Investigation of the antifungal activity of carvacrol against strains of Cryptococcus neoformans

Sclareolide as Antifungal Strategy Against Cryptococcus neoformans: Unveiling Its Mechanisms of Action

Cryptococcal infection commonly begins as an opportunistic infection in humans, however, this can escalate to a systemic or life-threatening form in immunocompromised individuals. Here, we aim to identify novel antifungal molecules from plants resources. Sclareolide, a phytochemical classified as a sesquiterpene lactone, was assessed against Cryptococcus neoformans H99. Sclareolide exhibited promising antifungal properties with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 16 µg/mL. Additionally, the C. neoformans growth rate was significantly affected by sclareolide treatment in a concentration-dependent manner, as observed through a time killing assay, with a significant reduction at MIC × 8 compared to the control by 48 h. To elucidate the underlying mechanisms of sclareolide antifungal activity, fluorescence-based methods were employed. Propidium iodide (PI) accumulation assay indicated a reduction in C. neoformans membrane integrity, with values as low as 6.62 ± 0.18% after treatment. Moreover, sclareolide at MIC × 4 and MIC × 8 significantly increased the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reduced the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), suggesting oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in C. neoformans. Sclareolide did not induce caspase-dependent apoptosis, suggesting a non-apoptotic mechanism. Further, a checkerboard experiment was performed to assess potential synergistic interaction with Amphotericin B, however, no synergism was observed. Moving on, sclareolide at 128 µg/mL did not exhibit toxicity in Galleria mellonella, further supporting its potential as a safe antifungal agent. These findings suggest that the antifungal activity of sclareolide against C. neoformans is mediated by oxidative stress. Further in vivo and pharmacokinetic studies are recommended to explore the potential of sclareolide as a prototype for the development of novel anti-cryptococcal therapies.

Sawan H, Al-Mamoori F, Al-Samydai A, Mayyas A. Assessment of carvacrol-antibiotic combinations' antimicrobial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Introduction

This study aimed to assess the antimicrobial activity of carvacrol in combination with approved antibiotics against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Carvacrol, a phenolic monoterpenoid component of essential oils, has demonstrated antimicrobial properties against gram positive and gram negative bacteria. The study evaluated the antimicrobial effects of carvacrol combined with sulfamethoxazole, linezolid, minocycline, and trimethoprim.

Methods

The MRSA strain (ATCC-33591) was used, and various assays, including MIC determination, checkerboard assay, and microdilution assay were conducted.

Results

The results showed that the combination of carvacrol with antibiotics yielded better outcomes compared to monotherapy, leading to reduced bacterial colonization. Carvacrol, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim exhibited weak anti-staphylococcal effects, while linezolid and minocycline demonstrated stronger effects. This suggests that conventional antibiotic therapy may not be sufficient to effectively treat MRSA infections, potentially causing delays in healing or an exacerbation of the condition. Carvacrol combinations with two antibiotics displayed superior results compared to other pairs, indicating synergistic or additive effects of carvacrol with linezolid, minocycline, and sulfamethoxazole.

Conclusion

These findings propose a new approach for developing drug molecules for MRSA treatment which combine volatile oils with available regimens. Further studies are recommended to evaluate the efficacy and biosafety of these combinations using in vivo or ex vivo models, aiming to minimize side effects and facilitate human trials. This study provides valuable insights into the potential use of carvacrol-antibiotic combinations as a novel therapeutic approach against MRSA.

Evaluation of antifungal activity of natural compounds on growth and aflatoxin B1 production of Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus

BACKGROUND

Aspergillus species cause broad spectrum infections especially invasive lethal infections in immunocompromised patients. This study aimed to assess the antifungal activity of plants and compounds including Aloe vera, Thyme, carvacrol, and nano-encapsulation of carvacrol on the growth and production of aflatoxin B1 production by Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Minimum inhibitory concentrations of extracts Aloe vera, Thyme, carvacrol, and nanocarvacrol, and fluconazole as a control were determined according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute by serial microdilution protocol. Then, the effect of inhibitory concentrations of these compounds on the aflatoxin B1 production level was evaluated by real-time PCR and high-performance liquid chromatography. Our results indicate that the Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavusare sensitive to selected plants and compounds.

