Chemical composition, antioxidant, antitumor, anticancer and cytotoxic effects of Psidium guajava leaf extracts

α-Glucosidase inhibitory activities of constituents from Psidium guajava leaves

Psidium guajava is a plant of the Myrtaceae with various pharmacological activity. In this study, the water extract and the isolated compounds from guava leaves were evaluated for in vitro α-glucosidase inhibition using spectrophotometric method. Ellagic acid, quercetin, quercetin-3-O-glucuronide, avicularin, isoquercitrin, and quercetin-3-galactoside showed α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, and their IC50 value were 25.0, 41.0, 53.5, 46.9, 60.0 and 72.1 μg/mL, respectively compared with the positive control acarbose (IC50 49.2 μg/mL). This study could provide a theoretical basis for the application of Psidium guajava in the treatment of hyperglycemia.

Chemical and biological profile of the fractionated extract of the species Campylopus savannarum (Müll. Hal.) Mitt

The indiscriminate use of allopathic drugs has selected resistant bacterial and fungal populations which represents a severe public health problem worldwide. On the other hand, plants are in a prominent position due to the capability to synthesize structurally complex bioactive metabolites that can be an alternative to resistant microorganisms' control. In this work, we evaluated the chemical composition and the antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic potential of the fractionated extract of C. savannarum in ethyl acetate. The extract of C. savannarum was divided into 12 fractions that were submitted to phytochemical screening, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), reduction of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazine (DPPH), and hemolytic activity of sheep erythrocytes assays. During the investigation, all extract fractions presented alkaloids, triterpenoids, steroids, and phenolic compounds in qualitative analyses, while in the quantitative evaluation, we observed the presence of both phenols and flavonoids in these fractions. Among the fraction, the highest phenolic content was observed in the Cs23-24 fraction (2.480 mg EAG/g), while the Cs31-34 fractions presented the highest amount of flavonoid (182.25 μg EQ/100 mg). Nine of the 12 fractions of the moss species' extract showed antimicrobial action Against Gram-positive bacteria: Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus subtilis; Gram-negative bacteria: Pseudomonas aeruginosa; and also antifungal activity against Candida albicans and Candida glabata. The cytotoxic assay demonstrated that the tested fractions did not induce hemolysis at concentrations 10 and 100(µG/ML). In the antioxidant evaluation, the Cs55-69 fractions were the ones that presented the highest scavenging activity (57, 0%) followed by the Cs45-54 fraction (42.7%). Overall, the evaluation of the biological potential of the fractionated extracts of Campylopus savannarum showed promising data, in the search for natural antimicrobial compounds.

Preparation, structural characterization, and bioactivities of polysaccharides from Psidium guajava: A review

Psidium guajava L. is one of the most pivotal members belong to the Myrtaceae family, and it is an important tropical fruit with highly nutritional, healthy, and pharmacological values prevailing in worldwide for decades. The polysaccharides of P. guajava (PGPs) are served as one of the most active constituents, which possess a variety of biofunctionalities including anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheic, antihypertension, and antidiabetic properties. Hence, a systematic review aimed to comprehensively summarize the recent research advances of PGPs is necessary for facilitating their better understanding. The present review discussed current research progress on the PGPs, including extraction and purification methods, structural features, biological activities, and potential pharmacological mechanism. In addition, this review may also provide some valuable insights for further development and potential value in affording functionally useful agents in food industry or therapeutically effective medicine in the fields of P. guajava polysaccharides.

Antioxidant and Anti-Cytotoxicity Effect of Phenolic Extracts from Psidium guajava Linn. Leaves by Novel Assisted Extraction Techniques

Phytochemicals (PCs) are gaining popularity due to their antioxidant effects and potential protection against infection, cardiovascular disease, and cellular metabolic activity. These PCs must be retained as much as possible during extraction. This research focused on the extraction of PC from Psidium guajava Linn. leaves due to higher antioxidant potential. Solvent extraction (SE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) using distilled water (DW) or 60% (v/v) ethanol/water (ET) were used for the extraction of PC. ET shows higher total phenolic (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) as well as higher antioxidant activity than DW. Phytochemical screening demonstrated that all of the screening showed positive results in all extraction methods, except glycoside. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) in TPC and TFC during MAE/ET, SE/ET, and UAE/ET. Antioxidant analysis shows that MAE and SE resulted in high (p < 0.05) DPPH and FRAP values for ET and DW, respectively. MAE/ET showed the highest inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ = 16.67 µg/mL). HPLC and TLC analysis reveal the fingerprint of morin, which might function as an anticancer agent with other bioactives. Increasing the extract content increased the inhibitory activity of SW480 cells via MTT assay. In conclusion, MAE/ET is the most efficient among the extraction techniques in terms of anti-cytotoxicity effects.

Phytobioactive compounds as therapeutic agents for human diseases: A review

Phytobioactive compounds are plant secondary metabolites and bioactive compounds abundantly present in medicinal plants and have remarkable therapeutic potential. Oxidative stress and antibiotic resistance are major causes of present-day ailments such as diabetes, atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disorders, cancer, and inflammation. The data for this review were collected from Google Scholar, PubMed, Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), and Science Direct by using keywords: "Medicinal plants, Phytobioactive compounds, Polyphenols, Alkaloids, Carotenoids etc." Several studies have reported the pharmacological and therapeutic potential of the phytobioactives. Polyphenols, alkaloids, terpenes, and polysaccharides isolated from medicinal plants showed remarkable antioxidant, anticancer, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, and antidiabetic activities. This literature review was planned to provide comprehensive insight into the biopharmacological and therapeutic potential of phytobioactive compounds. The techniques used for the extraction and isolation of phytobioactive compounds, and bioassays required for their biological activities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic activities, have been discussed. Characterization techniques for the structural elucidation of phytobioactive compounds such as HPLC, TLC, FTIR, GC-MS/MS, and NMR have also been discussed. This review concludes that phytobioactive compounds may be used as potential alternative to synthetic compounds as therapeutic agents for the treatment of various diseases.

