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Park JE, Ryu SH, Ito S, Song MK, Gu EJ, Shin H, Kim YH, Jeon J. Bioaccumulation and in vivo fate of toxic benzylalkyldimethylammonium chloride in rats via the radiotracer analysis. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 338:139460. [PMID: 37437624 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Benzylalkyldimethylammonium chloride (BAC), a quaternary ammonium compound (QAC), is utilized in industrial and biomedical applications for antimicrobial purposes. Since the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak, various types of BAC-containing household chemicals have been produced. BACs have several adverse effects; however, their biological uptake, translocation, and excretion in animal models (essential for better understanding in vivo behavior and toxicological impact) remain unclear. In this study, we performed the first biodistribution and whole-body imaging studies of BAC in male Sprague Dawley rats, using two different administration routes. Quantitative whole-body autoradiography (QWBA) data obtained for intranasal 14C-labeled BAC ([14C]C12-BAC) exposure showed substantial uptake values for the respiratory organs (e.g. 346 ng g-1 of lung at 3 h post administration) and the radiotracer was transported to other internal organs. The amount of radiotracer in the heart, adrenal gland, and pancreas were 198, 1410, and 186 ng g-1 tissue respectively at 168 h following exposure. Autoradiograms obtained after intravenous injection also showed high accumulation and slow excretion in these organs. The cumulative excretion analysis revealed that approximately 6.4% of the administered radioactivity remained in rats after a week. The results indicated that continuous inhalation exposure to BAC leads to potential toxic effects in extrapulmonary organs and the respiratory tract. Thus, the radiolabeling method utilized may help assess various synthetic QACs in living subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Eun Park
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehak-ro, Buk-gu, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Hun Ryu
- Humidifier Disinfectant Health Center, Environmental Health Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, 42 Hwangyong-ro, Seo-gu, Incheon, 22689, Republic of Korea
| | - Satoshi Ito
- Drug Development Solutions Center, Sekisui Medical Co., Ltd., 2117 Muramatsu, Tokai, Ibaraki, 319-1182, Japan
| | - Mi-Kyung Song
- Inhalation Toxicology Center for Airborne Risk Factor, Korea Institute of Toxicology, 30 Baehak1-gil, Jeongeup, Jeollabuk-do, 56212, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun Ji Gu
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehak-ro, Buk-gu, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunil Shin
- KRCC Co., Ltd, 193 Chenggyesan-ro, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06802, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Hee Kim
- Humidifier Disinfectant Health Center, Environmental Health Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, 42 Hwangyong-ro, Seo-gu, Incheon, 22689, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongho Jeon
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehak-ro, Buk-gu, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea.
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Arnold W, Blum A, Branyan J, Bruton TA, Carignan CC, Cortopassi G, Datta S, DeWitt J, Doherty AC, Halden RU, Harari H, Hartmann EM, Hrubec TC, Iyer S, Kwiatkowski CF, LaPier J, Li D, Li L, Muñiz Ortiz JG, Salamova A, Schettler T, Seguin RP, Soehl A, Sutton R, Xu L, Zheng G. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds: A Chemical Class of Emerging Concern. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:7645-7665. [PMID: 37157132 PMCID: PMC10210541 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c08244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), a large class of chemicals that includes high production volume substances, have been used for decades as antimicrobials, preservatives, and antistatic agents and for other functions in cleaning, disinfecting, personal care products, and durable consumer goods. QAC use has accelerated in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the banning of 19 antimicrobials from several personal care products by the US Food and Drug Administration in 2016. Studies conducted before and after the onset of the pandemic indicate increased human exposure to QACs. Environmental releases of these chemicals have also increased. Emerging information on adverse environmental and human health impacts of QACs is motivating a reconsideration of the risks and benefits across the life cycle of their production, use, and disposal. This work presents a critical review of the literature and scientific perspective developed by a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional team of authors from academia, governmental, and nonprofit organizations. The review evaluates currently available information on the ecological and human health profile of QACs and identifies multiple areas of potential concern. Adverse ecological effects include acute and chronic toxicity to susceptible aquatic organisms, with concentrations of some QACs approaching levels of concern. Suspected or known adverse health outcomes include dermal and respiratory effects, developmental and reproductive toxicity, disruption of metabolic function such as lipid homeostasis, and impairment of mitochondrial function. QACs' role in antimicrobial resistance has also been demonstrated. In the US regulatory system, how a QAC is managed depends on how it is used, for example in pesticides or personal care products. This can result in the same QACs receiving different degrees of scrutiny depending on the use and the agency regulating it. Further, the US Environmental Protection Agency's current method of grouping QACs based on structure, first proposed in 1988, is insufficient to address the wide range of QAC chemistries, potential toxicities, and exposure scenarios. Consequently, exposures to common mixtures of QACs and from multiple sources remain largely unassessed. Some restrictions on the use of QACs have been implemented in the US and elsewhere, primarily focused on personal care products. Assessing the risks posed by QACs is hampered by their vast structural diversity and a lack of quantitative data on exposure and toxicity for the majority of these compounds. This review identifies important data gaps and provides research and policy recommendations for preserving the utility of QAC chemistries while also seeking to limit adverse environmental and human health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- William
A. Arnold
- University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Arlene Blum
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
- University
of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Jennifer Branyan
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | - Thomas A. Bruton
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | | | - Gino Cortopassi
- University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Sandipan Datta
- University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Jamie DeWitt
- East
Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27834, United States
| | - Anne-Cooper Doherty
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | - Rolf U. Halden
- Arizona
State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Homero Harari
- Icahn
School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | | | - Terry C. Hrubec
- Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Shoba Iyer
- California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, Oakland, California 94612, United States
| | - Carol F. Kwiatkowski
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
- North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 United States
| | - Jonas LaPier
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Dingsheng Li
- University
of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | - Li Li
- University
of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | | | - Amina Salamova
- Indiana University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Ted Schettler
- Science and Environmental Health Network, Bolinas, California 94924, United States