CONCLUSION

Our findings showed that the compounds are appropriate alternative candidates against growth and production of aflatoxin of Aspergillus spp.

Antifungal Activities of Natural Products and Their Hybrid Molecules

The increasing cases of drug resistance and high toxicity associated with the currently used antifungal agents are a worldwide public health concern. There is an urgent need to develop new antifungal drugs with unique target mechanisms. Plant-based compounds, such as carvacrol, eugenol, coumarin, cinnamaldehyde, curcumin, thymol, etc., have been explored for the development of promising antifungal agents due to their diverse biological activities, lack of toxicity, and availability. However, researchers around the world are unable to fully utilize the potential of natural products due to limitations, such as their poor bioavailability and aqueous solubility. The development of hybrid molecules containing natural products is a promising synthetic approach to overcome these limitations and control microbes' capability to develop resistance. Based on the potential advantages of hybrid compounds containing natural products to improve antifungal activity, there have been different reported synthesized hybrid compounds. This paper reviews different literature to report the potential antifungal activities of hybrid compounds containing natural products.

Antifungal Activity, Antibiofilm and Association Studies with O-Alkylamidoximes against Cryptococcus spp

This is the first study that describes the antifungal and anti-biofilm potential of O-alkylamidoximes against strains of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. In vitro tests have shown that O-alkylamidoximes are capable of inhibiting fungal growth and biofilm formation of the C. neoformans and C. gattii strains, suggesting, from molecular docking, the potential for interaction with the Hsp90. The associations between O-alkylamidoximes and amphotericin B were beneficial. Therefore, O-alkylamidoximes can be a useful alternative to contribute to the limited arsenal of drugs, since they showed a powerful action against the primary agents of Cryptococcosis.

Rapid-killing efficacy substantiates the antiseptic property of the synergistic combination of carvacrol and nerol against nosocomial pathogens

Globally, new classes of synthetic and natural antibiotics and antivirulents have continuously been validated for their potential broad-spectrum antagonistic activity with the aim of identifying an effective active molecule to prevent the spread of infectious agents in both food industry and medical field. In view of this, present study is aimed at evaluating the rapid killing efficacy of bioactive molecules Carvacrol (C) and Nerol (N) through British Standard European Norm 1276: phase2/step1 (EN1276) protocol. Active molecules C and N showed broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against the test strains Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli and Enterococcus hirae at concentration range of 78.125, 625, 156.25 and 312.5 μg/mL, respectively, for C, and 625 μg/mL for N. Whereas, combinatorial approach showed efficient activity with four times reduced concentration of C and N at 78.125 and 156.25 µg/mL, respectively, against test strains. Further, EN1276 results proved the rapid killing efficacy of test strains in 1 min of contact time with significant (> 5 log) growth reduction at 100X concentration of actives. SEM analysis and reduced concentration of protease, lipids and carbohydrate contents of treated group biofilm components ascertained preformed biofilm disruption potential of C + N on polystyrene and nail surfaces. C + N at synergistic concentration exhibited no adverse effect on HaCaT cells at 78.125 µg/mL (C) + 156.25 µg/mL (N). Taken together, based on the observed experimental results, present study evidence the antiseptic/disinfectant ability of C + N and suggest that the combination can preferentially be used in foam-based hand wash formulations.

Elucidating the Eradication Mechanism of Perillyl Alcohol against Candida glabrata Biofilms: Insights into the Synergistic Effect with Azole Drugs