The Anticancer Potential of Psidium guajava (Guava) Extracts

The fruits, leaves, and bark of the guava (Psidium guajava) tree have traditionally been used to treat a myriad of ailments, especially in the tropical and subtropical regions. The various parts of the plant have been shown to exhibit medicinal properties, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic activities. Recent studies have shown that the bioactive phytochemicals of several parts of the P. guajava plant exhibit anticancer activity. This review aims to present a concise summary of the in vitro and in vivo studies investigating the anticancer activity of the plant against various human cancer cell lines and animal models, including the identified phytochemicals that contributes to their activity via the different mechanisms. In vitro growth and cell viability studies, such as the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, the sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay, and the trypan blue exclusion test, were conducted using P. guajava extracts and their biomolecules to assess their effects on human cancer cell lines. Numerous studies have showcased that the P. guajava plant and its bioactive molecules, especially those extracted from its leaves, selectively suppress the growth of human cancer cells without cytotoxicity against the normal cells. This review presents the potential of the extracts of P. guajava and the bioactive molecules derived from it, to be utilized as a feasible alternative or adjuvant treatment for human cancers. The availability of the plant also contributes towards its viability as a cancer treatment in developing countries.

Psidium guajava L.: From byproduct and use in traditional Mexican medicine to antimicrobial agent

Mexico is one of the largest guava producers in the world, so it has access to a huge amount of waste and byproducts obtained after the industrial processing of the fruit. This review discusses the potential recovery of this residue for its application as an antimicrobial agent, considering the phytochemical composition, the bioactivity reported in-vivo and in-vitro, and the toxicology of the plant. Nowadays there is a growing demand for more natural and safer products, so the use of guava extracts is an interesting initiative, especially due to its availability in the country, its wide variety of traditional uses, and its phytochemical profile. This review highlights the importance and potential antimicrobial use of this plant in today's world.

Composition, Antibacterial Efficacy, and Anticancer Activity of Essential Oil Extracted from Psidium guajava (L.) Leaves

Essential oils (EO) are used as a natural remedy to treat various chronic diseases, although clinical evidence is lacking. In this context, we have endeavored to measure the percentage of chemical composition and biological efficacy of Psidium guajava (guava) leaf essential oil in treating oral infections and oral cancer. The essential oil obtained from hydrodistillation of P. guajava L. leaves was analyzed by gas chromatography−mass spectrometry (GC−MS). The activities of selected oral pathogens Candida albicans (C. albicans) and Streptococcus mutans (S. mutants) were studied in vitro and in silico. MTT assay was used to test for anticancer activity against human oral epidermal carcinoma (KB). GC−MS showed that the main components of PGLEO were limonene (38.01%) and β-caryophyllene (27.98%). Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 0.05−0.1% were demonstrated against C. albicans and S. mutans. Antimicrobial activity against C. albicans and S. mutans, as shown by molecular linkage analysis, revealed that the main metabolites, limonene and β-caryophyllene, potentially inhibited the receptors of C. albicans and S. mutans. PGLEO showed significant (p < 0.001) anticancer activity (45.89%) at 200 µg/mL compared to doxorubicin (47.87%) with an IC50 value of 188.98 µg/mL. The outcomes of the present study suggest that PGLEO has promising antimicrobial and anticancer activities and could be a useful source for developing a natural therapeutic agent for oral infections and oral cancer.

Chemical Constituents, Antioxidant, and Enzyme Inhibitory Activities Supported by In-Silico Study of n-Hexane Extract and Essential Oil of Guava Leaves

Psidium guajava (Guava tree) is one of the most widely known species in the family Myrtaceae. The Guava tree has been reported for its potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activities. In the current study, the chemical compositions of the n-hexane extract and the essential oil of P. guajava were investigated using the GC/MS analysis, along with an evaluation of their antioxidant potential, and an investigation into the enzyme inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BchE), tyrosinase, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase. Moreover, molecular docking of the major identified active sites of the target enzymes were investigated. The chemical characterization of the n-hexane extract and essential oil revealed that squalene (9.76%), α-tocopherol (8.53%), and γ-sitosterol (3.90%) are the major compounds in the n-hexane extract. In contrast, the major constituents of the essential oil are D-limonene (36.68%) and viridiflorol (9.68%). The n-hexane extract showed more antioxidant potential in the cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC), the ferric reducing power (FRAP), and the metal chelating ability (MCA) assays, equivalent to 70.80 ± 1.46 mg TE/g, 26.01 ± 0.97 mg TE/g, and 24.83 ± 0.35 mg EDTAE/g, respectively. In the phosphomolybdenum (PM) assay, the essential oil showed more antioxidant activity equivalent to 2.58 ± 0.14 mmol TE/g. The essential oil demonstrated a potent BChE and tyrosinase inhibitory ability at 6.85 ± 0.03 mg GALAE/g and 61.70 ± 3.21 mg KAE/g, respectively. The α-amylase, and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity of the n-hexane extract and the essential oil varied from 0.52 to 1.49 mmol ACAE/g. Additionally, the molecular docking study revealed that the major compounds achieved acceptable binding scores upon docking with the tested enzymes. Consequently, the P. guajava n-hexane extract and oil can be used as a promising candidate for the development of novel treatment strategies for oxidative stress, neurodegeneration, and diabetes mellitus diseases.