| | - Ryan P. Seguin
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Anna Soehl
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Rebecca Sutton
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, Richmond, California 94804, United States
| | - Libin Xu
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Guomao Zheng
- Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
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Jann J, Gascon S, Drevelle O, Fradette J, Auclair-Gilbert M, Soucy G, Fortier LC, Faucheux N. Assessment of antibacterial properties and skin irritation potential of anodized aluminum impregnated with various quaternary ammonium. BIOMATERIALS ADVANCES 2023; 150:213433. [PMID: 37104962 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioadv.2023.213433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
The importance of the inert environment in the transmission of pathogens has been reassessed in recent years. To reduce cross-contamination, new biocidal materials used in high touch surfaces (e.g., stair railings, door handles) have been developed. However, their impact on skin remains poorly described. The present study aimed to evaluate the antibacterial properties and the risk of skin irritation of two materials based on hard-anodized aluminum (AA) impregnated with quaternary ammonium compound solutions (QAC#1 or QAC#2). The QAC#1 or QAC#2 solutions vary in composition, QAC#2 being free of dioctyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (Dio-DAC) and octyl decyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (ODDAC). Unlike AA used as a control, both AA-QAC#1 and AA-QAC#2 had excellent and rapid antibacterial efficacy, killing 99.9 % of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli bacteria, in 15 s and 1 min, respectively. The impregnation solutions (QAC#1 and QAC#2) did not show any skin sensitizing effect on transformed human keratinocytes. Nevertheless, these solutions as well as the materials (AA-QAC#1, AA-QAC#2), and the liquid extracts derived from them, induced a very rapid cytotoxicity on L929 murine fibroblasts (>70 % after 1 h of contact) as shown by LDH, MTS and neutral red assays. This cytotoxicity can be explained by the fast QACs release occurring when AA-QAC#1 and AA-QAC#2 were immersed in aqueous medium. To overcome the limitation of assays based on liquid condition, an in vitro skin irritation assay on reconstructed human epidermis (RHE) was developed. The effect of the materials upon their direct contact with the epidermis grown at the liquid-air interface was determined by evaluating tissue viability and quantifying interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1α) which is released in skin during injury or infection. AA-QAC#1 induced a significant decrease in RHE viability, close to OECD and ISO 10993-10 acceptability thresholds and enhanced the pro-inflammatory IL-1α secretion compared with AA-QAC#2. Finally, these results were corroborated by in vivo assays on mice using erythema and edema visual scores, histological observations, and epidermal thickness measurement. AA had no effect on the skin, while a stronger irritation was induced by AA-QAC#1 compared with AA-QAC#2. Hence, these materials were classified as moderate and slight irritants, respectively. In summary, this study revealed that AA-QAC#2 without Dio-DAC and ODDAC could be a great candidate for high touch surface applications, showing an extremely effective and rapid bactericidal activity, without inducing adverse effects for skin tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Jann
- Department of Chemical and Biotechnological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 boul. de l'Université, Sherbrooke, Québec J1K 2R1, Canada; Clinical Research Center of Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Sherbrooke, 12e avenue N, Sherbrooke, Québec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Suzanne Gascon
- Department of Chemical and Biotechnological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 boul. de l'Université, Sherbrooke, Québec J1K 2R1, Canada
| | - Olivier Drevelle
- Department of Chemical and Biotechnological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 boul. de l'Université, Sherbrooke, Québec J1K 2R1, Canada
| | - Julie Fradette
- Centre de Recherche en Organogénèse Expérimentale de l'Université Laval/LOEX, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Axe Médecine Régénératrice, 1401, 18(e) rue, Québec City, Québec G1J 1Z4, Canada; Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, 1050 avenue de la Médecine, Québec City, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada
| | | | - Gervais Soucy
- Department of Chemical and Biotechnological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 boul. de l'Université, Sherbrooke, Québec J1K 2R1, Canada
| | - Louis-Charles Fortier
- Clinical Research Center of Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Sherbrooke, 12e avenue N, Sherbrooke, Québec J1H 5N4, Canada; Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, 3201 rue Jean Mignault, Sherbrooke, Québec J1E 4K8, Canada.
| | - Nathalie Faucheux
- Department of Chemical and Biotechnological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 boul. de l'Université, Sherbrooke, Québec J1K 2R1, Canada; Clinical Research Center of Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Sherbrooke, 12e avenue N, Sherbrooke, Québec J1H 5N4, Canada.
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Li ZM, Lakuleswaran M, Kannan K. LC-MS/MS methods for the determination of 30 quaternary ammonium compounds including benzalkonium and paraquat in human serum and urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2023; 1214:123562. [PMID: 36495685 PMCID: PMC9839631 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2022.123562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Benzalkyldimethylammonium (or benzalkonium; BACs), alkyltrimethylammonium (ATMACs), and dialkyldimethylammonium compounds (DDACs) have been widely used for over six decades as disinfectants, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Here we describe methods for the determination of 7 BACs, 6 ATMACs, 6 DDACs, 8 BAC metabolites, and the structurally similar quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) herbicides diquat, paraquat, and difenzoquat in human serum and urine using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The methods were optimized using isotopically labelled internal standards and solid-phase extraction with weak cation-exchange cartridges. We separated diquat and paraquat chromatographically using a mixed-mode LC column, and BACs, ATMACs, DDACs, difenzoquat, and BAC metabolites using reversed-phase (C8 and C18) LC columns. Method limits of detection (MLODs) and quantification (MLOQs) were 0.002-0.42 and 0.006-1.40 ng/mL, respectively. Recoveries of all analytes fortified at 1, 5, and 20 ng/mL concentrations in serum and urine matrices were 61-129%, with standard deviations of 0-20%. Repeated analysis of similarly fortified serum and urine samples yielded intra-day and inter-day variations of 0.22-17.4% and 0.35-17.3%, respectively. Matrix effects for analytes spiked into serum and urine matrices ranged from -27% to 15.4%. Analysis of real urine and serum samples revealed the presence of several QACs in human serum. Although no parent BACs were found in urine, we detected, for the first time, several ω-hydroxy and ω-carboxylic acid metabolites of BACs at average concentrations in the range of 0.05-0.35 ng/mL. The developed method is suitable for application in large-scale biomonitoring of human exposure to QACs and their metabolites in human serum and urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong-Min Li
- Department of Pediatrics, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, United States; Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, United States
| | - Mathusa Lakuleswaran
- Department of Pediatrics, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, United States; Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, United States
| | - Kurunthachalam Kannan
- Department of Pediatrics, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, United States; Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, United States.