Increased incidences of fungal infections and associated mortality have accelerated the need for effective and alternative therapeutics. Perillyl alcohol (PA) is a terpene produced by the hydroxylation of limonene via the mevalonate pathway. In pursuit of an alternative antifungal agent, we studied the effect of PA on the biofilm community of Candida glabrata and on different cellular pathways to decipher its mode of action. PA efficiently inhibited growth and eradicated biofilms by reducing carbohydrate and eDNA content in the extracellular matrix. PA reduced the activity of hydrolytic enzymes in the ECM of C. glabrata biofilm. The chemical profiling study has given insights into the overall mode of action of PA in C. glabrata and the marked involvement of the cell wall and membrane, ergosterol biosynthesis, oxidative stress, and DNA replication. The spectroscopic and RT-PCR studies suggested a strong interaction of PA with chitin, β-glucan, ergosterol, and efflux pump, thus indicating increased membrane fluidity in C. glabrata. Furthermore, the microscopic and flow cytometry analysis emphasized that PA facilitated the change in mitochondrial activity, increased Ca²⁺ influx via overexpression of voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels, and enhanced cytochrome C release from mitochondria. In addition, PA interferes with DNA replication and thus hinders the cell cycle progression at the S-phase. All these studies together established that PA mitigates the C. glabrata biofilms by targeting multiple cellular pathways. Interestingly, PA also potentiated the efficacy of azole drugs, particularly miconazole, against C. glabrata and its clinical isolates. Conclusively, the study demonstrated the use of PA as an effective antifungal agent alone or in combination with FDA-approved conventional drugs for fungal biofilm eradication.

Biogenic volatile organic compounds in the grapevine response to pathogens, beneficial microorganisms, resistance inducers, and abiotic factors

The synthesis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in plants is triggered in response to external stimuli, and these compounds can migrate to distal tissues and neighbouring receivers. Although grapevine VOCs responsible for wine aroma and plant-insect communications are well characterized, functional properties of VOCs produced in response to phytopathogens, beneficial microorganisms, resistance inducers, and abiotic factors have been less studied. In this review, we focused on the emission patterns and potential biological functions of VOCs produced by grapevines in response to stimuli. Specific grapevine VOCs are emitted in response to the exogenous stimulus, suggesting their precise involvement in plant defence response. VOCs with inhibitory activities against pathogens and responsible for plant resistance induction are reported, and some of them can also be used as biomarkers of grapevine resistance. Likewise, VOCs produced in response to beneficial microorganisms and environmental factors are possible mediators of grapevine-microbe communications and abiotic stress tolerance. Although further functional studies may improve our knowledge, the existing literature suggests that VOCs have an underestimated potential application as pathogen inhibitors, resistance inducers against biotic or abiotic stresses, signalling molecules, membrane stabilizers, and modulators of reactive oxygen species. VOC patterns could also be used to screen for resistant traits or to monitor the plant physiological status.

From plants to antimicrobials: Natural products against bacterial membranes

Bacterial membrane barrier provides a cytoplasmic environment for organelles of bacteria. The membrane is composed of lipid compounds containing phosphatide protein and a minimal amount of sugars, and is responsible for intercellular transfers of chemicals. Several antimicrobials have been found that affect bacterial cytoplasmic membranes. These compounds generally disrupt the organization of the membrane or perforate it. By destroying the membrane, the drugs can permeate and replace the effective macromolecules necessary for cell life. Furthermore, they can disrupt electrical gradients of the cells through impairment of the membrane integrity. In recent years, considering the spread of microbial resistance and the side effects of antibiotics, natural antimicrobial compounds have been studied by researchers extensively. These molecules are the best alternative for controlling bacterial infections and reducing drug resistance due to the lack of severe side effects, low cost of production, and biocompatibility. Better understanding of the natural compounds' mechanisms against bacteria provides improved strategies for antimicrobial therapies. In this review, natural products with antibacterial activities focusing on membrane damaging mechanisms were described. However, further high-quality research studies are needed to confirm the clinical efficacy of these natural products.