Psidium guajava L. An Incalculable but Underexplored Food Crop: Its Phytochemistry, Ethnopharmacology, and Industrial Applications

Psidium guajava L. (guava) is a small tree known for its fruit flavor that is cultivated almost around the globe in tropical areas. Its fruit is amazingly rich in antioxidants, vitamin C, potassium, and dietary fiber. In different parts of the world, this plant holds a special place with respect to fruit and nutritional items. Pharmacological research has shown that this plant has more potential than just a fruit source; it also has beneficial effects against a variety of chronic diseases due to its rich nutritional and phytochemical profile. The primary goal of this document is to provide an updated overview of Psidium guajava L. and its bioactive secondary metabolites, as well as their availability for further study, with a focus on the health benefits and potential industrial applications. There have been several studies conducted on Psidium guajava L. in relation to its use in the pharmaceutical industry. However, its clinical efficacy and applications are still debatable. Therefore, in this review a detailed study with respect to phytochemistry of the plant through modern instruments such as GC and LC-MS has been discussed. The biological activities of secondary metabolites isolated from this plant have been extensively discussed. In order to perform long-term clinical trials to learn more about their effectiveness as drugs and applications for various health benefits, a structure activity relationship has been established. Based on the literature, it is concluded that this plant has a wide variety of biopharmaceutical applications. As a whole, this article calls for long-term clinical trials to obtain a greater understanding of how it can be used to treat different diseases.

Effect of Psidium guajava leaves extracts on thermo-lipid oxidation and Maillard pathway born food toxicant acrylamide in Indian staple food

Deep frying of food is a common practice that leads to the formation of lipid oxidation products. These lipid oxidation products have a role in the Maillard reaction, which ultimately leads to the formation of cancer-causing and neurotoxic substance acrylamide. In this regard, the Psidium guajava leaves extract-treated sunflower oil on oxidative stability and acrylamide content in pooris a popular deep-fried staple food in India were studied and compared with synthetic antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) till four frying cycles. P. guajava leaves contain 173.33 ± 1.95 mg GAE/g extract total phenolic content and 20.43 ± 0.25 mg RUE/g extract total flavonoid content. Some of the phytochemicals in the extract were identified and quantified by HPTLC. P. guajava leaves extract (1 g) contained 0.039 mg gallic acid, 0.196 mg rutin, 0.021 mg naringenin, 0.059 mg ferulic acid. The IC50 values for guava leaves extract, BHT, and ascorbic acid were 61.4, 30.4, 26.6 µg/mL, respectively. The peroxide and p-anisidine values indicated that P. guajava leaves extract inhibited lipid oxidation and provided oxidative stability. Pooris fried in P. guajava leaves extract-treated, BHT treated sunflower oil contained a lower acrylamide than pooris fried in control sunflower oil.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at (10.1007/s13197-021-04984-y).

Anticancer Activities of Sesewanua Leaf Extracts (Clerodendrum fragrans (Vent.) Willd) Against A549 Lung Cancer Cell

BACKGROUND: Cancer is one of the leading causes of non-communicable diseases in the world, with about 10 million deaths worldwide in 2020. Lung cancer was the most common type of cancer and the highest cause of death. Therapy for lung cancer can be either conventional therapy or molecular targeted therapy that has many limitations. AIM: It is, therefore, important to explore new sources of anticancer activity, including those from plants. One plant that is thought to have anticancer activity is Sesewanua (Clerodendrum fragrans [Vent.] Willd. Syn. Clerodendrum chinense [Osbeck] Mabb., Family Lamiaceae). METHODS: This research is a laboratory experiment. The sample used is the C. fragrans leaves obtained in Malalayang I Timur Village, Malalayang District, Manado City, North Sulawesi Province, while the subjects in this study were A549 lung cancer cells from Cell-Culture Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Padjadjaran Bandung. Anticancer activity test was using the MTT tetrazolium assay method. Data in the form of a percentage (%) inhibition of cell proliferation, then determined the value the concentration of 50% proliferation inhibition (IC50) using a computer program online. RESULTS: The results showed that ethanol extract, hexane fraction, ethyl acetate fraction, and water-soluble fraction of C. fragrans had anticancer activity on A549 lung cancer cells. The smallest IC50 value is indicated by ethyl acetate fraction (191, 165 ppm), which is categorized as moderately active.

Bioactive properties of Persea lingue Ness (Lauraceae) fruit and leaf extracts

Persea lingue Ness is a tree species that lives mainly in temperate forests of south-central Chile. Its leaves are used in ethnomedicine, the fruit is a drupe similar to that of the avocado and has not been studied. The aim of this study was to determine the cytotoxicity in leukemia cell and antibacterial activity, along with some chemical content characteristics of P. lingue fruit and leaf extracts. The antibacterial activity was determined by the inhibition of bacterial growth in liquid medium assay against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The leukemia cell lines Kasumi-1 and Jurkat were used to evaluate the cytotoxic activity by using propidium iodide and AlamarBlue assays. Total phenolic, flavonoid, condensed tannin, alkaloid and lipid contents were evaluated in the fruit and in the leaf extracts. The antioxidant activity of both extracts were also elavaluated. Leaf extract presented the highest content of total phenols, condensed tannins and flavonoids, and also the highest antioxidant activity. While the fruit extract has a higher amount of lipids and alkaloids and the high antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus megaterium and Micrococcus luteus. The leaf extract only showed activity against M. luteus. Concerning the cytotoxic activity, only the fruit extract showed cytotoxicity against the cell lines Jurkat and Kasumi-1. P. lingue fruit extract is a potential source of biologically active molecules for the development of new drugs to be used in some types of leukemia, as well as antibacterial agent.

Selective Inhibitors of Histone Deacetylase 10 (HDAC-10)

