (i.e., controlling and intrusive) parenting, which is hypothesized to contribute to the risk for mental disorders. Despite the increased risk for anxiety disorders and decreased risk for alcohol or substance use disorders seen in ELBW survivors, no research has examined the impact of parenting. This study investigated if overprotective parenting mediates links between ELBW birth status and psychiatric disorders in adulthood.

STUDY DESIGN

Participants included ELBW survivors born in 1977-1982 and matched normal birth weight (≥2,500 g) control participants (ELBW n = 81; normal birth weight n = 87) prospectively followed in Ontario, Canada. These individuals retrospectively reported on whether either of their parents was overprotective using the Parental Bonding Instrument. Presence of a current anxiety disorder and of current alcohol or substance use disorders was assessed using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview at age 29-36 years.

RESULTS

Path analysis showed that overprotective parenting was a significant mediator of the association between ELBW status and risk for an anxiety disorder in adulthood and the risk for an alcohol or substance use disorder in adulthood in ELBW survivors. Overprotective parenting accounted for 53% of the association between ELBW status and the risk for an anxiety disorder in adulthood and 26% of the association between ELBW status and alcohol or substance use disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Overprotective parenting accounted for a substantial proportion of the increased risk for anxiety and alcohol or substance use disorders in adulthood in ELBW survivors. Despite their perceived vulnerabilities, it is important that the parents of ELBW survivors be supported in their attempts to facilitate their children's pursuit of independence during childhood and beyond.

Families parenting adolescents with substance abuse--recovering the mother's voice: a narrative literature review

Alcohol and substance dependency are complex, problematic phenomena, which are growing worldwide. In particular, drug use and abuse among young people is a significant concern. Although addiction presents as a problem of dependent individuals, families are also profoundly affected by the family member's addiction. In this narrative literature review, we review published research from 1937 to 2014 to capture a narrative and historical perspective of addiction and family. We condense and analyze the experiences of parents with alcohol- and drug-dependent children, to emphasize the need for a more specific, in-depth exploration of mothers' experiences. Such exploration may advance nurses' understandings of individual, familial, and social complexities of parenting an addicted child.

Major depressive disorder in a Kenyan youth sample: relationship with parenting behavior and parental psychiatric disorders

BACKGROUND

Studies on mental health problems during childhood and youth development phases have reported that families of children diagnosed with a depressive disorder tend to be dysfunctional. These dysfunctions have been shown to be mediating factors for children to develop psychiatric disorders in the future.

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed to investigate whether perceived parenting behavior and parental psychiatric disorders have any relationship with youth presenting with major depressive disorder.

METHODOLOGY

The study sample had a total number of 250 purposely selected youth attending the Youth Clinic at Kenyatta National Hospital in Nairobi.

RESULTS

This study found associations between major depressive disorders (MDD) in the youth and co-morbid psychiatric disorders among the youth: conduct disorder (OR = 2.93, 95% CI 1.04 to 8.26, p = 0.035), any anxiety disorder (OR = 2.41, 95% CI 1.20 to 4.87, p = 0.012), drug abuse (OR = 3.40, 95% CI 2.01 to 5.76, p < 0.001), alcohol use (OR = 3.29, 95% CI 1.94 to 5.57, p < 0.001), and suicidal behavior (OR = 5.27, 95% CI 2.39 to 11.66, p < 0.001). The results also indicate that a higher proportion of youth between 16 and 18 years had major depressive disorder than the youth below 16 years or above 18 years of age (OR = 2.66, 95% CI 1.40 to 5.05, p = 0.003). Multivariate analysis shows that both rejecting maternal behavior (AOR = 2.165, 95% CI 1.060 to 4.422, p = 0.003) and maternal MDD (AOR = 5.27, 95% CI 1.10 to 14.76, p < 0.001) are associated with MDD in youth.

CONCLUSION

Negative maternal parenting behavior and maternal depressive disorder are associated with major depressive disorder in children.

Is emotional intelligence impaired in ecstasy-polydrug users?

