An economic evaluation of the JNC hypertension guidelines using data from a randomized controlled trial. Joint National Committee

Cost-effectiveness of hypertension therapy according to 2014 guidelines

BACKGROUND

On the basis of the 2014 guidelines for hypertension therapy in the United States, many eligible adults remain untreated. We projected the cost-effectiveness of treating hypertension in U.S. adults according to the 2014 guidelines.

METHODS

We used the Cardiovascular Disease Policy Model to simulate drug-treatment and monitoring costs, costs averted for the treatment of cardiovascular disease, and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) gained by treating previously untreated adults between the ages of 35 and 74 years from 2014 through 2024. We assessed cost-effectiveness according to age, hypertension level, and the presence or absence of chronic kidney disease or diabetes.

RESULTS

The full implementation of the new hypertension guidelines would result in approximately 56,000 fewer cardiovascular events and 13,000 fewer deaths from cardiovascular causes annually, which would result in overall cost savings. The projections showed that the treatment of patients with existing cardiovascular disease or stage 2 hypertension would save lives and costs for men between the ages of 35 and 74 years and for women between the ages of 45 and 74 years. The treatment of men or women with existing cardiovascular disease or men with stage 2 hypertension but without cardiovascular disease would remain cost-saving even if strategies to increase medication adherence doubled treatment costs. The treatment of stage 1 hypertension was cost-effective (defined as <$50,000 per QALY) for all men and for women between the ages of 45 and 74 years, whereas treating women between the ages of 35 and 44 years with stage 1 hypertension but without cardiovascular disease had intermediate or low cost-effectiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

The implementation of the 2014 hypertension guidelines for U.S. adults between the ages of 35 and 74 years could potentially prevent about 56,000 cardiovascular events and 13,000 deaths annually, while saving costs. Controlling hypertension in all patients with cardiovascular disease or stage 2 hypertension could be effective and cost-saving. (Funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and others.).

Effectiveness, safety and cost of drug substitution in hypertension

Cost-containment measures in healthcare provision include the implementation of therapeutic and generic drug substitution strategies in patients whose condition is already well controlled with pharmacotherapy. Treatment for hypertension is frequently targeted for such measures. However, drug acquisition costs are only part of the cost-effectiveness equation, and a variety of other factors need to be taken into account when assessing the impact of switching antihypertensives. From the clinical perspective, considerations include maintenance of an appropriate medication dose during the switching process; drug equivalence in terms of clinical effectiveness; and safety issues, including the diverse adverse-event profiles of available alternative drugs, differences in the 'inactive' components of drug formulations and the quality of generic formulations. Patients' adherence to and persistence with therapy may be negatively influenced by switching, which will also impact on treatment effectiveness. From the economic perspective, the costs that are likely to be incurred by switching antihypertensives include those for additional clinic visits and laboratory tests, and for hospitalization if required to address problems arising from adverse events or poorly controlled hypertension. Indirect costs and the impact on patients' quality of life also require assessment. Substitution strategies for antihypertensives have not been tested in large outcome trials and there is little available clinical or economic evidence on which to base decisions to switch drugs. Although the cost of treatment should always be considered, careful assessment of the human and economic costs and benefits of antihypertensive drug substitution is required before this practice is recommended.

Call to action on use and reimbursement for home blood pressure monitoring: a joint scientific statement from the American Heart Association, American Society of Hypertension, and Preventive Cardiovascular Nurses Association