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Peyneau M, de Chaisemartin L, Gigant N, Chollet-Martin S, Kerdine-Römer S. Quaternary ammonium compounds in hypersensitivity reactions. FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2022; 4:973680. [PMID: 36211198 PMCID: PMC9534575 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2022.973680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) are commonly used disinfectants, antiseptics, preservatives, and detergents due to their antibacterial property and represent the first used biocides before phenolic or nitrogen products. Their common structure consists of one or more quaternary ammonium bound with four lateral substituents. Their amphiphilic structure allows them to intercalate into microorganism surfaces which induces an unstable and porous membrane that explains their antimicrobial activity towards bacteria, fungi, and viruses. QAC are thus found in many areas, such as household products, medicines, hygiene products, cosmetics, agriculture, or industrial products but are also used in medical practice as disinfectants and antiseptics and in health care facilities where they are used for cleaning floors and walls. QAC exposure has already been involved in occupational asthma in healthcare workers or professional cleaners by many authors. They also have been suggested to play a role in contact dermatitis (CD) and urticaria in workers using cosmetics such as hairdressers or healthcare workers, inciting reglementary agencies to make recommendations regarding those products. However, distinguishing the irritant or sensitizing properties of chemicals is complex and as a result, the sensitizing property of QAC is still controverted. Moreover, the precise mechanisms underlying the possible sensitization effect are still under investigation, and to date, only a few studies have documented an immunological mechanism. Besides, QAC have been suggested to be responsible for neuromuscular blocking agents (NMBA) sensitization by cross-reactivity. This hypothesis is supported by a higher prevalence of quaternary ammonium (QA)-specific IgE in the professionally exposed populations, such as hairdressers, cleaners, or healthcare workers, suggesting that the sensitization happens with structurally similar compounds present in the environment. This review summarizes the newest knowledge about QAC and their role in hypersensitivities. After describing the different QAC, their structure and use, the most relevant studies about the effects of QAC on the immune system will be reviewed and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Peyneau
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, Inflammation microbiome immunosurveillance, Châtenay-Malabry, France
- Department « Autoimmunité, Hypersensibilités et Biothérapies », DMU BioGeM, APHP, Hôpital Bichat, Paris, France
- *Correspondence: Marine Peyneau,
| | - Luc de Chaisemartin
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, Inflammation microbiome immunosurveillance, Châtenay-Malabry, France
- Department « Autoimmunité, Hypersensibilités et Biothérapies », DMU BioGeM, APHP, Hôpital Bichat, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Gigant
- CNRS, BioCIS, Université Paris-Saclay, Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Sylvie Chollet-Martin
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, Inflammation microbiome immunosurveillance, Châtenay-Malabry, France
- Department « Autoimmunité, Hypersensibilités et Biothérapies », DMU BioGeM, APHP, Hôpital Bichat, Paris, France
| | - Saadia Kerdine-Römer
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, Inflammation microbiome immunosurveillance, Châtenay-Malabry, France
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Zheng G, Schreder E, Sathyanarayana S, Salamova A. The first detection of quaternary ammonium compounds in breast milk: Implications for early-life exposure. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2022; 32:682-688. [PMID: 35437305 PMCID: PMC9015285 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-022-00439-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), commonly used in cleaning, disinfecting, and personal care products, have recently gained worldwide attention due to the massive use of disinfectants during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, despite extensive use of these chemicals, no studies have focused on the analysis of QACs in human milk, a major route of exposure for infants. OBJECTIVE Our objectives were to identify and measure QACs in breast milk and evaluate early-life exposure to this group of compounds for nursing infants. METHODS Eighteen QACs, including 6 benzylalkyldimethyl ammonium compounds (BACs, with alkyl chain lengths of C8-C18), 6 dialkyldimethyl ammonium compounds (DDACs, C8-C18), and 6 alkyltrimethyl ammonium compounds (ATMACs, C8-C18), were measured in breast milk samples collected from U.S. mothers. Daily lactational intake was estimated based on the determined concentrations for 0-12 month old nursing infants. RESULTS Thirteen of the 18 QACs were detected in breast milk and 7 of them were found in more than half of the samples. The total QAC concentrations (ΣQAC) ranged from 0.33 to 7.4 ng/mL (median 1.5 ng/mL). The most abundant QAC was C14-BAC with a median concentration of 0.45 ng/mL. The highest median ΣQAC estimated daily intake (EDI) was determined for <1-month old infants based on the average (using the median concentration) and high (using the 95th percentile concentration) exposure scenarios (230 and 750 ng/kg body weight/day, respectively). SIGNIFICANCE Our findings provide the first evidence of the detection of several QACs in breast milk and identify breastfeeding as an exposure pathway to QACs for nursing infants. IMPACT STATEMENT Our findings provide the first evidence of QAC occurrence in breast milk and identify breastfeeding as one of the exposure pathways to QACs for nursing infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guomao Zheng
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | | | - Sheela Sathyanarayana
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington/Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, 91807, USA
| | - Amina Salamova
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
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Zheng G, Webster TF, Salamova A. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds: Bioaccumulation Potentials in Humans and Levels in Blood before and during the Covid-19 Pandemic. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:14689-14698. [PMID: 34662096 PMCID: PMC8547165 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are commonly used in a variety of consumer, pharmaceutical, and medical products. In this study, bioaccumulation potentials of 18 QACs with alkyl chain lengths of C8-C18 were determined in the in vitro-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) model using the results of human hepatic metabolism and serum protein binding experiments. The slowest in vivo clearance rates were estimated for C12-QACs, suggesting that these compounds may preferentially build up in blood. The bioaccumulation of QACs was further confirmed by the analysis of human blood (sera) samples (n = 222). Fifteen out of the 18 targeted QACs were detected in blood with the ΣQAC concentrations reaching up to 68.6 ng/mL. The blood samples were collected during two distinct time periods: before the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic (2019; n = 111) and during the pandemic (2020, n = 111). The ΣQAC concentrations were significantly higher in samples collected during the pandemic (median 6.04 ng/mL) than in those collected before (median 3.41 ng/mL). This is the first comprehensive study on the bioaccumulation and biomonitoring of the three major QAC groups and our results provide valuable information for future epidemiological, toxicological, and risk assessment studies targeting these chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guomao Zheng
- O’Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington 47405, United States
| | - Thomas F. Webster
- School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, United States
| | - Amina Salamova
- O’Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington 47405, United States