Previous findings report use of the drug ecstasy (MDMA) to be associated with lower emotional intelligence (EI), and compromised functioning in brain areas responsible for emotion. This study explored the relationship between ecstasy use, EI, mood and parenting styles. Questionnaire measures of drug use, lifestyle, parenting style and EI were obtained, with separate IQ measures for fluid intelligence (Ravens matrices) and pre-morbid intelligence [National Adult Reading Test (NART)]. Current mood measures were obtained from an adjective checklist. The sample comprised 78 ecstasy/polydrug users, 38 cannabis only users and 34 non-drug users. Drug use was categorised at three levels (non-user, cannabis-only user and ecstasy-polydrug user). Factorial ANOVA using drug use as an independent variable showed no significant group effects in EI. EI showed significant correlations with current mood that were positive for arousal and negative for both anxiety and depression. EI was also significantly and positively correlated with the perceived degree of parental control. Regression analyses showed that these relationships remained significant after controlling for differences in IQ, age, gender, and ecstasy use. Adverse mood effects specifically associated with ecstasy use were significantly related to lower EI, and were independent of IQ, age and gender. Higher EI was significantly associated with ecstasy-related precautions used when taking this drug. Contrary to earlier findings, ecstasy-polydrug users did not differ from non-users on EI. However, self-reported ecstasy-related mood disturbances were related to lower EI, with the compromising of orbitofrontal cortical functioning being possible here.

The effects of perceived parenting style on the propensity for illicit drug use: the importance of parental warmth and control

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS

Research in adolescents has shown that parental warmth and control are important factors in drug use. The present study focused upon investigating perceived parental warmth and control in a sample of post-adolescent ecstasy/polydrug users, and investigating their relationship to severity of drug use.

DESIGN AND METHODS

A total of 128 (65 male) ecstasy/polydrug users, 51 (17 male), cannabis-only users and 54 (13 male) non-users were recruited from a university population. All participants completed the parenting styles and drug use questionnaires.

RESULTS

Compared to non-users, a greater proportion of ecstasy/polydrug users characterised their parents' style as neglectful. The modal style endorsed by non-users was authoritative. Those who rated their parents' style as authoritative had significantly lower lifetime consumption and average dose of ecstasy relative to those describing their parents as neglectful. Again, relative to those describing their parents as neglectful, participants from authoritarian backgrounds had significantly smaller lifetime consumption of ecstasy and cocaine and significantly smaller average doses of cannabis, ecstasy and cocaine. Contrary to expectation, there was no significant association between perceived parental warmth and the severity of ecstasy use.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The present study is, to our knowledge, the first to quantify drug use, and relate it to perceived parental practices in a post-adolescent sample of ecstasy/polydrug users. The results provide further support for the relationship between perceived parental control and drug use.

The relationship between perceived parenting, adult attachment style and alexithymia in alcoholic inpatients

In this paper we examine the understudied relationship between alexithymia on the one hand, and adult attachment and perceived parenting on the other hand, in a clinical sample of alcoholic inpatients (N=101). We test whether differences between a high and a low scoring group on trait alexithymia can be predicted on the basis of attachment style and perceived parenting. We observed that the avoidant attachment style is a strong predictor. Subsequently we test whether three dimensions of alexithymia - affective, cognitive and social - are meaningfully linked to adult attachment and perceived parenting. We noticed that cognitive alexithymia especially was predicted by the avoidant attachment style and a lack of warmth perceived in the relationship to the father.

Role of family in alcohol and substance abuse

Abuse is a family disease, which requires joint treatment of family members. Family is an important part of the diagnosis and treatment chain of alcohol and substance abuse. Abuse of alcohol and substance is a response to fluctuations in the family system. In consideration of interactions within the system, it seems an important requirement that the clinician involves, and maintains the presence of, the family in its entirety in the treatment process. A family often needs as much treatment as the family member who is the abuser of alcohol or a substance. In this regard, participation of the family in the treatment process as group members and by assuming a supportive role are assets in terms of preventing relapse, and extending clean time, and also very important for solving conflicts that give rise to abuse of alcohol or substances. Accordingly, it is important to know the family structure and its role in the treatment process. This article covers a review of family systems separately in terms of alcoholism and substance abuse.

