Development and characterization of vancomycin-loaded levan-based microparticular system for drug delivery

Recent advances in nanostructured delivery systems for vancomycin

Despite the development of new generations of antibiotics, vancomycin remained as a high-efficacy antibiotic for treating the infections caused by MRSA. Researchers have explored various nanoformulations, aiming to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of vancomycin. Such novel formulations improve the effectiveness of drug cargoes in treating bacterial infections and minimizing the risk of adverse effects. The vast of researches have focuses on enhancing the permeation ability of vancomycin through different biological barriers especially those of gastrointestinal tract. Increasing the drug loading and tuning the drug release from nanocarrier are other important goal for many conducted studies. This study reviews the newest nano-based formulations for vancomycin as a key antibiotic in treating hospitalized bacterial infections.

Investigation of Levan-Derived Nanoparticles of Dolutegravir: A Promising Approach for the Delivery of Anti-HIV Drug as Milk Admixture

Nanoparticles composed of Levan and Dolutegravir (DTG) have been successfully synthesized using a spray drying procedure specifically designed for milk/food admixture applications. Levan, obtained from the microorganism Bacillus subtilis, was thoroughly characterized using MALDI-TOF and solid-state NMR technique to confirm its properties. In the present study, this isolated Levan was utilized as a carrier for drug delivery applications. The optimized spray-dried nanoparticles exhibited a smooth surface morphology with particle sizes ranging from 195 to 329 nm. In the in-vitro drug release experiments conducted in water media, the spray-dried nanoparticles showed 100 % release, whereas the unprocessed drug exhibited only 50 % release at the end of 24 h. Notably, the drug release in milk was comparable to that in plain media, indicating the compatibility. The improved dissolution rate observed for the nanoparticles could be attributed to the solid-state conversion (confirmed by XRD analysis) of DTG from its crystalline to amorphous state. The stability of the drug was verified using Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy and Thermogravimetry-Differential Scanning Calorimetry analysis. To evaluate the in-vitro cellular toxicity, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was conducted, which revealed the CC50 value of 88.88 ± 5.10 µg/mL for unprocessed DTG and 101.08 ± 37.37 µg/mL for DTG nanoparticles. These results indicated that the toxicity of the nanoparticles was comparable to the unprocessed drug. Furthermore, the anti-HIV activity of the nanoparticles in human cell lines was found to be similar to that of the pure drug, emphasizing the therapeutic efficacy of DTG in combating HIV.

Thermostabilization of a fungal laccase by entrapment in enzymatically synthesized levan nanoparticles

In this work, we present a comprehensive investigation of the entrapment of laccase, a biotechnologically relevant enzyme, into levan-based nanoparticles (LNPs). The entrapment of laccase was achieved concomitantly with the synthesis of LNP, catalyzed by a truncated version of a levansucrase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides. The study aimed to obtain a biocompatible nanomaterial, able to entrap functional laccase, and characterize its physicochemical, kinetic and thermal stability properties. The experimental findings demonstrated that a colloidal stable solution of spherically shaped LNP, with an average diameter of 68 nm, was obtained. An uniform particle size distribution was observed, according to the polydispersity index determined by DLS. When the LNPs synthesis was performed in the presence of laccase, biocatalytically active nanoparticles with a 1.25-fold larger diameter (85 nm) were obtained, and a maximum load of 243 μg laccase per g of nanoparticle was achieved. The catalytic efficiency was 972 and 103 (μM·min)-1, respectively, for free and entrapped laccase. A decrease in kcat values (from 7050 min-1 to 1823 min-1) and an increase in apparent Km (from 7.25 μM to 17.73 μM) was observed for entrapped laccase, compared to the free enzyme. The entrapped laccase exhibited improved thermal stability, retaining 40% activity after 1 h-incubation at 70°C, compared to complete inactivation of free laccase under the same conditions, thereby highlighting the potential of LNPs in preserving enzyme activity under elevated temperatures. The outcomes of this investigation significantly contribute to the field of nanobiotechnology by expanding the applications of laccase and presenting an innovative strategy for enhancing enzyme stability through the utilization of fructan-based nanoparticle entrapments.