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Osimitz TG, Droege W. Quaternary ammonium compounds: perspectives on benefits, hazards, and risk. TOXICOLOGY RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/23978473211049085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds are antimicrobial chemicals that provide significant public health benefits by controlling bacteria and viruses that cause infections such as colds, flu, and COVID. The benefits of antimicrobial QACs are seen in increased quality-of-life measures, such as reduced time away from work and school and reduced medical costs. As active antimicrobial agents, QACs and QAC-containing consumer and professional products are highly regulated by authorities such as the US Environmental Protection Agency and the European Chemicals Agency. A complete database of guideline safety studies, covering human and environmental health, is available and has been reviewed by multiple regulatory agencies globally. The conclusions of regulatory agencies from these studies indicate no concerns regarding reproductive effects, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, or other systemic adverse effects. In contrast, some published academic studies provide mixed findings on lipid synthesis, reproductive effects, and asthma. However, many of these studies have been found not to be robust in design and lacked appropriate controls to support conclusions of a clear and direct association with an adverse effect. The hazard data for the QACs show that their primary critical effects are point-of-contact effects such as irritation, which exhibit a threshold and occur in a dose–response manner. This review compares toxicity information for QACs, examines human exposures, and quantifies the risks estimated from QAC product use. QACs are an important cleaning and hygiene tool, and the abundance of safety data generated for them provides assurance they can be safely used in professional and household products.
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9
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Shane HL, Lukomska E, Weatherly L, Baur R, Anderson SE. Prior Exposure to Ortho-Phthalaldehyde Augments IgE-Mediated Immune Responses to Didecyldimethylammonium Chloride: Potential for 2 Commonly Used Antimicrobials to Synergistically Enhance Allergic Disease. Toxicol Sci 2021; 178:127-137. [PMID: 32647894 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfaa112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Health-care workers have an increased incidence of allergic disease compared with the general public and are exposed to a variety of high-level disinfectants. Although exposure to these agents has been associated with allergic disease, findings between epidemiology and animal studies often conflict respecting immunological mechanisms. Therefore, we hypothesized that previous exposure to a representative IgE-mediated sensitizer (ortho-phthalaldehyde [OPA]) alters immune responses to a representative T-cell-mediated sensitizer (didecyldimethlyammonium chloride [DDAC]). Here, BALB/c mice were topically exposed to OPA (0.5%) for 3 days, rested, then topically exposed to DDAC (0.0625%, 0.125%, and 0.25%) for 14 days. Coexposure resulted in phenotypic changes in draining lymph node (dLN) cells, including a decreased frequency of CD8+ T cells and increased frequency and number of B cells compared with DDAC-only treated mice. The coexposed mice also had enhanced Th2 responses, including significant alterations in: dLN Il4 (increased), B-cell activation (increased), CD8+ T-cell activation (decreased), and local and systemic IgE production (increased). These changes were not observed if mice were exposed to DDAC prior to OPA. Exposure to OPA alone shows Th2 skewing, indicated by increased activation of skin type 2 innate lymphoid cells, increased frequency and activation of draining lymph node B cells, and increased levels of type 2 cytokines. These findings suggest that the OPA-induced immune environment may alter the response to DDAC, resulting in increased IgE-mediated immune responses. This data may partially explain the discordance between epidemiological and laboratory studies regarding disinfectants and provide insight into the potential immunological implications of mixed chemical exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hillary L Shane
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505
| | - Ewa Lukomska
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505
| | - Lisa Weatherly
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505
| | - Rachel Baur
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505
| | - Stacey E Anderson
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505
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Anderson SE, Baur R, Kashon M, Lukomska E, Weatherly L, Shane HL. Potential classification of chemical immunologic response based on gene expression profiles. J Immunotoxicol 2021; 17:122-134. [PMID: 32449871 PMCID: PMC7673648 DOI: 10.1080/1547691x.2020.1758855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Occupational immune diseases are a serious public health burden and are often a result of exposure to low molecular weight (LMW) chemicals. The complete immunological mechanisms driving these responses are not fully understood which has made the classification of chemical allergens difficult. Antimicrobials are a large group of immunologically-diverse LMW agents. In these studies, mice were dermally exposed to representative antimicrobial chemicals (sensitizers: didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC), ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA), irritants: benzal-konium chloride (BAC), and adjuvant: triclosan (TCS)) and the mRNA expression of cytokines and cellular mediators was evaluated using real-time qPCR in various tissues over a 7-days period. All antimicrobials caused increases in the mRNA expression of the danger signals Tslp (skin), and S100a8 (skin, blood, lung). Expression of the TH2 cytokine Il4 peaked at different timepoints for the chemicals based on exposure duration. Unique expression profiles were identified for OPA (Il10 in lymph node, Il4 and Il13 in lung) and TCS (Tlr4 in skin). Additionally, all chemicals except OPA induced decreased expression of the cellular adhesion molecule Ecad. Overall, the results from these studies suggest that unique gene expression profiles are implicated following dermal exposure to various antimicrobial agents, warranting the need for additional studies. In order to advance the development of preventative and therapeutic strategies to combat immunological disease, underlying mechanisms of antimicrobial-induced immunomodulation must be fully understood. This understanding will aid in the development of more effective methods to screen for chemical toxicity, and may potentially lead to more effective treatment strategies for those suffering from immune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey E Anderson
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Rachel Baur
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Michael Kashon
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Ewa Lukomska
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Lisa Weatherly
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Hillary L Shane
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
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11
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Lee SY, Chan EL, Chan HH, Li CCK, Ooi ZH, Koh RY, Liew YK. ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS AND ANTI-ADHESION MATERIALS FOR MEDICAL AND SURGICAL GLOVES. RUBBER CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.5254/rct.21.79901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) can be common in healthcare settings, such as the intensive care unit and surgical sites, if proper precautions are not followed. Although traditional techniques are encouraged, such as educating the public and healthcare workers to practice proper handwashing or to double glove, they have not been fully effective in combating HAIs. The use of surface-modified antimicrobial gloves may be an alternative approach to prevent the transmission of pathogens between healthcare workers and patients. This paper gives a comprehensive review of strategies to produce antimicrobial gloves. The chemistry of some potential chemically synthesized antimicrobial agents and nature-inspired superhydrophobic surfaces are discussed. The principles of killing microbes must be understood to effectively select these materials and to design and fabricate surfaces for the reduction of bacterial adhesion. Also, current company trends and technologies are presented for gloves proven to effectively kill bacteria. Such glove use, when coupled with in-depth research on diverse surgical procedures and medical examinations, could ease the burden of HAIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siang Yin Lee