A comparative study on antibacterial activity of carvacrol and glutaraldehyde on Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus isolates: an in vitro study

The resistance of hospital bacterial isolates against traditional germicides, which used frequently, is one of the important factors contributing to emerging nosocomial infections. Moreover, due to having the side effects of chemical substances, the development of novel low-risk natural compounds seems necessary for control the spread of resistant pathogens in hospital environments. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of carvacrol and glutaraldehyde against two common hospital acquired pathogens, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. In this study 365 samples were collected from different wards of hospitals of Khorramabad, Iran. One hundred and sixty samples were identified as P. aeruginosa and S. aureus by using standard microbiological methods. Then the antibacterial effects of four combinations including carvacrol+ethanol, carvacrol+dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), glutaraldehyde 2%, and pure glutaraldehyde (50%) were evaluated and determined using dilution broth and disk diffusion methods. Our results showed that the carvacrol had more antibacterial effects against selected bacteria compared to glutaraldehyde. Moreover, the optimal time and concentration of carvacrol+ethanol against hospital isolates of P. aeruginosa and S. aureus was determined after 1 h at concentration of 64 μl/ml and 8 μl/ml, respectively. In conclusion by comparing the results of carvacrol and glutaraldehyde, seem that carvacrol, as an herbal and natural agent, may be a suitable alternative to glutaraldehyde in hospital equipment's' sterilization.

Citronellal Exerts Its Antifungal Activity by Targeting Ergosterol Biosynthesis in Penicillium digitatum

Ergosterol (ERG) is a potential target for the development of antifungal agents against Penicillium digitatum, the pathogen of green mold in citrus fruits. This study examined the mechanism by which citronellal, a typical terpenoid of Cymbopogon nardus essential oil, acts on ergosterol to exhibit its antifungal activity against P. digitatum. We previously reported that citronellal inhibited the growth of P. digitatum with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of 1.36 and 2.72 mg/mL, respectively. In citronellal-treated cells, the membrane integrity and ergosterol contents significantly decreased, whereas lanosterol, which serves as a precursor for ergosterol biosynthesis, massively accumulated. Addition of 150 mg/L of exogenous ergosterol decreased the inhibitory rate of citronellal, restoring the ergosterol content and hence the membrane structure to normal levels, and triggered expression of nearly all ERG genes. Based on our findings, we deduce that citronellal damages the cell membrane integrity of P. digitatum by down-regulating the ERG genes responsible for conversion of lanosterol to ergosterol, the key downregulated gene being ERG3, due to the observed accumulation of ergosta-7,22-dienol.

Cholesterol-lowering activity of natural mono- and sesquiterpenoid compounds in essential oils: A review and investigation of mechanisms using in silico protein-ligand docking

Mono- and sesquiterpenoids are the main chemical constituents of essential oils. Essential oils and their constituents have received increasing attention for lipid-lowering properties in both cell and animal models. Despite the chemical diversity of essential oil compounds, the effects of many of these compounds on cholesterol metabolism are highly similar. In this report, we review the literature regarding the effects of essential oils and their terpenoid constituents on cholesterol homeostasis, and explore likely mechanisms using protein-ligand docking. We identified 98 experimental and seven clinical studies on essential oils, isolated compounds, and blends; 100 of these described improvements either in blood cholesterol levels or in sterol metabolic pathways. Our review and docking analysis confirmed two likely mechanisms common to many essential oil compounds: (1) direct agonism of peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptors, and (2) direct interaction with sterol-sensing domains, motifs found in key sterol regulatory proteins including sterol regulatory element binding protein cleavage activating protein and HMG-CoA reductase. Notably, these direct interactions lead to decreased transcription and accelerated degradation of HMG-CoA reductase. Our work suggests that terpene derivatives in essential oils have cholesterol-lowering activity and could potentially work synergistically with statins, however, further high quality studies are needed to establish their clinical efficacy.

Oregano Oil and Its Principal Component, Carvacrol, Inhibit HIV-1 Fusion into Target Cells