Enhanced Antibacterial Activity of Vancomycin Loaded on Functionalized Polyketones

Today, polymeric drug delivery systems (DDS) appear as an interesting solution against bacterial resistance, having great advantages such as low toxicity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. In this work, two polyketones (PK) have been post-functionalized with sodium taurinate (PKT) or potassium sulfanilate (PKSK) and employed as carriers for Vancomycin against bacterial infections. Modified PKs were easily prepared by the Paal-Knorr reaction and loaded with Vancomycin at a variable pH. All polymers were characterized by FT-IR, DSC, TGA, SEM, and elemental analysis. Antimicrobial activity was tested against Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 and correlated to the different pHs used for its loading (between 2.3 and 8.8). In particular, the minimum inhibitory concentrations achieved with PKT and PKSK loaded with Vancomycin were similar, at 0.23 μg/mL and 0.24 μg/mL, respectively, i.e., six times lower than that with Vancomycin alone. The use of post-functionalized aliphatic polyketones has thus been demonstrated to be a promising way to obtain very efficient polymeric DDS.

Targeting the Bottlenecks in Levan Biosynthesis Pathway in Bacillus subtilis and Strain Optimization by Computational Modeling and Omics Integration

Levan is a fructan polymer with many industrial applications such as the formulation of hydrogels, drug delivery, and wound healing, among others. To this end, metabolic systems engineering is a valuable method to improve the yield of a specific metabolite in a wide range of bacterial and eukaryotic organisms. In this study, we report a systems biology approach integrating genomics data for the Bacillus subtilis model, wherein the metabolic pathway for levan biosynthesis is unpacked. We analyzed a revised genome-scale enzyme-constrained metabolic model (ecGEM) and performed simulations to increase levan biopolymer production capacity in B. subtilis. We used the model ec_iYO844_lvn to (1) identify the essential genes and bottlenecks in levan production, and (2) specifically design an engineered B. subtilis strain capable of producing higher levan yields. The FBA and FVA analysis showed the maximal growth rate of the organism up to 0.624 hr-1 at 20 mmol gDw-1 hr-1 of sucrose intake. Gene knockout analyses were performed to identify gene knockout targets to increase the levan flux in B. subtilis. Importantly, we found that the pgk and ctaD genes are the two target genes for the knockout. The perturbation of these two genes has flux gains for levan production reactions with 1.3- and 1.4-fold the relative flux span in the mutant strains, respectively, compared to the wild type. In all, this work identifies the bottlenecks in the production of levan and possible ways to overcome them. Our results provide deeper insights on the bacterium's physiology and new avenues for strain engineering.

Recent Developments and Applications of Microbial Levan, A Versatile Polysaccharide-Based Biopolymer

Polysaccharides are essential components with diverse functions in living organisms and find widespread applications in various industries. They serve as food additives, stabilizers, thickeners, and fat substitutes in the food industry, while also contributing to dietary fiber for improved digestion and gut health. Plant-based polysaccharides are utilized in paper, textiles, wound dressings, biodegradable packaging, and tissue regeneration. Polysaccharides play a crucial role in medicine, pharmacy, and cosmetology, as well as in the production of biofuels and biomaterials. Among microbial biopolymers, microbial levan, a fructose polysaccharide, holds significant promise due to its high productivity and chemical diversity. Levan exhibits a wide range of properties, including film-forming ability, biodegradability, non-toxicity, self-aggregation, encapsulation, controlled release capacity, water retention, immunomodulatory and prebiotic activity, antimicrobial and anticancer activity, as well as high biocompatibility. These exceptional properties position levan as an attractive candidate for nature-based materials in food production, modern cosmetology, medicine, and pharmacy. Advancing the understanding of microbial polymers and reducing production costs is crucial to the future development of these fields. By further exploring the potential of microbial biopolymers, particularly levan, we can unlock new opportunities for sustainable materials and innovative applications that benefit various industries and contribute to advancements in healthcare, environmental conservation, and biotechnology.