Parental rearing and individual vulnerability to drug addiction: a controlled study in a Swedish sample

In a convenience sample of 81 healthy subjects vs. a group of 81 heroin addicts from the Methadone program in Stockholm, Sweden, the hypothesis of a possible link between experiences of dysfunctional parental rearing and the subsequent development of dysfunctional assumptions concerning self and others was tested. The subjects (n=162) completed the EMBU to report perceptions of parental rearing behaviour, two measures of dysfunctional assumptions and dysfunctional working models, the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS) and the DWM-S, and the Screening Drug Career Questionnaire (SDCQ) for assessing different aspects of the drug career in the sample of addicts. Four predictions were made: 1) parental emotional warmth should be negatively correlated with DAS and DWM-S scores; 2) experiences of dysfunctional parental rearing activities should be correlated with high scores on the DAS and the DWM-S; 3) there should be significant differences between the group of addicts and the control group on the EMBU first-order factors Rejection, Emotional warmth, Overprotection, and on the EMBU midparent subscale and finally 4) the results should support the hypothesis of an overprotecting mother and a rejecting father. The four predictions were supported by the results. The inter-group differences in quality of rearing shown in this study support the assumption of the impact of parental rearing on the development of dysfunctional working models of self and others. Accordingly, the presented data confirm that a parental rearing behaviour perceived both as Rejecting and Overprotective represents a link between dysfunctional parenting and the development of maladaptive psychosocial behaviour like drug addiction.

The Importance of Father Love: History and Contemporary Evidence

This article explores the cultural construction of fatherhood in America, as well as the consequences of this construction as a motivator for understudying fathers—especially father love—for nearly a century in developmental and family research. It then reviews evidence from 6 categories of empirical studies showing the powerful influence of fathers’ love on children's and young adults’ social, emotional, and cognitive development and functioning. Much of this evidence suggests that the influence of father love on offspring's development is as great as and occasionally greater than the influence of mother love. Some studies conclude that father love is the sole significant predictor of specific outcomes after controlling for the influence of mother love. Overall, father love appears to be as heavily implicated as mother love in offsprings’ psychological well-being and health, as well as in an array of psychological and behavioral problems.

Parent-child interactions and anxiety disorders: an observational study

Past research has indicated a potential link between anxiety and parenting styles that are characterised by control and rejection. However, few studies have utilised observational methods to support these findings. In the current study, mother-child interactions were observed while the child completed two difficult cognitive tasks. The sample consisted of clinically anxious children (n=43), oppositional defiant children (n=20) and non-clinical children (n=32). After adjusting for the age and sex of the child, mothers of anxious children and mothers of oppositional children displayed greater and more intrusive involvement than mothers of non-clinical children. Mothers of anxious children were also more negative during the interactions than mothers of non-clinical children. The differences between anxious and non-clinical interactions were equivalent across three separate age groups. The results support the relationship between an overinvolved parenting style and anxiety but question the specificity of this relationship.

Parental representations in drug-dependent patients and their parents

The Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), a measure of perceived parental care and protection, was administered to drug-dependent patients and their parents with the aim to assess the reliability of the instrument in such samples and to compare the parental representations across generations. Ninety drug-dependent patients and 44 mothers and 35 fathers participated. Reliability indices were calculated, and parental representations of parents and their offspring were compared. Linear regression analyses were performed with the patient's PBI score as the dependent variable and the mother's and father's PBI scores as predictor variables. The reliability indices were highly satisfactory and varied between 0.61 and 0.91. The parental bonding of patients, fathers, and mothers was similar. All three groups reported high maternal and paternal control and low maternal care, a pattern characteristic of an "affectionless control" rearing style. Maternal care received by the fathers and paternal protection received by the mothers predicted the care and protection they themselves gave to their drug-dependent offspring.