Oregano essential oil has long been known for its health-promoting benefits. Here, we report its activity against viral replication. Oregano oil was found to specifically inhibit lentiviruses, such as human and simian immunodeficiency viruses (HIV and SIV), irrespective of virus tropism, but not hepatitis C virus, adenovirus 5 (ADV5), Zika virus, and influenza (H1N1) virus. Oregano oil's most abundant components, carvacrol and its isomer, thymol, were shown to block virus-target cell fusion while not perturbing other stages of the virus life cycle. We detected changes in virus particle density, suggesting that cholesterol depletion from the HIV-1 envelope membrane reduces virus entry. Furthermore, infection was rescued by adding exogenous cholesterol. The evolution of viral resistance to carvacrol supported this mechanism of action with the identification of mutations in the viral gp41 fusion protein that counteracted cholesterol depletion. In addition, resistance to carvacrol emerged later than typically observed for other clinically used drugs, strengthening its antiviral potential. Structure-activity relationship studies revealed key motifs of carvacrol and thymol required for HIV neutralization and identified previously unknown active analogs. Carvacrol was also shown to additively cooperate with antiretroviral therapy. In sum, oregano oil and improved carvacrol and thymol analogs could be considered to supplement current HIV therapeutics.IMPORTANCE Oregano essential oil has multiple benefits in traditional medicine, cosmetics, and food industries. Carvacrol and its analog, thymol, are well-described components of oregano oil. Here, we show that these compounds inhibit HIV-target cell fusion independently of viral tropism. Our results suggest that carvacrol and thymol alter the cholesterol content of the viral membrane, blocking HIV-1 entry into the target cell. Resistance to carvacrol has selected for viruses with mutations in the viral envelope glycoprotein, gp41. This protein is known for its interaction with cholesterol present in membrane lipid rafts. Together, these results demonstrate the potential of therapies targeting the viral envelope membrane, and oregano oil is a safe supplement to antiretrovirals, potentially delaying disease progression and resistance development.

Carvacrol Induces Candida albicans Apoptosis Associated With Ca2+/Calcineurin Pathway

As the prevalence of systemic fungal infections caused by Candida albicans gradually increases, it is necessary to explore potential and effective antifungals. Carvacrol is reported to be lethally toxic to C. albicans, involving several potential mechanisms. However, the form and specific mechanism of cell death caused by this compound has not been delineated. In this study, we found that carvacrol could significantly decrease C. albicans survival rates, consistent with previous researches. Further examination proved that carvacrol treatment caused cell membrane permeability and depolarization. To elucidate the association between cell death and apoptosis, DNA fragmentation and metacaspase activation were determined; as expected, these two apoptosis-related markers were clearly observed. Moreover, total and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were elevated, and both mitochondrial transmembrane potential and morphology were disrupted. Additionally, cytosolic and mitochondrial calcium levels were also increased by carvacrol. Calcineurin inhibition experiments revealed cyclosporine A (CsA) addition notably rescued cell growth and inhibited metacaspase activation, indicating that carvacrol triggered C. albicans apoptosis through inducing calcineurin activation. Carvacrol was demonstrated to both have low toxicity and be effective in alleviating systemic infections with C. albicans, which might be via its antifungal and immunomodulation activities. This study suggests that carvacrol has excellent potential as a natural protective compound against C. albicans infections.

Anticonvulsant Essential Oils and Their Relationship with Oxidative Stress in Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a most disabling neurological disorder affecting all age groups. Among the various mechanisms that may result in epilepsy, neuronal hyperexcitability and oxidative injury produced by an excessive formation of free radicals may play a role in the development of this pathology. Therefore, new treatment approaches are needed to address resistant conditions that do not respond fully to current antiepileptic drugs. This paper reviews studies on the anticonvulsant activities of essential oils and their chemical constituents. Data from studies published from January 2011 to December 2018 was selected from the PubMed database for examination. The bioactivity of 19 essential oils and 16 constituents is described. Apiaceae and Lamiaceae were the most promising botanical families due to the largest number of reports about plant species from these families that produce anticonvulsant essential oils. Among the evaluated compounds, β-caryophyllene, borneol, eugenol and nerolidol were the constituents that presented antioxidant properties related to anticonvulsant action. These data show the potential of these natural products as health promoting agents and use against various types of seizure disorders. Their properties on oxidative stress may contribute to the control of this neurological condition. However, further studies on the toxicological profile and mechanism of action of essential oils are needed.