Exploring the potential of Halomonas levan and its derivatives as active ingredients in cosmeceutical and skin regenerating formulations

Demand on natural products that contain biological ingredients mimicking growth factors and cytokines made natural polysaccharides popular in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Levan is the β-(2-6) linked, nontoxic, biocompatible, water-soluble, film former fructan polymer that has diverse applications in pharmacy and cosmeceutical industries with its moisturizing, whitening, anti-irritant, anti-aging and slimming activities. Driven by the limited reports on few structurally similar levan polymers, this study presents the first systematic investigation on the effects of structurally different extremophilic Halomonas levan polysaccharides on human skin epidermis cells. In-vitro experiments with microbially produced linear Halomonas levan (HL), its hydrolyzed, (hHL) and sulfonated (ShHL) derivatives as well as enzymatically produced branched levan (EL) revealed increased keratinocyte and fibroblast proliferation (113-118 %), improved skin barrier function through induced expressions of involucrin (2.0 and 6.43 fold changes for HL and EL) and filaggrin (1.74 and 3.89 fold changes for hHL and ShHL) genes and increased type I collagen (2.63 for ShHL) and hyaluronan synthase 3 (1.41 for HL) gene expressions together with fast wound healing ability within 24 h (100 %, HL) on 2D wound models clearly showed that HL and its derivatives have high potential to be used as natural active ingredients in cosmeceutical and skin regenerating formulations.

Dual-functional carboxymethyl levan-based protein carrier for cosmeceutical application of human epidermal growth factor

Human epidermal growth factor (hEGF) has been a subject of extensive research as its wide range of physiological functions has many potential applications. However, due to the low stability of hEGF, its physiological effect is easily lost under conditions of use. To compensate for this, we developed a stable delivery system using levan-based nanoparticles. The entrapment yield of various tested proteins was significantly improved by employing carboxymethyl levan (CML) instead of levan; the entrapment yield of the CML-hEGF nanoparticles was 84.1 %. The size and zeta potential of the nanoparticles were identified as 199.9 ± 3.87 nm and -19.1 mV, respectively, using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and particle size analysis. Dual biological functions of the nanoparticles (skin regeneration and moisturizing) were identified through collagen synthesis activity and aquaporin 3 expression level analysis. Stability of the prepared nanoparticles was also investigated via cell proliferation activity comparison under mimicked physiological conditions. The CML-hEGF nanoparticles maintained cell proliferation activity over 100 % for 6 weeks, while free hEGF was almost inactivated within 2 weeks. Taken together, our results indicate that the CML-based hEGF nanoparticles can be used in pharma- and cosmeceutical applications, guaranteeing a high entrapment capability, functionality, and stability.

Study on Doxorubicin Loading on Differently Functionalized Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Implications for Controlled Drug-Delivery Application

Nanoplatforms applied for the loading of anticancer drugs is a cutting-edge approach for drug delivery to tumors and reduction of toxic effects on healthy cells. In this study, we describe the synthesis and compare the sorption properties of four types of potential doxorubicin-carriers, in which iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs) are functionalized with cationic (polyethylenimine, PEI), anionic (polystyrenesulfonate, PSS), and nonionic (dextran) polymers, as well as with porous carbon. The IONs are thoroughly characterized by X-ray diffraction, IR spectroscopy, high resolution TEM (HRTEM), SEM, magnetic susceptibility, and the zeta-potential measurements in the pH range of 3-10. The degree of doxorubicin loading at pH 7.4, as well as the degree of desorption at pH 5.0, distinctive to cancerous tumor environment, are measured. Particles modified with PEI were shown to exhibit the highest loading capacity, while the greatest release at pH 5 (up to 30%) occurs from the surface of magnetite decorated with PSS. Such a slow release of the drug would imply a prolonged tumor-inhibiting action on the affected tissue or organ. Assessment of the toxicity (using Neuro2A cell line) for PEI- and PSS-modified IONs showed no negative effect. In conclusion, the preliminary evaluation of the effects of IONs coated with PSS and PEI on the rate of blood clotting was carried out. The results obtained can be taken into account when developing new drug delivery platforms.