Histone acetylation balance is one epigenetic mechanism controlling gene expression associated with disease progression. It has been observed that histone deacetylase 10 (HDAC-10) isozyme contributes to the chemotherapy resistance; in addition, the poor clinical outcome observed in patients with aggressive solid tumors, such as neuroblastoma, has been associated with its overexpression. Moreover, HDAC-10 selective inhibition suppresses the autophagic response, thus providing an improved risk-benefit profile compared to cytotoxic cancer chemotherapy drugs. On these bases, HDAC-10 is becoming an emerging target for drug design. Due to the rapid progress in the development of next-generation HDAC inhibitors, this review article aims to provide an overview on novel selective or dual HDAC-8/10 inhibitors, as new leads for cancer chemotherapy, able to avoid the severe side-effects of several actual approved "pan" HDAC inhibitors. A literature search was conducted in MedLine, PubMed, Caplus, SciFinder Scholar databases from 2015 to the present. Since the disclosure that the HDAC-6 inhibitor Tubastatin A was able to bind HDAC-10 efficiently, several related analogues were synthesized and tested. Both tricyclic (25-30) and bicyclic (31-42) derivatives were considered. The best pharmacological profile was shown by 36 (HDAC-10 pIC₅₀ = 8.4 and pIC₅₀ towards Class I HDACs from 5.2-6.4). In parallel, based on the evidence that high levels of HDAC-8 are a marker of poor prognosis in neuroblastoma treatment, dual HDAC-8/10 inhibitors were designed. The hydroxamic acid TH34 (HDAC-8 and 10 IC₅₀ = 1.9 µM and 7.7 µM, respectively) and the hybrid derivatives 46d, 46e and 46g were the most promising both in terms of potency and selectivity. Literature surveys indicate several structural requirements for inhibitory potency and selectivity towards HDAC-10, e.g., electrostatic and/or hydrogen bond interactions with E274 and complementarity to the P(E,A) CE motif helix.

Guava (Psidium guajava L.): a glorious plant with cancer preventive and therapeutic potential

Guava (Psidium guajava L.) tree (Myrtaceae family) bears fruit rich in vitamins, fiber, and other nutrients. While native to Latin America, guava is grown in many tropical and subtropical regions across the globe where it has long been used in traditional medicine to treat a myriad of ailments. Guava has been shown to exhibit a number of biological and pharmacological activities, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and anticancer properties. Several parts of the plant, including the leaves, fruits, seeds, peels, pulp, bark, and oil, produce phytochemicals with medicinal properties. Emerging research has found that guava bioactive phytochemicals exert antitumorigenic effects against various human malignancies through multiple mechanisms. While there are numerous individual studies that document the anticancer effects of guava constituents, an up-to-date, comprehensive, and critical review of available research data has not been performed. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to present a complete analysis of the cancer preventive and anticancer therapeutic potential of guava-derived products and guava constituents, with a focus on the cellular and molecular mechanisms of action. The bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of guava as well as limitations, challenges, and future directions of research have also been discussed.

Reviews on mechanisms of in vitro antioxidant, antibacterial and anticancer activities of water-soluble plant polysaccharides

Degenerative diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases, and antimicrobial resistance are becoming prominent health problems needing utmost public health attention. Curative interventions such as the use of pharmaceutical drugs and alternative plant medicines are increasingly being explored. Plant polysaccharides have gained attention for their promising bioactivities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer activities. Bioactive plant polysaccharides are also being preferred for their relatively few side effects compared to conventional pharmaceuticals. The elucidation of the bioactive potential of plant polysaccharides in disease treatment entails an understanding of the factors that determine their biofunctional properties using functional and mechanistic assays. This review summarizes the literature on the composition, structural, functional, and mechanistic determinations of the antioxidant, anticancer and antimicrobial activities of plant polysaccharides. The outcome of this review highlights the leading trends in the elucidation of the antioxidant, anticancer and antimicrobial activities of plant polysaccharides and underscores the promising health benefits of plant polysaccharides.

Effect of natural leaf extracts as phytomedicine in curing geriatrics

Old age is viewed as an unavoidable, undesirable, and problem-ridden phase of life. As people age, they become more susceptible to disease and disability due to various factors like low immunity, decreased functionality of cells, DNA damage, higher incidence of inflammation, etc. Healthy aging is very important. The nutrition and health of the elderly is often neglected. Nutritional interventions could play an important part in the prevention of degenerative conditions of the elderly and an improvement of their quality of life. The medicinal properties of plants are always believed for its therapeutic effect and its efficiency in treating many without adverse effects. The role of phytomedicine in aging is very crucial as it possesses important bioactive compounds and constituents (such as polyphenols, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and others) which are considered to provide anti-aging properties as well as helps in reducing age-associated problems. Some natural leaves such as Moringa oleifera, curry leaves, guava leaves, green tea, olive leaves, Ginkgo biloba, thankuni leaves, grape leaves, vasaka leaves, and kulekhara leaves are found to have therapeutic effects against diseases like cancer, diabetes, immunosuppression, hepatic damage, and neurodegenerative disorders. Hence, this review aims at understanding the effectiveness of these natural products in curing the geriatric population and the mechanism by which the therapeutic effects are exerted by them.

Guava (Psidium guajava L.) Leaves: Nutritional Composition, Phytochemical Profile, and Health-Promoting Bioactivities

Psidium guajava (L.) belongs to the Myrtaceae family and it is an important fruit in tropical areas like India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and South America. The leaves of the guava plant have been studied for their health benefits which are attributed to their plethora of phytochemicals, such as quercetin, avicularin, apigenin, guaijaverin, kaempferol, hyperin, myricetin, gallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, chlorogenic acid, epigallocatechin gallate, and caffeic acid. Extracts from guava leaves (GLs) have been studied for their biological activities, including anticancer, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antidiarrheal, antimicrobial, lipid-lowering, and hepatoprotection activities. In the present review, we comprehensively present the nutritional profile and phytochemical profile of GLs. Further, various bioactivities of the GL extracts are also discussed critically. Considering the phytochemical profile and beneficial effects of GLs, they can potentially be used as an ingredient in the development of functional foods and pharmaceuticals. More detailed clinical trials need to be conducted to establish the efficacy of the GL extracts.