Opiate withdrawal outcome: the predictive ability of admission measures from the family assessment device (F.A.D.)

The Family Assessment Device (F.A.D.) was administered to a sample of 57 opiate misusers at admission for inpatient detoxification. Logistic regression analyses showed that the odds of a premature discharge against medical advice from the Unit were increased by progressively poorer ratings of family functioning in the areas of problem solving and roles, while progressively poorer ratings of functioning in the areas of communication and behavioral control were associated with decreasing odds of a premature discharge. It was concluded that further research was required to better understand and utilize the potentially supportive role of families in this phase of treatment.

The family experiences of narcotic addicts and their subsequent parenting practices

This survey study of male and female narcotic addicts participating in methadone maintenance programs examined self-reported retrospective data on parental behavior experienced by addicts during their adolescent years. These findings were contrasted with the addicts' self-report of their current parenting practices with their own adolescent children. Results showed addicts as perceiving their mothers as significantly more functional in their parenting practices than their fathers on indices of parental involvement, attachment, and responsibility. Significant parenting differences between addicts and their parents were reported for the three indices mentioned, as well as for parent discipline and punitive actions, with the addicts rating their current parenting practices as more effective than those of their parents. Reported parenting practices were further analyzed in the context of how the ratings of parental functioning were related to problems of drug and alcohol abuse exhibited in the home. Findings are discussed in terms of the implications for prevention and treatment approaches for addicts and their children.

Relatives' emotional warmth towards patients with schizophrenia or related psychoses: demographic and clinical predictors

Despite the importance of relatives' emotional warmth for outcome in schizophrenia, no studies to date have addressed demographic and clinical predictors of warmth. We examined a Norwegian sample of 47 recently hospitalized patients (with schizophrenia or schizophreniform disorder) and 72 key relatives. Relatives' emotional warmth was assessed by means of the Camberwell Family Interview. Regression analyses showed that no substance abuse (especially amphetamines), better premorbid adjustment (12-15 years), a chronic social security status, and the relative not being a parent were the strongest predictors of emotional warmth. Emotional warmth was not related to patients' symptoms.

[Management of drug addict pregnant women and their children]

Children of substance abuse mothers have an increased risk of severe pathological disorders such as perinatal diseases (prematurity, intrauterine growth retardation, infections) with their neurological and respiratory complications and sequelae, and transmission of drug addiction related infections, ie human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B and C virus, syphilis. Many of these children present a drug withdrawal syndrome characterized by restlessness and jetteriness during the neonatal period. This is frequently followed by a post withdrawal period of several weeks duration with crying, excitement, sleep and feeding difficulties. Although these drug withdrawal manifestations have no incidence on the vital prognosis, it severely impairs the mother-infant interaction. Despite these disorders it appears that the outcome of these children is mainly related to their familial environment which is exposed to many risk factors: mother-child separation, violence, delinquency, precariousness, unhealthy housing, prostitution, drug dependency, parental death or imprisonment... Early medico-psycho-social intervention starting during pregnancy and a prolonged support for several years are the only way to improve their spontaneously poor outcome.

Potential role of childrearing practices in the development of anxiety and depression

There is a vast literature describing the importance of childrearing factors in the development of anxiety and depression. Unfortunately, much of this work comes from diverse areas, has variable theoretical bases, and makes use of a variety of methods, each with its own limitations. Thus, conclusions about the state of the research are difficult to draw. This review pulls together literature related to childrearing factors and anxiety and depression from a wide variety of areas. Many of the studies are methodologically limited and results have been variable. Nevertheless, there is surprising consistency that suggests that rejection and control by parents may be positively related to later anxiety and depression. There is also more limited evidence to indicate that rejection may be more strongly associated with depression, whereas control is more specifically associated with anxiety. Limitations of the research are highlighted and specific suggestions for future research directions are discussed.