Natural Monoterpenes: Much More than Only a Scent

Terpenes are a widespread group of secondary metabolites that can be found in various family plants such as the Lamiaceae. In view of their numerous valuable biological activities, the industrial production of concrete terpenes and essential oils rich in the substances is intensively studied. Monoterpenes constitute a significant part of the whole group of the aforementioned secondary metabolites. This is due to their numerous biological activities and their ability to permeate the skin. Despite the fact that these substances have gain popularity, they are not comprehensively characterized. The presented review is based on studies of the biological activities of the most important monoterpenes and the essential oils rich in these compounds. The authors focused attention on antioxidant activity, inhibition towards acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterase, and α-amylase and α-glucosidase, antifungal, hepatoprotective, sedative properties, and their skin permeation enhancement.

Oregano essential oil vapour prevents Plasmopara viticola infection in grapevine (Vitis Vinifera) and primes plant immunity mechanisms

The reduction of synthetic fungicides in agriculture is necessary to guarantee a sustainable production that protects the environment and consumers' health. Downy mildew caused by the oomycete Plasmopara viticola is the major pathogen in viticulture worldwide and responsible for up to 60% of pesticide treatments. Alternatives to reduce fungicides are thus utterly needed to ensure sustainable vineyard-ecosystems, consumer health and public acceptance. Essential oils (EOs) are amongst the most promising natural plant protection alternatives and have shown their antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal properties on several agricultural crops. However, the efficiency of EOs highly depends on timing, application method and the molecular interactions between the host, the pathogen and EO. Despite proven EO efficiency, the underlying processes are still not understood and remain a black box. The objectives of the present study were: a) to evaluate whether a continuous fumigation of a particular EO can control downy mildew in order to circumvent the drawbacks of direct application, b) to decipher molecular mechanisms that could be triggered in the host and the pathogen by EO application and c) to try to differentiate whether essential oils directly repress the oomycete or act as plant resistance primers. To achieve this a custom-made climatic chamber was constructed that enabled a continuous fumigation of potted vines with different EOs during long-term experiments. The grapevine (Vitis vinifera) cv Chasselas was chosen in reason of its high susceptibility to Plasmopara viticola. Grapevine cuttings were infected with P. viticola and subsequently exposed to continuous fumigation of different EOs at different concentrations, during 2 application time spans (24 hours and 10 days). Experiments were stopped when infection symptoms were clearly observed on the leaves of the control plants. Plant physiology (photosynthesis and growth rate parameters) were recorded and leaves were sampled at different time points for subsequent RNA extraction and transcriptomics analysis. Strikingly, the Oregano vulgare EO vapour treatment during 24h post-infection proved to be sufficient to reduce downy mildew development by 95%. Total RNA was extracted from leaves of 24h and 10d treatments and used for whole transcriptome shotgun sequencing (RNA-seq). Sequenced reads were then mapped onto the V. vinifera and P. viticola genomes. Less than 1% of reads could be mapped onto the P. viticola genome from treated samples, whereas up to 30% reads from the controls mapped onto the P. viticola genome, thereby confirming the visual observation of P. viticola absence in the treated plants. On average, 80% of reads could be mapped onto the V. vinifera genome for differential expression analysis, which yielded 4800 modulated genes. Transcriptomic data clearly showed that the treatment triggered the plant's innate immune system with genes involved in salicylic, jasmonic acid and ethylene synthesis and signaling, activating Pathogenesis-Related-proteins as well as phytoalexin synthesis. These results elucidate EO-host-pathogen interactions for the first time and indicate that the antifungal efficiency of EO is mainly due to the triggering of resistance pathways inside the host plants. This is of major importance for the production and research on biopesticides, plant stimulation products and for resistance-breeding strategies.

Antifungal activity study of the monoterpene thymol against Cryptococcus neoformans

Cryptococcus neoformans is a yeast fungus, which causes cryptococcosis, triggered by basidiospore inhalation and consequent dissemination to the central nervous system. In this study, we analyzed the antifungal action of thymol against 10 clinical strains of C. neoformans and analyzed the interaction of this monoterpene with sterols. The MICs of thymol ranged from 20 to 51 μg/ml, while the MFC values varied between 40 and 101 μg/ml. For the strains ICB-2601 and LM-39, in the presence of ergosterol, the MIC of thymol was 64 μg/ml, and in the presence of cholesterol, its MIC was 32 μg/ml. Based on the results, thymol presents antifungal action and seems to interact with ergosterol, but not with cholesterol. Complementary studies are needed to analyze its full effects.