Psidium guajava Flavonoids Prevent NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Alleviate the Pancreatic Fibrosis in a Chronic Pancreatitis Mouse Model

Chronic pancreatitis (CP) is a multifactorial, inflammatory syndrome characterized by acinar atrophy and fibrosis. Activation of NOD-like receptors family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a central mediator of multiple chronic inflammatory responses and chronic fibrosis including pancreatic fibrosis in CP. The Psidium guajavaleaf is widely used in traditional medicine for the treatment of chronic inflammation, but the anti-inflammatory effect of Psidium guajavaleaf on CP has not yet been revealed. In this study, we investigated whether the extract of total flavonoids from Psidium guajava leaves (TFPGL) plays a therapeutic mechanism on CP through NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway in a mouse CP model. The H&E and acid-Sirius red staining indicted that TFPGL attenuated the inflammatory cell infiltration and fibrosis significantly. The results of immunohistological staining, western blot and RT-qPCR showed that the expressions of NLRP3 and caspase-1 were significantly increased in the CP model group, while TFPGL significantly decreased the NLRP3 and caspase-1 expression at both the gene and protein levels. Moreover, ELISA assay was used to examine the levels of NLRP3 inflammasome target genes, such as caspase-1, IL-1[Formula: see text] and IL-18. We found that TFPGL treatment decreased the expression of caspase-1, IL-1[Formula: see text] and IL-18, which is critical for the NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway and inflammation response significantly. These results demonstrated that TFPGL attenuated pancreatic inflammation and fibrosis via preventing NLRP3 inflammasome activation and TFPGL can be used as a potential therapeutic agent for CP.

Psidium guajava leaves assisted green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles: a review

Background

Several attempts have been made for green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles, revealing the significance of plant extracts in reducing metal source to nanoparticles and applications in various domains of science.

Main body

Psidium guajava (guava) is evergreen, edible fruit-bearing plant, belonging to family Myrtaceae. Its leaves are reported to contain several phytochemicals like tannins, glycosides, terpenes, and triterpenes. This article focus on applications of Psidium guajava leaves extract in fabrication of nanoparticles of various metals like silver, gold, titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, and copper oxide. In respective research attempts, these metallic nanoparticles were evaluated for one or more applications like anti-microbial activity and/or photocatalytic activity.

Conclusion

Use of polar extract of guava leaves indicated involvement of its polar phyto-compounds in reducing the metal source and stabilizing the nanoparticles. In conclusion, it could be noted that metal nanoparticles have better anti-microbial activity and photocatalytic potential over aqueous leaves extract.

Graphical abstract

Antimicrobial activity, phytochemical characterization and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of Aspilia pluriseta Schweinf. extracts

Aspilia pluriseta is associated with various bioactivities, although with limited scientific justification. In this study, we evaluated the antimicrobial activity, and characterized the phytochemicals of root extracts of A. pluriseta aimed at validating its therapeutic potential. We used BACTEC MGIT™ 960 system to test for antitubercular activity, disc-diffusion together with the microdilution method to evaluate antimicrobial activities and qualitative phytochemical tests together with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis to determine the phytochemicals that associated with A. pluriseta extracts activity. We show that methanolic crude extract (at 1 g/mL) had high Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) inhibitory activity (0 growth unit) and considerable potency against Escherichia coli (11.7 mm), Staphylococcus aureus (9.0 mm), and Candida albicans (7.7 mm). All the extract fractions exerted remarkable antimycobacterial activities with minimum inhibitory activity of between 6.26 – 25 μg/mL. The highest antimicrobial activity of petroleum ether and dichloromethane fraction was against E. coli at inhibition zone diameters of 8.3 mm, and 8.0 mm, respectively, while ethyl acetate fraction was against S. aureus with an inhibition zone of 8.7 mm. Methanolic fraction exhibited broad-spectrum activity against 87.5% of the tested microbes (inhibition zones 6.3–8.3 mm). Furthermore, we qualitatively detected terpenoids, alkaloids, and phenolics such as flavonoids, and anthraquinones in extract fractions. GC-MS analysis detected an abundance of fatty acid esters, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl) ethyl ester-hexadecanoic acid, and 2,3-dihydroxy propyl ester-octadecanoic acid and four alkanes. Taken together, we show that A. pluriseta extract fractions (especially ethyl acetate and methanolic fractions) have strong selective antitubercular activity, and thus, we scientifically validate the use of A. pluriseta as a potential source for the discovery of novel antitubercular agents.

Crystal Guava (Psidium guajava L. "Crystal"): Evaluation of In Vitro Antioxidant Capacities and Phytochemical Content

Free radicals can cause many diseases, such as cancer. Antioxidant is a compound that could scavenge free radicals. One of the natural antioxidants is guava. The goals of this research were to investigate the antioxidant activity of leaves and fruit of crystal guava by determining the value of the Antioxidant Activity Index (AAI) using DPPH, CUPRAC, and FRAP; evaluate the total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC); analyse the correlation between the TPC and TFC with AAI DPPH, CUPRAC, and FRAP, and analyse the correlation between the 3 methods. Extraction was performed by the reflux method using n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and ethanol. Determination of AAI DPPH, CUPRAC, FRAP, the TPC, and the TFC was performed by UV-visible spectrophotometry. The correlation of the TPC and TFC with AAI DPPH, CUPRAC, and FRAP and, also, the correlation of the 3 methods were investigated by Pearson's method. The antioxidant activity of leaves and fruit extracts of crystal guava showed AAI DPPH in the range of 0.33–56.46, CUPRAC 0.20–7.31, and FRAP 1.65–59.89. The highest TPC was given by ethanol leaf extracts (49.55 ± 1.45 g GAE/100 g), while the highest TFC was for n-hexane leaf extracts (9.68 ± 0.210 g QE/100 g). The TPC of leaves extract had a significantly positive correlation with AAI DPPH, CUPRAC, and FRAP. AAI DPPH, AAI CUPRAC, and AAI FRAP of leaves and fruit extract of crystal guava showed a significantly positive correlation. In general, leaves extract had strong antioxidant activity by the three methods. For the highest antioxidant activity, ethanol was the best solvent for extraction leaves and ethyl acetate for extraction fruit of crystal guava. The TPC in leaves extract contributed to the antioxidant activity by DPPH, CUPRAC, and FRAP methods. The Antioxidant activity of leaves and fruit extracts of crystal guava was linear by the three methods.