- Latex Science and Technology Unit (USTL), Technology and Engineering Division (BTK), RRIM Sungai Buloh Research Station, Malaysian Rubber Board (MRB), 47000 Sungai Buloh, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - E-Lyn Chan
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan Jalil Perkasa 19, Bukit Jalil, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Hong Hao Chan
- School of Postgraduate Studies and Research, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan Jalil Perkasa 19, Bukit Jalil, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Claire Chong Khai Li
- School of Health Sciences, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan Jalil Perkasa 19, Bukit Jalil, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Zhe Hooi Ooi
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan Jalil Perkasa 19, Bukit Jalil, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Rhun Yian Koh
- School of Health Sciences, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan Jalil Perkasa 19, Bukit Jalil, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Yun Khoon Liew
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan Jalil Perkasa 19, Bukit Jalil, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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12
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Pullangott G, Kannan U, S G, Kiran DV, Maliyekkal SM. A comprehensive review on antimicrobial face masks: an emerging weapon in fighting pandemics. RSC Adv 2021; 11:6544-6576. [PMID: 35423213 PMCID: PMC8694960 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra10009a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The world has witnessed several incidents of epidemics and pandemics since the beginning of human existence. The gruesome effects of microbial threats create considerable repercussions on the healthcare systems. The continually evolving nature of causative viruses due to mutation or re-assortment sometimes makes existing medicines and vaccines inactive. As a rapid response to such outbreaks, much emphasis has been placed on personal protective equipment (PPE), especially face mask, to prevent infectious diseases from airborne pathogens. Wearing face masks in public reduce disease transmission and creates a sense of community solidarity in collectively fighting the pandemic. However, excessive use of single-use polymer-based face masks can pose a significant challenge to the environment and is increasingly evident in the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. On the contrary, face masks with inherent antimicrobial properties can help in real-time deactivation of microorganisms enabling multiple-use and reduces secondary infections. Given the advantages, several efforts are made incorporating natural and synthetic antimicrobial agents (AMA) to produce face mask with enhanced safety, and the literature about such efforts are summarised. The review also discusses the literature concerning the current and future market potential and environmental impacts of face masks. Among the AMA tested, metal and metal-oxide based materials are more popular and relatively matured technology. However, the repeated use of such a face mask may pose a danger to the user and environment due to leaching/detachment of nanoparticles. So careful consideration is required to select AMA and their incorporation methods to reduce their leaching and environmental impacts. Also, systematic studies are required to establish short-term and long-term benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayathri Pullangott
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati Andhra Pradesh 517619 India +91 877 2503004 +91 877 2503164
| | - Uthradevi Kannan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati Andhra Pradesh 517619 India +91 877 2503004 +91 877 2503164
| | - Gayathri S
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati Andhra Pradesh 517619 India +91 877 2503004 +91 877 2503164
| | - Degala Venkata Kiran
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati Andhra Pradesh 517619 India
| | - Shihabudheen M Maliyekkal
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati Andhra Pradesh 517619 India +91 877 2503004 +91 877 2503164
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14
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Zheng G, Filippelli GM, Salamova A. Increased Indoor Exposure to Commonly Used Disinfectants during the COVID-19 Pandemic. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LETTERS 2020; 7:760-765. [PMID: 37566290 PMCID: PMC7482546 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs or "quats") make up a class of chemicals used as disinfectants in cleaning and other consumer products. While disinfection is recommended for maintaining a safe environment during the COVID-19 pandemic, the increased use of QACs is concerning as exposure to these compounds has been associated with adverse effects on reproductive and respiratory systems. We have determined the occurrence of 19 QACs in residential dust collected before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. QACs were detected in >90% of the samples collected during the pandemic at concentrations ranging from 1.95 to 531 μg/g (n = 40; median of 58.9 μg/g). The total QAC concentrations in these samples were significantly higher than in samples collected before the COVID-19 pandemic (p < 0.05; n = 21; median of 36.3 μg/g). Higher QAC concentrations were found in households that generally disinfected more frequently (p < 0.05). Disinfecting products commonly used in these homes were analyzed, and the QAC profiles in dust and in products were similar, suggesting that these products can be a significant source of QACs. Our findings indicate that indoor exposure to QACs is widespread and has increased during the pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guomao Zheng
- Paul H. O’Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
| | - Gabriel M. Filippelli
- Center for Urban Health, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
- Environmental Resilience Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
| | - Amina Salamova
- Paul H. O’Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
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15
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Abstract
Infection preventive practice of using disinfectants against SARS-CoV-2 has become the new normal due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Although disinfectants may not be applied directly to the human body, it remains at high risk of exposure including close skin contact on disinfected surfaces or during handling. This dermal contact, on a regular basis, can induce hazardous skin reactions like irritation, inflammation, and burning in severe conditions. Disinfectants are germicide chemicals that can penetrate the skin and create skin reactions that are usually regarded as irritant and allergic contact dermatitis. More importantly, disinfectants can react with skin components (proteins and lipids) to facilitate their skin penetration and disrupt the skin barrier function. Whereas the antimicrobial actions of disinfectants are well understood, much less is known regarding their dermatologic reactions, including but not limited to irritation and hypersensitivity. We reviewed the skin reactions created by those disinfectants against SARS-CoV-2 approved by the European Chemical Agency and the US Environmental Protection Agency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choon Fu Goh
- Discipline of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia.