In silico analysis of a putative dehalogenase from the genome of halophilic bacterium Halomonas smyrnensis AAD6T

Microbial-assisted removal of natural or synthetic pollutants is the prevailing green, low-cost technology to treat polluted environments. However, the challenge with enzyme-assisted bioremediation is the laborious nature of dehalogenase-producing microorganisms' bioprospecting. This bottleneck could be circumvented by in-silico analysis of certain microorganisms' whole-genome sequences to predict their protein functions and enzyme versatility for improved biotechnological applications. Herein, this study performed structural analysis on a dehalogenase (DehHsAAD6) from the genome of Halomonas smyrnensis AAD6 by molecular docking and molecular dynamic (MD) simulations. Other bioinformatics tools were also employed to identify substrate preference (haloacids and haloacetates) of the DehHsAAD6. The DehHsAAD6 preferentially degraded haloacids and haloacetates (-3.2-4.8 kcal/mol) and which formed three hydrogen bonds with Tyr12, Lys46, and Asp182. MD simulations data revealed the higher stability of DehHsAAD6-haloacid- (RMSD 0.22-0.3 nm) and DehHsAAD6-haloacetates (RMSF 0.05-0.14 nm) complexes, with the DehHsAAD6-L-2CP complex being the most stable. The detail of molecular docking calculations ranked complexes with the lowest binding free energies as: DehHsAAD6-L-2CP complex (-4.8 kcal/mol) = DehHsAAD6-MCA (-4.8 kcal/mol) < DehHsAAD6-TCA (-4.5 kcal/mol) < DehHsAAD6-2,3-DCP (-4.1 kcal/mol) < DehHsAAD6-D-2CP (-3.9 kcal/mol) < DehHsAAD6-2,2-DCP (-3.5 kcal/mol) < DehHsAAD6-3CP (-3.2 kcal/mol). In a nutshell, the study findings offer valuable perceptions into the elucidation of possible reaction mechanisms of dehalogenases for extended substrate specificity and higher catalytic activity.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

The anticancer activity of doxorubicin-loaded levan-functionalized gold nanoparticles synthesized by laser ablation

Here, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were synthesized upon exposure to nano-pulsed Nd-YAG laser irradiation in de-ionized water (PLAL) and functionalized with levan polysaccharide for assessing the anticancer efficacy of doxorubicin (DOX)-conjugated levan-capped AuNPs complexes to MCF-7 breast cancer cells. According to the physicochemical test results, the increments in levan amount enhanced the colloidal stability and the drug encapsulation efficiency (DEE) significantly. For the 10L-AuNP group having the highest levan amount (10 mg/mL levan), DEE was calculated as 92.21 ± 0.56%. The lean levan, uncapped AuNPs, and 10L-AuNP were found non-cytotoxic (>80% cell viability) in the studied concentrations with 48 h MTT assays. At higher DOX loadings (25, 50, and 100 μg/mL) of 10L-AuNP, the cell viability reduced significantly compared to free DOX. Overall, these nanoparticle complexes could be proposed as potent drug delivery vehicles for cancer drugs such as DOX, as well as other drugs in the prospective studies.

Levan enhanced the NF-κB suppression activity of an oral nano PLGA-curcumin formulation in breast cancer treatment