Integration of medicinal plants into the traditional system of medicine for the treatment of cancer in Sokoto State, Nigeria

This study was designed to explore and record various medicinal plants integrated into the traditional system of medicine for the treatment of cancer. The traditional system of medicine is a routine practiced among the indigenous ethnic groups of Sokoto state. A semi-structured questionnaire was designed and used for data collection around the selected Local Government Areas. A substantial number of plant species were identified, recorded, and collected for preservation. Data collected for each specie was analysed to assess its frequent use among the medicinal plants. A total of 67 species belonging to 31 families have been identified and recorded. Out of the 473 frequency of citation (FC), Acacia nilotica was the most frequently cited specie (32 FC, 64% FC, 0.6 RFC), followed by Guiera senegalensis (27 FC, 54% FC, 0.5 RFC), Erythrina sigmoidea (17 FC, 34% FC, 0.3 RFC), and subsequently Combretum camporum (15 FC, 30% FC, 0.3 RFC). The most common parts of the plants used include the barks (55.2%), the roots (53.2%), and the leaves (41.8%). Additionally, decoction (74.6%), powdered form (49.3%), and maceration (46.3%) are the most frequently used mode of preparation. The historical knowledge of a traditional system of medicine practiced by the native traditional healers of Sokoto for the treatment of cancer has been documented. The present study further provides a baseline for future pharmacological investigations into the beneficial effects of such medicinal plants for the treatment of cancer.

Single or Combined Dietary Supply of Psidium guajava and Phyllanthus amarus Extracts Differentially Modulate Immune Responses and Liver Proteome in Striped Catfish (Pangasianodon hyphophthalmus)

Guava Psidium guajava L (Pg) and bhumi amla Phyllanthus amarus Schum. et Thonn (Pa) are well-known plants in traditional medicine. However, the capacity of these plants for improving the immune system of aquatic species has received less attention so far. This study aimed to investigate the effects of single supply or mixture of Pg and Pa extracts on immune responses, disease resistance and liver proteome profiles in striped catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus. Fish were fed diets including basal diet 0% or one of three doses of each plant extract, either alone or in mixture, 0.08, 0.2, or 0.5% Pg, Pa or mixture (Pg:Pa, v/v) for 6 weeks. The immune parameters (respiratory burst activity (RBA); nitric oxide synthase (NOS), total immunoglobulin, lysozyme, and complement activities) were examined at W3, W6 post-feeding, and after challenge test. The growth parameters and the challenge test with Edwardsiella ictaluri were done at W6. The liver proteome profiles were analyzed in W6 at 0.08 and 0.5% of each extract. The results showed that extract-based diets significantly improved growth parameters in the Pg0.2 group compared to control. The cellular immune responses in spleen and the humoral immune responses in plasma were significantly improved in a dose and time-dependent manner. Diets supplemented with single Pg and Pa extracts, and to lesser extent to combined extracts, could significantly decrease the mortality of striped catfish following bacterial infection compared to control. The proteomic results indicated that some pathways related to immune responses, antioxidant and lipid metabolism were enriched in liver at W6. Several proteins (i.e., CD8B, HSP90AA1, HSP90AB1, PDIA3, CASP8, TUBA1C, CCKAR, GNAS, GRIN2D, PLCG1, PRKCA, SLC25A5, VDAC2, ACTN4, GNAI2, LCK, CARD9, NLRP12, and NLRP3) were synergistically upregulated in mixture of Pg and Pa-based diets compared to control and single dietary treatments. Taken together, the results revealed that single Pg and Pa extracts at 0.2 and 0.5% and their mixture at 0.08 and 0.5% have the potential to modulate the immune mechanisms and disease resistance of striped catfish. Moreover, the combination of Pg and Pa in diets suggested positive synergistic effects liver proteome profile related to immune system processes.

Identification of a new benzophenone from Psidium guajava L. leaves and its antineoplastic effects on human colon cancer cells

Psidium guajava L. leaves have a long history of being consumed as herbal teas in many countries. The aim of this study was to identify compounds with anticancer potentials from Psidium guajava L. leaves. Utilizing various extraction and chromatographical techniques, we have isolated one new (2) and two known compounds (1, 3). Structural analyses by the spectroscopic methods of TOF-MS, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, HSQC, and HMBC identified these three compounds as guavinoside E (1), 3,5-dihydroxy-2,4-dimethyl-1-O-(6'-O-galloyl-β-d-glucopyranosyl)-benzophenone (2), and guavinoside B (3). Cell viability assays showed that compounds 2 and 3 inhibited the growth of HCT116 human colon cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner, where compound 2 was more potent than compound 3. Based on flow cytometry analysis, compound 2 showed stronger activity in inducing cellular apoptosis in cancer cells than compound 3. Furthermore, compounds 2 and 3 modulated expression levels of key proteins involved in cell proliferation and apoptotic signaling. Specifically, compound 2 increased the levels of p53, p-ERK1/2, p-JNK, and cleaved caspases 8 and 9, and compound 3 increased the levels of p53 and cleaved caspase 8. Overall, this study provided identities of three bioactive compounds from P. guajava L. leaves and their anti-cancer effects against human colon cancer cells, which could facilitate the utilization of these compounds and P. guajava L. leaves as potential chemoprevention agents against colon carcinogenesis.

Anti-cancer therapeutic benefit of red guava extracts as a potential therapy in combination with doxorubicin or targeted therapy for triple-negative breast cancer cells

Guava extracts purified from leaf and bark have many bio-active molecules with anti-cancer activities. In addition, lycopene-rich extracts obtained from red guava fruit can induce apoptosis in estrogen receptor-positive breast cancers. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) lacks estrogen receptors, progesterone receptors and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) and, therefore, hormone therapy and targeted therapy are not used in the clinic. The purpose of this study was to determine whether red guava fruit extracts can affect the proliferation of TNBC cells. In this study, cell viability was determined by using the MTT assay. Apoptosis and necrosis were analyzed using flow cytometry. Cleaved caspase-3 and PARP were analyzed by western blotting. We found that red guava extracts can, through caspase-3 activation and PARP cleavage signaling, induce apoptotic and necrotic death in TNBC cells. Our results thus show the therapeutic benefit of red guava extracts as a potential cancer treatment for TNBC in combination with doxorubicin or targeted therapy.