| | - Long Chiau Ming
- PAP Rashidah Sa'adatul Bolkiah Institute of Health Sciences, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam.
| | - Li Ching Wong
- Discipline of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia.
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16
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Luz A, DeLeo P, Pechacek N, Freemantle M. Human health hazard assessment of quaternary ammonium compounds: Didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride and alkyl (C12–C16) dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2020; 116:104717. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2020.104717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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17
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Park EJ, Seong E, Kang MS, Lee GH, Kim DW, Han JS, Lim HJ, Lee SH, Han HY. Formation of lamellar body-like structure may be an initiator of didecyldimethylammonium chloride-induced toxic response. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2020; 404:115182. [PMID: 32763356 PMCID: PMC7403870 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2020.115182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Due to the pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019, the use of disinfectants is rapidly increasing worldwide. Didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) is an EPA-registered disinfectant, it was also a component in humidifier disinfectants that had caused idiopathic pulmonary diseases in Korea. In this study, we identified the possible pulmonary toxic response and mechanism using human bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells and mice. First, cell viability decreased sharply at a 4 μg/mL of concentration. The volume of intracellular organelles and the ROS level reduced, leading to the formation of apoptotic bodies and an increase of the LDH release. Secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) and matrix metalloproteinase-1 also significantly increased. More importantly, lamellar body-like structures were formed in both the cells and mice exposed to DDAC, and the expression of both the indicator proteins for lamellar body (ABCA3 and Rab11a) and surfactant proteins (A, B, and D) was clearly enhanced. In addition, chronic fibrotic pulmonary lesions were notably observed in mice instilled twice (weekly) with DDAC (500 μg), ultimately resulting in death. Taken together, we suggest that disruption of pulmonary surfactant homeostasis may contribute to DDAC-induced cell death and subsequent pathophysiology and that the formation of lamellar body-like structures may play a role as the trigger. In addition, we propose that the cause of sudden death of mice exposed to DDAC should be clearly elucidated for the safe application of DDAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Jung Park
- East-West Medical Science Research Institute, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea.
| | - Eunsol Seong
- East-West Medical Science Research Institute, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Sung Kang
- In vivo Hazard Evaluation & Research Division, General Toxicology & Research Group, Jeonbuk Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jeongeup-si, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Gwang-Hee Lee
- School of Civil, Environmental, Architectural Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 136-713, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Wan Kim
- School of Civil, Environmental, Architectural Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 136-713, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Seok Han
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, 141 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Ji Lim
- East-West Medical Science Research Institute, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Hyeun Lee
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyoung-Yun Han
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
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18
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Kwon YS, Jung JW, Kim YJ, Park CB, Shon JC, Kim JH, Park JW, Kim SG, Seo JS. Proteomic analysis of whole-body responses in medaka ( Oryzias latipes) exposed to benzalkonium chloride. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2020; 55:1387-1397. [PMID: 32693679 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2020.1796117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) is a cationic surfactant commonly used as a disinfectant, and is discharged into the aquatic environment by various water sources such as wastewater. BAC may also interact with potentially toxic substances such as persistent organic chemicals. Although studies of BAC contamination toxicity and bioaccumulation have been widely reported, the biochemical responses to BAC toxicity remain incompletely understood, and the detailed molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. In this study, two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization tandem time-of-flight mass spectrometry-based proteomic approaches were applied to investigate the protein profiles in Oryzias latipes (medaka) chronically exposed to BAC. Fish were exposed to three different concentrations of BAC, 0.05, 0.1, and 0.2 mg/L, for 21 days. A total of 20 proteins involved in the cytoskeleton, the oxidative stress response, the nervous and endocrine systems, signaling pathways, and cellular proteolysis were significantly upregulated by BAC exposure. The proteomic information obtained in the present study will be useful in identification of potential biomarkers for BAC toxicity, and begins to elucidate its molecular mechanisms, providing new insights into the ecotoxicity of BAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Sang Kwon
- Environmental Chemistry Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Woong Jung
- Environmental Biology Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeong Jin Kim
- Environmental Chemistry Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Beom Park
- Ecotoxicology Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Cheol Shon
- Environmental Chemistry Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Hwan Kim
- Environmental Chemistry Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - June-Woo Park
- Environmental Biology Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Gon Kim
- Gyeongnam Oriental Anti-aging Institute, Sancheong, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Su Seo
- Environmental Chemistry Research Group, Gyeongnam Branch Institute, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Jinju, Republic of Korea
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19