Chemoresistance (CR) is one of the reasons why chemotherapy agents like Gemcitabine (GMC) remain insufficient in healing breast cancer. Activation of Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-κB) during chemotherapy is known as an important factor in the development of CR. The hydrophobic polyphenol curcumin is shown to inhibit NF-κB and hence CR. The aim of this work was to increase the poor bioavailability of curcumin by loading it into the nano-micelles made of Poly (Lactide-co-Glycolide) (PLGA) and levan, where levan as a natural fructose homopolymer makes the nano-micelle more stable and increases its uptake using the fructose moieties. In this study, a PLGA-levan-curcumin formulation (PLC) was designed and characterized. The size was measured as 154.16 ± 1.45 nm with a 67.68% encapsulation efficiency (EE%). The incorporation between the components was approved. Levan made the nano-micelles stable for at least three months, increased their uptake, and led to a 10,000-fold increase in the solubility of curcumin. The enhanced bioavailability of curcumin reduced the NF-κB levels elevated by GMC, both in vitro and in vivo. The PLC showed a complete tumor treatment, while GMC only showed a rate of 52%. These point to the great potential of the PLC to be used simultaneously with chemotherapy.

Synthesis and characterization of levan hydrogels and their use for resveratrol release

Considering the need for systematic studies on levan based hydrogels to widen their use in drug delivery systems and biomedical applications, this study is mainly focused on the synthesis and comprehensive characterization as well as drug release properties of hydrogels based on Halomonas levan (HL) and its chemical derivatives. For this, hydrolyzed and phosphonated HL derivatives were chemically synthesized and then cross-linked with 1,4-Butanediol diglycidyl ether (BDDE) and the obtained hydrogels were characterized in terms of their swelling, adhesivity, and rheological properties. Both native and phosphonated HL hydrogels retained their rigid gel like structure with increasing shear stress levels and tack test analysis showed superior adhesive properties of the phosphonated HL hydrogels. Moreover, hydrogels were loaded with resveratrol and entrapment and release studies as well as cell culture studies with human keratinocytes were performed. Biocompatible and adhesive features of the hydrogels confirmed their suitability for tissue engineering and drug delivery applications.

Resveratrol-Loaded Levan Nanoparticles Produced by Electrohydrodynamic Atomization Technique

Considering the significant advances in nanostructured systems in various biomedical applications and the escalating need for levan-based nanoparticles as delivery systems, this study aimed to fabricate levan nanoparticles by the electrohydrodynamic atomization (EHDA) technique. The hydrolyzed derivative of levan polysaccharide from Halomonas smyrnensis halophilic bacteria, hydrolyzed Halomonas levan (hHL), was used. Nanoparticles were obtained by optimizing the EHDA parameters and then they were characterized in terms of morphology, molecular interactions, drug release and cell culture studies. The optimized hHL and resveratrol (RS)-loaded hHL nanoparticles were monodisperse and had smooth surfaces. The particle diameter size of hHL nanoparticles was 82.06 ± 15.33 nm. Additionally, release of RS from the fabricated hHL nanoparticles at different pH conditions were found to follow the first-order release model and hHL with higher RS loading showed a more gradual release. In vitro biocompatibility assay with human dermal fibroblast cell lines was performed and cell behavior on coated surfaces was observed. Nanoparticles were found to be safe for healthy cells. Consequently, the fabricated hHL-based nanoparticle system may have potential use in drug delivery systems for wound healing and tissue engineering applications and surfaces could be coated with these electrosprayed particles to improve cellular interaction.

Characterization of levan produced by a Paenibacillus sp. isolated from Brazilian crude oil

A levan-type fructooligosaccharide was produced by a Paenibacillus strain isolated from Brazilian crude oil, the purity of which was 98.5% after precipitation with ethanol and dialysis. Characterization by FTIR, NMR spectroscopy, GC-FID and ESI-MS revealed that it is a mixture of linear β(2 → 6) fructosyl polymers with average degree of polymerization (DP) of 18 and branching ratio of 20. Morphological structure and physicochemical properties were investigated to assess levan microstructure, degradation temperature and thermomechanical features. Thermal Gravimetric Analysis highlighted degradation temperature of 218 °C, Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) glass transition at 81.47 °C, and Dynamic Mechanical Analysis three frequency-dependent transition peaks. These peaks, corresponding to a first thermomechanical transition event at 86.60 °C related to the DSC endothermic event, a second at 170.9 °C and a third at 185.2 °C, were attributed to different glass transition temperatures of oligo and polyfructans with different DP. Levan showed high morphological versatility and technological potential for the food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical industries.