Potential effects of Psidium sp., Mangifera sp., Mentha sp. and its mixture (PEM) in reducing bacterial populations in biofilms, adherence and acid production of S. sanguinis and S. mutans

OBJECTIVE

Psidium sp., Mangifera sp. and Mentha sp. and its mixture (PEM) are known to have antimicrobial and anti-adherence effects.

DESIGN

Here, we have investigated these individual plant extracts and its synergistic mixture (PEM) for its anti-cariogenic effect to reduce populations of single and mixed-species of Streptococcus sanguinis and Streptococcus mutans in a planktonic or/and biofilm and their others reduced virulence. Bacterial populations in the biofilm after 24 h, hydrophobic cell surface activity to n-hexadecane and pH changes at 5 min' intervals until 90 min of incubation were recorded. Total phenolic content and bioactive compounds in the crude aqueous plant extracts were analysed. Regulatory gene expressions of S. mutans adhesins genes (gtfB, gtfC, gbpB and spaP) upon treatment with PEM were investigated in planktonic and biofilm conditions.

RESULTS

All plant extracts strongly reduced S. mutans in the biofilm compared to S. sanguinis in single and mixed-species. PEM reduced S. mutans by 84% with S. sanguinis 87% in the mixed population. Psidium sp. and PEM highly reduced cell-surface hydrophobicity of the two bacteria thus reducing adherence and biofilm formation. PEM and Mangifera sp. lowered initial pH change in the mixed populations of S. sanguinis and S. mutans. PEM downregulated the S. mutans gtfB gene expression in the single species planktonic and mixed-species biofilms.

CONCLUSIONS

The effectiveness of PEM in reducing S. mutans within the biofilm, cell-surface hydrophobicity, acid production and adhesin gene (gtfB) expression in mixed-species with S. sanguinis indicates its potential as an antibacterial agent against dental caries. This is attributed to the phenolic content in the PEM.

Plant extract-based diets differently modulate immune responses and resistance to bacterial infection in striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus)

A feeding trial was performed to compare the effects of five ethanol herbal extracts (bhumi amla, Phyllanthus amarus Schum and Thonn [Pa]; guava, Psidium guajava L. [Pg]; sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica L. [Mp]; neem, Azadirachta indica A. Juss [Ai] and asthma plant, Euphorbia hirta L. [Eh]) on the immune response and disease resistance against Edwardsiella ictaluri infection of striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus). Fish were fed diets supplemented with two doses of each plant extract (0% [basal diet], 0.4% Eh [Eh0.4], 2.0% Eh [Eh2.0], 0.2% Pa [Pa0.2], 1.0% Pa [Pa1.0], 0.2% Pg [Pg0.2], 1.0% Pg [Pg1.0], 0.4% Mp [Mp0.4], 2.0% Mp [Mp2.0], 0.4% Ai [Ai0.4], 2.0% Ai [Ai2.0]) for 8 weeks. Results showed that hematological parameters (total red blood cells, white blood cells, lymphocytes, monocytes, and neutrophils) of fish fed extract-based diets were significantly higher than in those fed the control diet (p < 0.05) after 4 and 8 weeks. Plasma lysozyme activity increased in fish whose diets contained both doses of Eh (p < 0.05) in week 4 (W4), whereas lysozyme activity increased in fish fed 0.2% Pa and Pg, and 2.0% Ai and Eh (p < 0.05) in week 8 (W8). The lysozyme levels in skin mucus did not significantly differ between treatments (p > 0.05) in W4 and after the bacterial challenge test. At the end of the feeding trial, levels of ACH50 significantly increased in most of extract groups compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Total immunoglobulin increased considerably in both the plasma and skin mucus of fish fed extract-supplemented diets after 8 weeks. In addition, dietary supplementation with Pg, Mp, Pa0.2, Eh2.0, and Ai0.4 for 8 weeks considerably reduced the cumulative mortality against E. ictaluri infection in striped catfish. The results suggest that plant extracts possibly modulate the striped catfish immune response in a time and dose dependent manner. Specifically, diets enriched with extracts of P. guajava at 0.2 and 1.0%, or M. pudica at 2.0% for 8 weeks, have great potential for improving striped catfish health by enhancing the immune system and reducing mortality against bacterial challenges.

Microwave-Assisted Extraction Combined with In-Capillary [Fe(ferrozine)3]2+-CE-DAD to Screen Active Components with the Ability to Chelate Ferrous Ions from Flos Sophorae Immaturus (Flos Sophorae)

An efficient microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) combined with in-capillary [Fe(ferrozine)3]2+-capillary electrophoresis-Diode Array Detector (in-capillary [Fe(ferrozine)3]2+-CE-DAD) was developed to screen active components with the ability to chelate ferrous ions and determine the total antioxidant activity. The MAE conditions, including methanol concentration, extraction power, extraction time, and the ratio of material to liquid, were optimized by an L₉(3⁴) orthogonal experiment. Background buffer, voltage, and cartridge temperature that affect the separation of six compounds were optimized. It was found that rutin and quercetin were the main components chelating ferrous ions in Flos Sophorae Immaturus (Flos Sophorae) by the in-capillary [Fe(ferrozine)₃]²⁺-CE-DAD. The recoveries were ranged from 95.2% to 104%. It was concluded that the MAE combined with in-capillary [Fe(ferrozine)₃]²⁺-CE-DAD method was a simple, reliable, and efficient tool for screening active components from the complex traditional Chinese medicine samples and evaluating their ability to chelate ferrous ions.