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Shane HL, Lukomska E, Kashon ML, Anderson SE. Topical Application of the Quaternary Ammonium Compound Didecyldimethylammonium Chloride Activates Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells and Initiates a Mixed-Type Allergic Response. Toxicol Sci 2020; 168:508-518. [PMID: 30649503 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfz002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) is an antimicrobial dialkyl-quaternary ammonium compound used in industrial and commercial products. Clinical data suggest that DDAC exposure elicits multiple types of hypersensitivity reactions; here, we confirm this observation in a BALB/c murine model. To examine the immunological mechanism behind this mixed-type response and the potential involvement of type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), we assessed early immune responses in the skin following topical DDAC exposure (0.125% and 0.5%). DDAC exposure resulted in a rapid and dramatic increase in the Th2-skewing and ILC2-activating cytokine thymic stromal lymphopoietin. Correspondingly, dermal ILC2s were activated 24 h after DDAC exposure, resulting in increased expression of CD25, ICOS and KLRG1, and decreased CD127 throughout 7 days of exposure. Following ILC2 activation, the Th2 cytokine IL-4 was elevated compared with control mice in total ear protein lysate (0.5% DDAC). Rag2-/- mice were used to determine a functional role for ILC2s in DDAC-induced sensitization. ILC2s from Rag2-/- mice were similarly activated by DDAC and, importantly, produced significant levels of IL-4 and IL-5 in the skin (0.5% DDAC). These data indicate that ILC2s contribute to early Th2 immune responses following DDAC exposure. ILC2s have been previously implicated in allergic responses, but to our knowledge have not been thoroughly investigated in chemical sensitization. These results indicate that following DDAC exposure, skin ILC2s become activated and produce Th2 cytokines, providing a possible mechanism for the development of the mixed-type allergic responses commonly observed with chemical sensitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hillary L Shane
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division
| | - Ewa Lukomska
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division
| | - Michael L Kashon
- BioAnalytics Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505
| | - Stacey E Anderson
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division
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20
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21
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Lee J, Cho A, Gautam R, Kim Y, Shin S, Song E, Kim H, Yang S, Acharya M, Jo J, Maharjan A, Shim I, Kim HM, Kim P, Kim T, Lee J, Kang M, Jeong T, Kim C, Kim H, Heo Y. Prediction of the skin sensitization potential of didecyldimethylammonium chloride and 3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienal and mixtures of these compounds with the excipient ethylene glycol through the human Cell Line Activation Test and the Direct Peptide Reactivity Assay. Toxicol Ind Health 2019; 35:507-519. [DOI: 10.1177/0748233719869514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In commercial products such as household deodorants or biocides, didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) often serves as an antimicrobial agent, citral serves as a fragrance agent, and the excipient ethylene glycol (EG) is used to dissolve the active ingredients. The skin sensitization (SS) potentials of each of these substances are still being debated. Moreover, mixtures of DDAC or citral with EG have not been evaluated for SS potency. The in vitro alternative assay called human Cell Line Activation Test (h-CLAT) and Direct Peptide Reactivity Assay (DPRA) served to address these issues. On three independent runs of h-CLAT, DDAC and citral were predicted to be sensitizers while EG was predicted to be a non-sensitizer and also by the DPRA. Mixtures of DDAC or citral with EG at ratios of 7:3 and 1:4 w/v were all positive by the h-CLAT in terms of SS potential but SS potency was mitigated as the proportion of EG increased. Citral and its EG mixtures were all positive but DDAC and its EG mixtures were all negative by the DPRA, indicating that the DPRA method is not suitable for chemicals with pro-hapten characteristics. Since humans can be occupationally or environmentally exposed to mixtures of excipients with active ingredients, the present study may give insights into further investigations of the SS potentials of various chemical mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- JaeHee Lee
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - AhRang Cho
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - Ravi Gautam
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - YeonGyeong Kim
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - SoJung Shin
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - EunSeob Song
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - HyeonJi Kim
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - SuJeong Yang
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - Manju Acharya
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - JiHoon Jo
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - Anju Maharjan
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - IlSeob Shim
- Risk Assessment Division, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Mi Kim
- Risk Assessment Division, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - PilJe Kim
- Risk Assessment Division, National Institute of Environmental Research, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - TaeSung Kim
- Korean Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, MFDS, Chungbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - JongKwon Lee
- Korean Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods, National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation, MFDS, Chungbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - MiJeong Kang
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - TaeCheon Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - ChangYul Kim
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - HyoungAh Kim
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Heo
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Bio-Medical Sciences, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea
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22
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Anderson SE, Weatherly L, Shane HL. Contribution of antimicrobials to the development of allergic disease. Curr Opin Immunol 2019; 60:91-95. [PMID: 31185370 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2019.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobials represent a broad class of chemicals with the intended purpose of eliminating or controlling the growth of harmful microorganisms. Exposure can occur occupationally or through the use or consumption of consumer products. The use of antimicrobial agents has been associated with an increased incidence of allergic diseases, including asthma, atopic dermatitis, and less commonly, anaphylaxis. Very diverse immunological mechanisms and mediators have been identified in the sensitization response to antimicrobial chemicals and the importance of the local microenviroment in the response is increasingly being recognized. A complete understanding of the mechanisms of allergic diseases resulting from antimicrobial exposure will help to ensure safe environments and exposure limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey E Anderson
- National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Health Effects Laboratory Division, Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Morgantown, WV, 26508, United States.