Home blood pressure monitoring (HBPM) overcomes many of the limitations of traditional office blood pressure (BP) measurement and is both cheaper and easier to perform than ambulatory BP monitoring. Monitors that use the oscillometric method are currently available that are accurate, reliable, easy to use, and relatively inexpensive. An increasing number of patients are using them regularly to check their BP at home, but although this has been endorsed by national and international guidelines, detailed recommendations for their use have been lacking. There is a rapidly growing literature showing that measurements taken by patients at home are often lower than readings taken in the office and closer to the average BP recorded by 24-hour ambulatory monitors, which is the BP that best predicts cardiovascular risk. Because of the larger numbers of readings that can be taken by HBPM than in the office and the elimination of the white-coat effect (the increase of BP during an office visit), home readings are more reproducible than office readings and show better correlations with measures of target organ damage. In addition, prospective studies that have used multiple home readings to express the true BP have found that home BP predicts risk better than office BP (Class IIa; Level of Evidence A). This call-to-action article makes the following recommendations: (1) It is recommended that HBPM should become a routine component of BP measurement in the majority of patients with known or suspected hypertension; (2) Patients should be advised to purchase oscillometric monitors that measure BP on the upper arm with an appropriate cuff size and that have been shown to be accurate according to standard international protocols. They should be shown how to use them by their healthcare providers; (3) Two to 3 readings should be taken while the subject is resting in the seated position, both in the morning and at night, over a period of 1 week. A total of >/=12 readings are recommended for making clinical decisions; (4) HBPM is indicated in patients with newly diagnosed or suspected hypertension, in whom it may distinguish between white-coat and sustained hypertension. If the results are equivocal, ambulatory BP monitoring may help to establish the diagnosis; (5) In patients with prehypertension, HBPM may be useful for detecting masked hypertension; (6) HBPM is recommended for evaluating the response to any type of antihypertensive treatment and may improve adherence; (7) The target HBPM goal for treatment is <135/85 mm Hg or <130/80 mm Hg in high-risk patients; (8) HBPM is useful in the elderly, in whom both BP variability and the white-coat effect are increased; (9) HBPM is of value in patients with diabetes, in whom tight BP control is of paramount importance; (10) Other populations in whom HBPM may be beneficial include pregnant women, children, and patients with kidney disease; and (11) HBPM has the potential to improve the quality of care while reducing costs and should be reimbursed.

Call to action on use and reimbursement for home blood pressure monitoring: a joint scientific statement from the American Heart Association, American Society Of Hypertension, and Preventive Cardiovascular Nurses Association

Home blood pressure monitoring (HBPM) overcomes many of the limitations of traditional office blood pressure (BP) measurement and is both cheaper and easier to perform than ambulatory BP monitoring. Monitors that use the oscillometric method are currently available that are accurate, reliable, easy to use, and relatively inexpensive. An increasing number of patients are using them regularly to check their BP at home, but although this has been endorsed by national and international guidelines, detailed recommendations for their use have been lacking. There is a rapidly growing literature showing that measurements taken by patients at home are often lower than readings taken in the office and closer to the average BP recorded by 24-hour ambulatory monitors, which is the BP that best predicts cardiovascular risk. Because of the larger numbers of readings that can be taken by HBPM than in the office and the elimination of the white-coat effect (the increase of BP during an office visit), home readings are more reproducible than office readings and show better correlations with measures of target organ damage. In addition, prospective studies that have used multiple home readings to express the true BP have found that home BP predicts risk better than office BP (Class IIa; Level of Evidence A). This call-to-action article makes the following recommendations: (1) It is recommended that HBPM should become a routine component of BP measurement in the majority of patients with known or suspected hypertension; (2) Patients should be advised to purchase oscillometric monitors that measure BP on the upper arm with an appropriate cuff size and that have been shown to be accurate according to standard international protocols. They should be shown how to use them by their healthcare providers; (3) Two to 3 readings should be taken while the subject is resting in the seated position, both in the morning and at night, over a period of 1 week. A total of >or=12 readings are recommended for making clinical decisions; (4) HBPM is indicated in patients with newly diagnosed or suspected hypertension, in whom it may distinguish between white-coat and sustained hypertension. If the results are equivocal, ambulatory BP monitoring may help to establish the diagnosis; (5) In patients with prehypertension, HBPM may be useful for detecting masked hypertension; (6) HBPM is recommended for evaluating the response to any type of antihypertensive treatment and may improve adherence; (7) The target HBPM goal for treatment is <135/85 mm Hg or <130/80 mm Hg in high-risk patients; (8) HBPM is useful in the elderly, in whom both BP variability and the white-coat effect are increased; (9) HBPM is of value in patients with diabetes, in whom tight BP control is of paramount importance; (10) Other populations in whom HBPM may be beneficial include pregnant women, children, and patients with kidney disease; and (11) HBPM has the potential to improve the quality of care while reducing costs and should be reimbursed.