Analytical Investigation of Cymbopogon citratus and Exploiting the Potential of Developed Silver Nanoparticle Against the Dominating Species of Pathogenic Bacteria

Indian biodiversity is a hub for medicinal plants. Extensive research has been carried out to select plants with numerous properties which can be used for human welfare. Present research is about Cymbopogon citratus, an economically valuable medicinal plant. In this study Cymbopogon citratus was elected as a subject plant over the five selected plants (Azadirachta indica, Plumeria obtuse, Sapindus mukorossi, Capsicum annuum and Phyllanthus emblica) on the basis of antibacterial effect against dominating pathogenic species of gram positive (Bacillus cereus, Bacillus licheniformis) and gram negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli) bacteria. Further, bioactive agents behind antibacterial potential of Cymbopogon citratus was analyzed using analytical method (Phyto-chemical, FTIR, NMR and GC-MS). Due to the broad antimicrobial spectrum, silver nanoparticles have turned into a noteworthy decision for the improvement of new medication. Therefore, this investigation further elaborated in the development of Cymbopogon citratus silver nano-particles (CNPs). Antibacterial potential of CNPs examine in a range of C₂₅–C₁₅₀ (μg/ml) through minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) where, C₂₅ (μg/ml) concentration of CNPs were recorded as the MIC for all bacterial species and C₂₅ (μg/ml) and C₅₀ (μg/ml) noted as the MBC for Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli and Bacillus cereus, Bacillus licheniformis, respectively. In agar disk diffusion assay of CNPs, maximum diameter of zone of inhibition was observed for C₁₅₀ (μg/ml) concentration Bacillus cereus (20.12 ± 0.42), Bacillus licheniformis (22.34 ± 0.4), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (35.23 ± 0.46) and Escherichia coli (31.87 ± 0.24). Involvement of bioactive component as a reducing and capping agent can be confirmed through FTIR spectrum of CNPs. Moreover XRD, EDXRF and SEM showed crystalline and cuboidal nature of CNPs with _∼35 nm sizes. Prominently, cytotoxic analysis was conducted to understand the toxic effect of CNPs. This research highlights the potential of CNPs due to the bioactive components present in Cymbopogon citratus extract: Polyphenols (phenol; 1584.56 ± 16.32 mg/L, Flavanoids) and mixture of terpenoids (Citral, Myrcene, Farnesol, β-myrcene and β –Pinene)

Antitumoral Potency by Immunomodulation of Chloroform Extract from Leaves of Nitraria retusa, Tunisian Medicinal Plant, via its Major Compounds β-sitosterol and Palmitic Acid in BALB/c Mice Bearing Induced Tumor

This study evaluated the antitumoral effect of Chloroform extract from Nitraria retusa leaves, via its major compounds β-sitosterols and palmitic acid. BALB/c mice were subcutaneously inoculated with B16-F10 cells, then treated intra-peritoneally after 7 days with the chloroform extract for 21 days. They were then euthanized, and the tumors were weighed. Lung parenchyma was analyzed. Lymphocyte and macrophages proliferation, cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activities were evaluated using the MTT assay. Macrophage phagocytosis was evaluated by measuring the lysosomal activity and nitric oxide production. Antioxidant activity was studied by cellular antioxidant activity on macrophage and splenocytes and by lipid peroxidation inhibitory activity in liver cells, kidney, and serum. β-sitosterols and palmitic acid, major compounds of chloroform extract, impeded remarkably the expansion of the transplantable tumor, protected the lung parenchyma, and increased splenocytes proliferation and both CTL activities in tumor-bearing mice. β-sitosterols and palmitic acid were also seen to have enhanced lysosomal activity of host macrophages and antioxidant cellular activity. Also, they showed an inhibitory effect of lipid peroxidation. Our results suggest that antitumoral effect of β-sitosterols and palmitic acid from chloroform extract is related with its immunomodulatory activity, and opens the way for a nutrition application and coprocessing phytotherapy against cancer.

Extracts from guava fruit protect renal tubular endothelial cells against acetaminophen‑induced cytotoxicity

Acetaminophen (APAP) is an analgesic and antipyretic agent primarily used in the clinical setting. However, high doses of APAP can cause oxidative stress. Guavas have been reported to provide anti‑inflammatory, anti‑microbial, anti‑oxidative and anti‑diarrheal functions. In addition, guavas have been reported to prevent renal damage due to progression of diabetes mellitus. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether guavas can reduce APAP‑induced renal cell damage. In the present study, extracts from guavas were obtained and added to APAP‑treated renal tubular endothelial cells. The present results demonstrated that APAP induces cytotoxicity in renal tubular endothelial cells, while guava extracts inhibited this cytotoxicity. In addition, the study demonstrated that the protective effects of guava extracts against APAP‑induced cytotoxicity may be associated with inhibition of oxidative stress and caspase‑3 activation.

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-septic potential of phenolic acids and flavonoid fractions isolated from Lolium multiflorum

CONTEXT

Interest has recently renewed in using Lolium multiflorum Lam. (Poaceae) (called Italian ryegrass; IRG) silage as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory diet.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-septic potential of IRG silage and identified the primary components in IRG active fractions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Total 16 fractions were separated from the chloroform-soluble extract of IRG aerial part using Sephadex LH-20 column before HPLC analysis. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of the fractions at doses of 0-100 μg/mL were investigated using various cell-free and cell-mediated assay systems. To explore anti-septic effect of IRG fractions, female ICR and BALB/c mice orally received 40 mg/kg of phenolic acid and flavonoid-rich active fractions F₇ and F₈ every other day for 10 days, respectively, followed by LPS challenge.

RESULTS

The active fractions showed greater antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential compared with other fractions. IC₅₀ values of F₇ and F₈ to reduce LPS-stimulated NO and TNF-α production were around 15 and 30 μg/mL, respectively. Comparison of retention times with authentic compounds through HPLC analysis revealed the presence of caffeic acid, ferulic acid, myricetin and kaempferol in the fractions as primary components. These fractions inhibited LPS-stimulated MAPK and NF-κB activation. Supplementation with F₇ or F₈ improved the survival rates of mice to 70 and 60%, respectively, in LPS-injected mice and reduced near completely serum TNF-α and IL-6 levels.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This study highlights antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-septic activities of IRG active fractions, eventually suggesting their usefulness in preventing oxidative damage and inflammatory disorders.