| | - Lisa Weatherly
- National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Health Effects Laboratory Division, Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Morgantown, WV, 26508, United States
| | - Hillary L Shane
- National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Health Effects Laboratory Division, Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Morgantown, WV, 26508, United States
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23
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Shane HL, Long CM, Anderson SE. Novel cutaneous mediators of chemical allergy. J Immunotoxicol 2019; 16:13-27. [PMID: 30822179 DOI: 10.1080/1547691x.2018.1515279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemical allergy can manifest into allergic contact dermatitis and asthma and the importance of skin sensitization in both of these diseases is increasingly being recognized. Given the unique characteristics of chemical allergy, coupled with the distinct immunological microenvironment of the skin research is still unraveling the mechanisms through which sensitization and elicitation occur. This review first describes the features of chemical sensitization and the known steps that must occur to develop a chemical allergy. Next, the unique immunological properties of the skin - which may influence chemical sensitization - are highlighted. Additionally, mediators involved with the development of allergy are reviewed, starting with early ones - including the properties of haptens, skin integrity, the microbiome, the inflammasome, and toll-like receptors (TLR). Novel cellular mediators of chemical sensitization are highlighted, including innate lymphoid cells, mast cells, T-helper (TH) cell subsets, and skin intrinsic populations including γδ T-cells and resident memory T-cells. Finally, this review discusses two epigenetic mechanisms that can influence chemical sensitization, microRNAs and DNA methylation. Overall, this review highlights recent research investigating novel mediators of chemical allergy that are present in the skin. It also emphasizes the need to further explore these mediators to gain a better understanding of what makes a chemical an allergen, and how best to prevent the development of chemical-induced allergic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hillary L Shane
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Carrie M Long
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Stacey E Anderson
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
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Aerts O, Goossens A. Preservatives. Contact Dermatitis 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-72451-5_85-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Cationic surfactants as antifungal agents. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 103:97-112. [PMID: 30374671 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-9467-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Fungi-in being responsible for causing diseases in animals and humans as well as environmental contaminations in health and storage facilities-represent a serious concern to health security. Surfactants are a group of chemical compounds used in a broad spectrum of applications. The recently considered potential employment of cationic surfactants as antifungal or fungistatic agents has become a prominent issue in the development of antifungal strategies, especially if such surface-active agents can be synthesized in an eco-friendly manner. In this review, we describe the antifungal effect and the reported mechanisms of action of several types of cationic surfactants and also include a discussion of the contribution of these surfactants to the inhibition of yeast-based-biofilm formation. Furthermore, the putative mechanism of arginine-based tensioactive compounds as antifungal agents and their applications are also analyzed.
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Shane HL, Lukomska E, Stefaniak AB, Anderson SE. Divergent hypersensitivity responses following topical application of the quaternary ammonium compound, didecyldimethylammonium bromide. J Immunotoxicol 2018; 14:204-214. [PMID: 29124973 PMCID: PMC6391722 DOI: 10.1080/1547691x.2017.1397826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Didecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) is a fourth generation dialkyl-quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) that is used in numerous products for its antimicrobial properties. While many QACs have been associated with allergic disease, the toxicity and sensitization of DDAB have not been thoroughly investigated. The purpose of these studies was to evaluate the irritancy and sensitization potential of DDAB following dermal application in a murine model. DDAB induced significant irritancy (0.0625-2%), evaluated by ear swelling in female BALB/c mice. Initial evaluation of the sensitization potential was conducted using the local lymph node assay (LLNA) at concentrations ranging from 0.0625% to 2%. A concentration-dependent increase in lymphocyte proliferation was observed with a calculated EC3 value of 0.057%. Immune cell phenotyping along with local and systemic IgE levels were evaluated following 4 and 14 days of dermal application. Phenotypic analyses revealed significant and dose-responsive increases in the absolute number of B-cells, CD4+ T-cells, CD8+ T-cells, and dendritic cells in the draining lymph nodes (DLNs) following 4 and 14 days of dermal exposure with significant increases in the number of activated B-cells and dendritic cells. However, increased activation of CD4+ T-cell and CD8+ T-cells was only observed following four days of DDAB exposure. Exposure to DDAB also induced increased production of IgE as evaluated by phenotypic analysis of DLN B-cells (IgE+ B-cells) and measurement of total serum IgE levels following 14 days but not four days of dermal application. Significant increases in gene expression were observed in the DLN (Il-4, Il-10, and ox40l) and ear (tslp) following 4 and 14 days of DDAB exposure. These results demonstrate the potential for development of irritation and hypersensitivity responses to DDAB following dermal exposure and raise concerns about the effects of exposure duration on hypersensitivity responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hillary L Shane
- a Health Effects Laboratory Division , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health , Morgantown , WV , USA
| | - Ewa Lukomska
- a Health Effects Laboratory Division , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health , Morgantown , WV , USA
| | - Aleksandr B Stefaniak
- b Respiratory Health Division , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health , Morgantown , WV , USA
| | - Stacey E Anderson
- a Health Effects Laboratory Division , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health , Morgantown , WV , USA
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Abstract
Immunotoxicology is the study of immune system dysfunction that can result from occupational, inadvertent, or therapeutic exposure to a variety of chemical or biologic agents that alter the immune system and affect human health. Immunotoxicology can manifest in a variety of ways, with one of the most prominent effects being immunosuppression. Immunosuppression can be defined as a reduced ability of the immune system to respond to a challenge from a level considered normal, regardless of whether clinical disease results. Although immunosuppression can lead to an increased incidence and severity of infectious and neoplastic disease, interpreting data from experimental immunotoxicology studies, or even epidemiologic studies, for quantitative risk assessment has been a persistent challenge. Decades of research has resulted in the development of specific assays and the identification of sensitive endpoints that measure effects on the immune response, from which many regulatory agencies have developed specific immunotoxicity testing guidelines. However, establishing a direct link between exposure and disease manifestations for immunosuppression in humans is an ongoing challenge due to inherent limitations of epidemiological studies to draw causal conclusions. Efforts have been made to examine the relationships between laboratory measures of immune response and disease resistance in experimental animal models and also in human studies. The identification of sensitive endpoints and the development of experimental assays to identify suspect immunotoxicants are a primary focus of the field of immunotoxicology. This chapter is organized around sections discussing the impact and scientific basis of immunotoxicity testing, predictive immunotoxicity testing strategies, examples of immunotoxicity testing, and key considerations and recent developments related to effective testing strategies for health risk reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey E Anderson
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA.
| | - Hillary L Shane
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
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