The economic consequences of noncompliance in cardiovascular disease and related conditions: a literature review

OBJECTIVES

To review studies on the cost consequences of compliance and/or persistence in cardiovascular disease (CVD) and related conditions (hypertension, dyslipidaemia, diabetes and heart failure) published since 1995, and to evaluate the effects of noncompliance on healthcare expenditure and the cost-effectiveness of pharmaceutical interventions.

METHODS

English language papers published between January 1995 and February 2007 that examined compliance/persistence with medication for CVD or related conditions, provided an economic evaluation of pharmacological interventions or cost analysis, and quantified the cost consequences of noncompliance, were identified through database searches. The cost consequences of noncompliance were compared across studies descriptively.

RESULTS

Of the 23 studies identified, 10 focused on hypertension, seven on diabetes, one on dyslipidaemia, one on coronary heart disease, one on heart failure and three covered multiple diseases. In studies assessing drug costs only, increased compliance/persistence led to increased drug costs. However, increased compliance/persistence increased the effectiveness of treatment, leading to a decrease in medical events and non-drug costs. This offset the higher drug costs, leading to savings in overall treatment costs. In studies evaluating the effect of compliance/persistence on the cost-effectiveness of pharmacological interventions, increased compliance/persistence appeared to reduce cost-effectiveness ratios, but the extent of this effect was not quantified.

CONCLUSIONS

Noncompliance with cardiovascular and antidiabetic medication is a significant problem. Increased compliance/persistence leads to increased drug costs, but these are offset by reduced non-drug costs, leading to overall cost savings. The effect of noncompliance on the cost-effectiveness of pharmacological interventions is inconclusive and further research is needed to resolve the issue.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of guidelines for antihypertensive care in Finland

BACKGROUND

Hypertension is one of the major causes of disease burden affecting the Finnish population. Over the last decade, evidence-based care has emerged to complement other approaches to antihypertensive care, often without health economic assessment of its costs and effects. This study looks at the extent to which changes proposed by the 2002 Finnish evidence-based Current Care Guidelines concerning the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of hypertension (the ACCG scenario) can be considered cost-effective when compared to modelled prior clinical practice (the PCP scenario).

METHODS

A decision analytic model compares the ACCG and PCP scenarios using information synthesised from a set of national registers covering prescription drug reimbursements, morbidity, and mortality with data from two national surveys concerning health and functional capacity. Statistical methods are used to estimate model parameters from Finnish data. We model the potential impact of the different treatment strategies under the ACCG and PCP scenarios, such as lifestyle counselling and drug therapy, for subgroups stratified by age, gender, and blood pressure. The model provides estimates of the differences in major health-related outcomes in the form of life-years and costs as calculated from a 'public health care system' perspective. Cost-effectiveness analysis results are presented for subgroups and for the target population as a whole.

RESULTS

The impact of the use of the ACCG scenario in subgroups (aged 40-80) without concomitant cardiovascular and related diseases is mainly positive. Generally, costs and life-years decrease in unison in the lowest blood pressure group, while in the highest blood pressure group costs and life-years increase together and in the other groups the ACCG scenario is less expensive and produces more life-years. When the costs and effects for subgroups are combined using standard decision analytic aggregation methods, the ACCG scenario is cost-saving and more effective.

CONCLUSION

The ACCG scenario is likely to reduce costs and increase life-years compared to the PCP scenario in many subgroups. If the estimated trade-offs between the subgroups in terms of outcomes and costs are acceptable to decision-makers, then widespread implementation of the ACCG scenario is expected to reduce overall costs and be accompanied by positive outcomes overall.

Resource utilization implications of treatment were able to be assessed from appropriately reported clinical trial data

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Published clinical trial data rarely allow assessment of the health care resource utilization implications of treatment. We give an example of how these can be assessed given appropriate tabulation of data.

METHODS

Data from a trial comparing long-acting nifedipine gastrointestinal therapeutic system to placebo in 7,665 patients with stable angina pectoris was analyzed.