The social stress model of substance abuse among childbearing-age women: a review of the literature

The Social Stress Model of Substance Abuse has been derived from numerous psychosocial theories and models. This model suggests that the likelihood of an individual engaging in drug abuse is influenced by the stress level and the extent to which it is offset by stress modifiers such as social networks, social competence and resources. This article synthesizes current empirical evidence for this model. Thirteen primary research studies of women are synthesized and described, with special attention to the four key constructs inherent in the model: stress, social networks, social competencies, and resources. Consistencies and inconsistencies in the findings, a critique of key methodological issues, implications for future research, and implications for clinical policy and practice are provided.

Empirical evidence for the Social Stress Model of Substance Abuse

The Social Stress Model of Substance Abuse builds upon and integrates knowledge from numerous psychosocial theories and models. According to this model, the likelihood of an individual engaging in drug abuse is a function of the stress level and the extent to which it is offset by stress modifiers such as social networks, social competence, and resources. This article synthesizes current empirical evidence for this model. Thirty-five primary research studies are described, with special attention to the four psychosocial constructs inherent in the model: stress, social networks, social competence, and resources. Consistencies and inconsistencies in the findings, a critique of key methodological issues, and suggestions for future research are provided.

Memories of parental rearing in alcohol and drug addicts: a comparative study

Memories of parental rearing were investigated in 48 polydrug addicts and 91 alcohol addicts with the EMBU, an instrument for assessing parental rearing styles. Drug addicts remember their fathers and mothers as more rejecting and overprotecting and their mothers as more favoring than do alcoholics. When the age and the sex of addicts are taken into account, the kind of addiction and the sex of the addicts can explain a part of the variance of the overprotection dimension by fathers and mothers. The age of the addicts can explain a part of the variance of the rejection dimension by fathers and mothers. Finally, the variance in the favoring dimension by mothers can be explained by the kind of addiction.

Familial and Individual Functioning in a Sample of Adult Cocaine Abusers

This paper examines the relationships between individual and familial functioning among adult cocaine abusers, using the FACES III scales to determine family functioning, and the Beck Depression Inventory, the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-90, and SCID to determine individual functioning. The correlations between family cohesion and the three different measures of psychological impairment consistently show that persons who are psychologically the most functional are part of the most cohesive families, while the relationships between adaptability and the measures of psychological functioning are found to be inconsistent. The Olson “circumplex” model hypothesis is not confirmed for families in this sample.

Monitoring parent concerns about teenage drinking and driving: a random digit dial telephone survey

A random telephone survey was conducted in a suburban community in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area to assess the perceptions of parents about teenage drinking and driving. A total of 807 completed interviews were conducted. The results indicated that while most parents viewed teen drinking (69%) and drinking and driving (65%) to be a prevalent, relatively few seem to be engaging in behaviors likely to influence this. Thirty-two percent said they never discuss drinking and driving with their children, and over 65% said they never talk to other parents about how to talk to their children about drinking and driving, nor have any interest in doing so. Although slightly more than half said they had family policies concerning drinking, less than 20% said there were penalties for violating these policies. Over 70% expressed their willingness to watch a special show on TV about how parents can talk to their children about alcohol. Parents of teenagers appear to be far more likely to think that their teen's friends drink and drive (36%) than they are to think that their teen drinks and drives (10%). The results of this survey indicate a significant lack of parental awareness of teen drinking and a denial of their own teen's involvement in it.

Perceived parental rearing styles of agoraphobic and socially phobic in-patients

The perceived parental rearing practices and attitudes of agoraphobics, social phobics and non-patient normal controls were investigated, employing the EMBU, an inventory for assessing memories of upbringing. Findings obtained previously with out-patients were replicated with in-patients as subjects. Compared with the controls, agoraphobics rated both their parents as having been less emotionally warm but only their mothers as having been rejective. Socially phobic in-patients rated both their parents as having been rejective, as having lacked emotional warmth, and as having been over-protective. Comparisons between agoraphobics and social phobics showed differences in certain aspects of parental rearing, with the socially phobic in-patients assigning ratings more negatively than the agoraphobic group.