Production and сharacterization of the exopolysaccharide from strain Paenibacillus polymyxa 2020

Paenibacillus spp. exopolysaccharides (EPSs) have become a growing interest recently as a source of biomaterials. In this study, we characterized Paenibacillus polymyxa 2020 strain, which produces a large quantity of EPS (up to 68 g/L),and was isolated from wasp honeycombs. Here we report its complete genome sequence and full methylome analysis detected by Pacific Biosciences SMRT sequencing. Moreover, bioinformatic analysis identified a putative levan synthetic operon. SacC and sacB genes have been cloned and their products identified as glycoside hydrolase and levansucrase respectively. The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra demonstrated that the EPS is a linear β-(2→6)-linked fructan (levan). The structure and properties of levan polymer produced from sucrose and molasses were analyzed by FT-IR, NMR, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high performance size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), cytotoxicity tests and showed low toxicity and high biocompatibility. Thus, P. polymyxa 2020 could be an exceptional cost-effective source for the industrial production of levan-type EPSs and to obtain functional biomaterials based on it for a broad range of applications, including bioengineering.

The Immunomodulatory Properties of β-2,6 Fructans: A Comprehensive Review

Polysaccharides such as β-2,1-linked fructans including inulin or fructose oligosaccharides are well-known prebiotics with recognised immunomodulatory properties. In recent years, other fructan types covering β-2,6-linked fructans, particularly microbial levans, have gained increasing interest in the field. β-2,6-linked fructans of different degrees of polymerisation can be synthesised by plants or microbes including those that reside in the gastrointestinal tract. Accumulating evidence suggests a role for these β-2,6 fructans in modulating immune function. Here, we provide an overview of the sources and structures of β-2,6 fructans from plants and microbes and describe their ability to modulate immune function in vitro and in vivo along with the suggested mechanisms underpinning their immunomodulatory properties. Further, we discuss the limitations and perspectives pertinent to current studies and the potential applications of β-2,6 fructans including in gut health.

Structural elucidation and cytotoxic analysis of a fructan based biopolymer produced extracellularly by Zymomonas mobilis KIBGE-IB14

Fructan based biopolymers have been extensively characterized and explored for their potential applications. Linear chained biopolymers, like levan-type fructan, have gained attention because they have exhibited unconventional stretchable and unbendable properties along with biodegradable and biocompatible nature. Current study deals with the chemical characterization and cytotoxic analysis of fructose based exopolysaccharide that was extracellularly produced by an indigenously isolated bacterial species (Zymomonas mobilis KIBGE-IB14). Maximum yield of exopolysaccharide (44.7 gL^-1) was attained after 72 h of incubation at 30 °C under shaking conditions (180 rpm) when the culture medium was supplemented with 150.0 gL^-1 of sucrose as a sole carbon source. This exopolysaccharide displayed high water solubility index (96.0%) with low water holding capacity (17.0%) and an intrinsic viscosity of about 0.447 dL g^-1. This biopolymer exhibited a characteristic linear homopolysaccharide structure of levan when characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy (¹H, ¹³C, TOCSY and NOESY) while, Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) revealed its pointed and thorny structure. The decomposition temperature of levan was approximately 245 °C as revealed by Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA). X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) results revealed its amorphous nature with crystalline phase. Cytotoxicity of different concentrations of levan was investigated against mouse fibroblast cell lines by measuring their cellular metabolic activity and it was noticed that a higher concentration of levan (2.0 mg ml^-1) permitted the normal cell growth of NIH/3T3 cell lines. This non-cytotoxic and biocompatible nature suggests that this levan has the capability to be utilized in food and drug-based formulations as it exhibited biomedical potential.