RESULTS

Relative to placebo, nifedipine significantly increased mean cardiovascular (CV) event-free survival by 41 days but had no effect on mean survival. Per 100 years of follow-up, 78.1 patient-years of double-blind nifedipine administration reduced use of another calcium antagonist, an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, an angiotensin receptor blocker, a diuretic and a cardiac glycoside by 1.54, 3.73, 2.63, 2.23, and 0.64 years, respectively, whereas 0.21 less hospitalization for overt heart failure, 0.47 less hospitalization for any stroke or transient ischemic attack, 0.8 less coronary angiogram, 0.38 less coronary bypass procedure, and 0.13 additional orthopedic procedure was required. Combining resource utilization with cost data for one particular hospital showed that one additional year of CV event-free survival costs an average additional euro 3,036 in the setting considered.

CONCLUSION

Appropriately tabulated clinical trial data allows clinicians to judge the resource utilization implications and economic effect of treatment decisions.

Screening for the alpha-adducin Gly460Trp variant in hypertensive patients: a cost-effectiveness analysis

BACKGROUND

Studies have shown that approximately 80% of hypertensive patients do not take diuretics despite their recommendation as a first-line therapy. A recent study reported that hypertensive patients with the Gly460Trp variant in the alpha-adducin gene are more likely to benefit from diuretic therapy. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential cost effectiveness of screening for the alpha-adducin Gly460Trp variant among hypertensive patients.

METHODS

A decision analytic Markov model was developed to estimate the clinical and economic outcomes comparing screening for the Gly460Trp variant to identify patients for addition of a diuretic compared to no screening and no addition of diuretic (usual care) in a hypothetical cohort of treated hypertensive patients not receiving diuretic therapy. We used a lifetime horizon and payer perspective. Cost, utility and epidemiological data were obtained from the literature. One-way, probabilistic, and scenario sensitivity analyses were conducted to evaluate the uncertainty in the results.

RESULTS

The screening strategy increased quality adjusted life years (QALYs) by 0.14 (95% confidence range [CR]: 0.05, 0.36) and saved dollar 1834 (dollar 505, dollar 5174) compared to usual care. The most influential input was the strength of the interaction between the alpha-adducin gene variant and diuretic effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that screening for the alpha-adducin gene variant may be a useful mechanism to identify patients most likely to benefit from diuretic therapy and improve compliance with current treatment guidelines.

Cost-Effectiveness of Ambulatory Blood Pressure

Accurate diagnosis of hypertension and prognosis for future cardiovascular events can be enhanced through the use of 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. It has been suggested that the use of ambulatory monitoring as a secondary screening for hypertension might be cost-effective. Many needed studies that are related to the calculation of cost-effectiveness for ambulatory monitoring have become available in recent years. More accurate estimates for cost of care, costs for testing, prevalence of white-coat hypertension, and incidence of the transition from normal pressures to hypertension have been reported. This study presents calculations of the cost savings likely to take place when ambulatory blood pressure monitoring is implemented for newly detected hypertensive subjects. These calculations are based on current estimates for cost of testing, cost of treatment, prevalence of white-coat hypertension at baseline, and varying the incidence of new hypertension after the initial screening. The results indicate a potential savings of 3% to 14% for cost of care for hypertension and 10% to 23% reduction in treatment days when ambulatory blood pressure monitoring is incorporated into the diagnostic process. At current reimbursement rates, the cost of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring for secondary screening on an annual basis would be <10% of treatment costs. Calculated savings for use of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring can take place when annual treatment costs are as little as $300. These estimates should be considered for the management of recently detected hypertension, especially when the risk of future cardiovascular is disease is low.

Heart healthy and stroke free: successful business strategies to prevent cardiovascular disease

BACKGROUND

Heart disease and stroke, the principal components of cardiovascular disease (CVD), are the first and third leading causes of death in the United States. In 2002, employers representing 88 companies in the United States paid an average of 18,618 dollars per employee for health and productivity-related costs. A sizable portion of these costs are related to CVD.