The natural plant compound carvacrol as an antimicrobial and anti-biofilm agent: mechanisms, synergies and bio-inspired anti-infective materials

Carvacrol (5-isopropyl-2-methyl phenol) is a natural compound that occurs in the leaves of a number of plants and herbs including wild bergamot, thyme and pepperwort, but which is most abundant in oregano. The aim of this review is to analyse the scientific data from the last five years (2012-2017) on the antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activities of carvacrol, targeting different bacteria and fungi responsible for human infectious diseases. The antimicrobial and anti-biofilm mechanisms of carvacrol and its synergies with antibiotics are illustrated. The potential of carvacrol-loaded anti-infective nanomaterials is underlined. Carvacrol shows excellent antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activities, and is a very interesting bioactive compound against fungi and a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and being active against both planktonic and sessile human pathogens. Moreover, carvacrol lends itself to being combined with nanomaterials, thus providing an opportunity for preventing biofilm-associated infections by new bio-inspired, anti-infective materials.

Chemical characterization and antifungal activity of Origanum vulgare, Thymus vulgaris essential oils and carvacrol against Malassezia furfur

The composition of the essential oils (EOs) of O. vulgare L. EO and T. vulgaris EO, were analyzed by GC and GC-MS. Antifungal activities of the EOs and its main component, carvacrol, were evaluated against 27 clinical isolates of Malassezia furfur. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were measured according to the broth microdilution protocols by Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) modified for Malassezia spp. EOs and carvacrol showed low MIC values ranged 450-900 μg/ml against M. furfur. No differences in EOs antifungal activity were observed in sensitive to resistant fluconazole isolates. The antifungal activity obtained showed O. vulgare EO, T. vulgaris EO and carvacrol, their compound, as potential antimicrobial agents against M. furfur, yeast associated with human mycoses.

Use of Pinus sylvestris L. (Pinaceae), Origanum vulgare L. (Lamiaceae), and Thymus vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae) essential oils and their main components to enhance itraconazole activity against azole susceptible/not-susceptible Cryptococcus neoformans strains

Background

Cryptococcal infections, besides being a problem for immunocompromised patients, are occasionally being a problem for immunocompetent patients. In addition, the lower susceptibility of this yeast to azoles is a growing problem in health care. To date, there are very few molecules with any activity towards Cryptococcus neoformans, leading to heightened interest in finding new alternatives or adjuvants to conventional drugs for the treatment of mycosis caused by this yeast. Since the essential oils (EOs) are considered as a potential rich source of bioactive antimicrobial compounds, we evaluated the antifungal activity of Origanum vulgare (oregano), Pinus sylvestris (pine), and Thymus vulgaris (thyme red) EOs, and their components (α-pinene, carvacrol, thymol) compared with fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole, against C.neoformans clinical strains. Then, we investigated the effect of EOs and components in combination with itraconazole.

Methods

EO composition was analysed by Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A broth microdilution method was used to evaluate the susceptibility of C.neoformans to azoles, EOs and components. Checkerboard tests, isobolograms and time-kill assays were carried out for combination studies.

Results

Six C.neoformans isolates were susceptible to azoles, while one C.neoformans exhibited a reduced susceptibility to all tested azole drugs. All EOs exerted a good inhibitory activity against all C.neoformans strains. Pine EO was the most effective. Among components, thymol exerted the most remarkable activity. By checkerboard testing and isobolographic analysis, combinations of itraconazole with oregano, pine, or thyme EOs, and carvacrol were found to be synergistic (FICI≤0.5) against azole susceptible C.neoformans. Regarding the azole not susceptible C.neoformans strain, the synergistic effect with itraconazole was observed with thyme EO (chemotype: thymol 26.52%; carvacrol 7.85%), and carvacrol. Time-kill assays confirmed the synergistic effects of itraconazole and oregano or thyme EO against azole susceptible C.neoformans. Binary mixtures of itraconazole/thyme EO or carvacrol yielded additive effects on the azole not susceptible C.neoformans.