Polymer Based Bioadhesive Biomaterials for Medical Application-A Perspective of Redefining Healthcare System Management

This article deliberates about the importance of polymer-based bioadhesive biomaterials' medical application in healthcare and in redefining healthcare management. Nowadays, the application of bioadhesion in the health sector is one of the great interests for various researchers, due to recent advances in their formulation development. Actually, this area of study is considered as an active multidisciplinary research approach, where engineers, scientists (including chemists, physicists, biologists, and medical experts), material producers and manufacturers combine their knowledge in order to provide better healthcare. Moreover, while discussing the implications of value-based healthcare, it is necessary to mention that health comprises three main domains, namely, physical, mental, and social health, which not only prioritize the quality healthcare, but also enable us to measure the outcomes of medical interventions. In addition, this conceptual article provides an understanding of the consequences of the natural or synthetic polymer-based bioadhesion of biomaterials, and its significance for redefining healthcare management as a novel approach. Furthermore, the research assumptions highlight that the quality healthcare concept has recently become a burning topic, wherein healthcare service providers, private research institutes, government authorities, public service boards, associations and academics have taken the initiative to restructure the healthcare system to create value for patients and increase their satisfaction, and lead ultimately to a healthier society.

Microbial Exopolysaccharides as Drug Carriers

Microbial exopolysaccharides are peculiar polymers that are produced by living organisms and protect them against environmental factors. These polymers are industrially recovered from the medium culture after performing a fermentative process. These materials are biocompatible and biodegradable, possessing specific and beneficial properties for biomedical drug delivery systems. They can have antitumor activity, they can produce hydrogels with different characteristics due to their molecular structure and functional groups, and they can even produce nanoparticles via a self-assembly phenomenon. This review studies the potential use of exopolysaccharides as carriers for drug delivery systems, covering their versatility and their vast possibilities to produce particles, fibers, scaffolds, hydrogels, and aerogels with different strategies and methodologies. Moreover, the main properties of exopolysaccharides are explained, providing information to achieve an adequate carrier selection depending on the final application.

Evaluation of the Potential Use of Levan Polysaccharide in Paper Conservation

Conservation of paper-based materials, namely, manuscripts, includes repair of tears, gap filling, consolidation, and fixation, which requires the use of adhesives. The adhesive in use for these purposes should be compatible with the chemical and physical properties of paper and should present good aging characteristics. In this study, we conducted a set of experiments with paper samples on which fructan-based biopolymer Halomonas levan (Hlevan) was applied for the first time and compared with glucan-based adhesive starch. Adhesive-applied samples were initially prepared by the application of different historical recipes of sizing and ink. Then, they underwent accelerated thermal aging. Chemical and physical changes of paper samples (crystallinity, pH, and color) were analyzed. Finally, Principal Component Analysis was performed to identify dominating factors affecting sample behavior with applied adhesives. This study demonstrates the aging characteristics of Hlevan on cellulose-based materials. The results showed that there is a color shift from blue to yellow for all samples after aging, but it is more pronounced for some samples with Hlevan. In addition, Hlevan is slightly less acidic than starch in all cases and acted as a plasticizer for a specific kind of sizing material. The methodology of this research is also efficacious in terms of understanding the interaction of paper media with the adhesives and their effects on aging.

Fabrication and Application of Levan-PVA Hydrogel for Effective Influenza Virus Capture

To prevent the transmission of pathogenic microorganisms such as the influenza virus, efficient pathogen-capturing materials are required. Here, we report a new pathogen-capturing and recovery material using levan polysaccharide. We fabricated hydrogels by blending levan and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and by using glutaraldehyde as a cross-linking agent. Fabricated levan-PVA hydrogels have a high water solubility and water adsorption ability. SEM observations showed that levan-PVA hydrogels have a 3D porous structure. We confirmed by RT-PCR analysis that the influenza virus capture efficiency of levan-PVA hydrogels is higher than that of commercial cotton swabs. Moreover, we confirmed that levan-PVA hydrogels on gauze as a filter material effectively captured bioaerosol samples. Therefore, levan-PVA hydrogels are expected to serve as simple and efficient pathogen capture and recovery materials.

Biomimetic Nanostructures with Compositional Gradient Grown by Combinatorial Matrix-Assisted Pulsed Laser Evaporation for Tissue Engineering

There is permanent progress with the fabrication of smart bioactive surfaces that could govern tissue regeneration. Thin coatings of two or more materials with compositional gradient allow the construction of arrays with different chemical and physical features on a solid substrate. With such intelligent bio-platforms, cells can be exposed to a tissue-like biomimetic micro-environment with precise characteristics that directs cells fate towards specific phenotypes. We have introduced combinatorial matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (C-MAPLE) as an alternative approach for the fabrication in a single-step process of either organic or inorganic thin and nanostructured coatings with variable composition. A continuous reciprocal gradient of two biomolecules can be achieved by C-MAPLE with discrete areas exhibiting physicochemical specificity that modulates intracellular signaling events. Herein, we present a review of the current combinatorial laser strategies and methods for fabricating thin organic and inorganic films with compositional gradient with emphasis on the surface influence on cell responsiveness. In particular, the specific biological potential of surface functionalization with thin coatings of biopolymers, proteins and drugs will be discussed. Laser deposition combinatorial processes are considered an emerging unconventional technology that can be widely applied to produce composite multilayers and micro-patterns for faster cell colonization and tissue engineering.

Colloidal stability and biological activity evaluation of microbial exopolysaccharide levan-capped gold nanoparticles

The main objectives of this study were to explore the suitability of the exopolysaccharide levan, biosynthesized by Bacillus subtilis, to aid in the formation of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and to investigate the colloidal stability and in vitro biological activity of this biopolymer-AuNPs complex. AuNPs (mainly spherical, 8-10 nm-sized, and monodispersed) were successfully synthesized in levan concentrations up to 0.5% w/v (L-AuNP0.5) while exposed to ultraviolet C (UVC) irradiation. The increase of levan quantity decreased the size of AuNPs according to Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) images and enhanced the colloidal stability significantly. The presence of L-AuNP0.5 at the highest treatment dose (1000 μg/mL) exhibited substantial cytotoxicity towards L-929 mouse fibroblasts for all incubation periods. Dose-dependent toxicity was observed for the first day while, after this threshold value, medium (100 μg/mL) and the lowest (10 μg/mL) treatment doses were non-cytotoxic during 7 days of incubation, implying dose and time-independent cell viabilities (> 95%) compared to the negative control (complete cell culture medium). There occurred a special surface interaction with cells and L-AuNP0.5, especially when the cells were subjected to deliberate starvation periods to increase L-AuNP0.5 internalization via passive and active endocytosis. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images showed high accumulation of L-AuNP0.5 around or inside the cell membrane after 7 days. Overall, this attribute (high uptake of L-AuNP0.5) could make them promising candidates for prospective cancer therapeutics or drug delivery systems by enabling the cell internalization of anticancer drugs.

A comprehensive study on levan nanoparticles formation: Kinetics and self-assembly modeling

Levan nanoparticles formation is a complicated phenomenon involving simultaneously polymeric reaction kinetics and nanoparticles self-assembly theory. These phenomena are studied in this work with experimental and computational methodologies. Specifically, the effect of different parameters on levan kinetics and nanoparticles production in a cell-free system environment have been studied. Results point out that 37 °C is the best temperature for synthesizing levan as well as the existence of a substrate inhibition effect for polymeric reaction. This work also highlights that raffinose can be used for producing and that an increase on the ratio enzyme-substrate increases the velocity of conversion. However, the previous experimental conditions did not produce an important effect on self-assembly formed levan nanoparticles (always 110 nm) as long as the required levan concentration (CAC) for nanoparticles reorganization is achieved. To have a better understanding of these results, a model was developed to explain numerically levan kinetics and nanoparticle self-assembly. This model was built by taking into account enzyme poisoning effect (also demonstrated experimentally) and a diffusion limited cluster model for the aggregation phenomenon. Simulation results fit properly experimental data and catalytic parameters as well as predicting accurately the value of CAC for producing its reorganization into nanoparticles by self-assembly.