Conclusions

Our findings highlight the potential effectiveness of thyme, oregano EOs, and carvacrol as natural and cost-effective adjuvants when used in combination with itraconazole. Identification of EOs exerting these effects could be one of the feasible ways to overcome drug resistance, reducing drug concentration and side effects.

Antifungal and Anti-Biofilm Activity of Essential Oil Active Components against Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus laurentii

Cryptococcosis is an emerging and recalcitrant systemic infection occurring in immunocompromised patients. This invasive fungal infection is difficult to treat due to the ability of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus laurentii to form biofilms resistant to standard antifungal treatment. The toxicity concern of these drugs has stimulated the search for natural therapeutic alternatives. Essential oil and their active components (EO-ACs) have shown to possess the variety of biological and pharmacological properties. In the present investigation the effect of six (EO-ACs) sourced from Oregano oil (Carvacrol), Cinnamon oil (Cinnamaldehyde), Lemongrass oil (Citral), Clove oil (Eugenol), Peppermint oil (Menthol) and Thyme oil (thymol) against three infectious forms; planktonic cells, biofilm formation and preformed biofilm of C. neoformans and C. laurentii were evaluated as compared to standard drugs. Data showed that antibiofilm activity of the tested EO-ACs were in the order: thymol>carvacrol>citral>eugenol=cinnamaldehyde>menthol respectively. The three most potent EO-ACs, thymol, carvacrol, and citral showed excellent antibiofilm activity at a much lower concentration against C. laurentii in comparison to C. neoformans indicating the resistant nature of the latter. Effect of the potent EO-ACs on the biofilm morphology was visualized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), which revealed the absence of extracellular polymeric matrix (EPM), reduction in cellular density and alteration in the surface morphology of biofilm cells. Further, to realize the efficacy of the EO-ACs in terms of human safety, cytotoxicity assays and co-culture model were evaluated. Thymol and carvacrol as compared to citral were the most efficient in terms of human safety in keratinocyte- Cryptococcus sp. co-culture infection model suggesting that these two can be further exploited as cost-effective and non-toxic anti-cryptococcal drugs.

Essential Oils and Antifungal Activity

Since ancient times, folk medicine and agro-food science have benefitted from the use of plant derivatives, such as essential oils, to combat different diseases, as well as to preserve food. In Nature, essential oils play a fundamental role in protecting the plant from biotic and abiotic attacks to which it may be subjected. Many researchers have analyzed in detail the modes of action of essential oils and most of their components. The purpose of this brief review is to describe the properties of essential oils, principally as antifungal agents, and their role in blocking cell communication mechanisms, fungal biofilm formation, and mycotoxin production.

The antifungal pipeline: a reality check

Invasive fungal infections continue to appear in record numbers as the immunocompromised population of the world increases, owing partially to the increased number of individuals who are infected with HIV and partially to the successful treatment of serious underlying diseases. The effectiveness of current antifungal therapies - polyenes, flucytosine, azoles and echinocandins (as monotherapies or in combinations for prophylaxis, or as empiric, pre-emptive or specific therapies) - in the management of these infections has plateaued. Although these drugs are clinically useful, they have several limitations, such as off-target toxicity, and drug-resistant fungi are now emerging. New antifungals are therefore needed. In this Review, I discuss the robust and dynamic antifungal pipeline, including results from preclinical academic efforts through to pharmaceutical industry products, and describe the targets, strategies, compounds and potential outcomes.

Virulence Factors as Targets for Anticryptococcal Therapy

The global mortality due to cryptococcosis caused by Cryptococcus neoformans or C. gattii is unacceptably high. Currently available therapies are decades old and may be impacted by drug resistance. Therefore, the need for more effective antifungal drugs for cryptococcosis is evident. A number of Cryptococcus virulence factors have been studied in detail, providing crucial information about the fungal biology and putative molecular targets for antifungals. This review focuses on the use of well-described virulence factors of Cryptococcus as potential anticryptococcal agents.