RESULTS

Employers can yield a 3 dollar to 6 dollar return on investment for each dollar invested over a 2 to 5 year period and improve employee cardiovascular health by investing in comprehensive worksite health-promotion programs, and by choosing health plans that provide adequate coverage and support for essential preventive services. The most effective interventions in worksites are those that provide sustained individual follow-up risk factor education and counseling and other interventions within the context of a comprehensive health-promotion program: (1) screening, health risk assessments, and referrals; (2) environmental supports for behavior change (e.g., access to healthy food choices); (3) financial and other incentives; and (4) corporate policies that support healthy lifestyles (e.g., tobacco-free policies). The most effective practices in healthcare settings include systems that use (1) standardized treatment and prevention protocols consistent with national guidelines, (2) multidisciplinary clinical care teams to deliver quality patient care, (3) clinics that specialize in treating/preventing risk factors, (4) physician and patient reminders, and (5) electronic medical records.

CONCLUSIONS

Comprehensive worksite health-promotion programs, health plans that cover preventive benefits, and effective healthcare systems will have the greatest impact on heart disease and stroke and are likely to reduce employers' health and productivity-related costs.

The cost of glucocorticoid-associated adverse events in rheumatoid arthritis

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the costs of glucocorticoid associated adverse events (GAEs) in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

METHODS

We conducted a literature review of studies reporting GAEs in RA patients, and developed a Markov model with the following GAEs: fractures (vertebral, hip, pelvic), hypertension, diabetes, gastrointestinal complications, pneumonia, urinary tract infection, cataract and, in an extended model, myocardial infarction (MI) and stroke. Two-year total costs were calculated using direct medical costs (2001 US dollars [USD]) and by running 10,000 Monte Carlo simulations with probability values randomly selected from the GAE literature.

RESULTS

On average, glucocorticoid users spent USD 445 more than non-users, or USD 0.46 for each dollar spent on purchasing the drug. When adding MI and stroke, users spent on average USD 430 more than non-users, or USD 0.44 for each dollar spent on purchasing the drug; this incremental cost ranged from USD 193 to USD 682 if MI and stroke were excluded, respectively. In 70% of the simulations there were more deaths among users than among non-users, in both the model with and without MI and stroke.

CONCLUSIONS

Although results varied depending on attributed GAEs, in general glucocorticoid users spent more than non-users on GAE treatment, and had higher mortality. Patients, providers and policy makers should consider these potential costs of GAEs when making treatment decisions.

A cost-minimization analysis of diuretic-based antihypertensive therapy reducing cardiovascular events in older adults with isolated systolic hypertension

BACKGROUND: Hypertension is among the most common chronic condition in middle-aged and older adults. Approximately 50 million Americans are currently diagnosed with this condition, and more than $18.7 billion is spent on hypertension management, including $3.8 billion for medications. There are numerous pharmacological agents that can be chosen to treat hypertension by physicians in clinical practices. The purpose of this study was to assess the cost of alternative antihypertensive treatments in older adults with isolated systolic hypertension (ISH). METHOD: Using the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP) and other data, a cost-minimization analysis was performed. The cost was presented as the cost of number-needed-to treat (NNT) of patients for 5 years to prevent one adverse event associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD). RESULT: It was found that the cost of 5 year NNT to prevent one adverse CVD event ranged widely from $6,843 to $37,408 in older patients with ISH. The incremental cost of the 5 year NNT was lower to treat older patients in the very high CVD risk group relative to patients in the lower CVD risk group, ranging from $456 to $15,511. Compared to the cost of the 5 year NNT of other commonly prescribed antihypertensive drugs, the cost of SHEP-based therapy is the lowest. The incremental costs of the 5 year NNT would be higher if other agents were used, ranging from $6,372 to $38,667 to prevent one CVD event relative to SHEP-based drug therapy. CONCLUSION: Antihypertensive therapy that is diuretic-based and that includes either low-dose reserpine or atenolol is an effective and relatively inexpensive strategy to prevent cardiovascular events in older adults with isolated systolic hypertension. Use of the diuretic-based therapy is the most cost-effective in patients at high risk for developing cardiovascular disease.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of a kidney and cardiovascular disease treatment program in an Australian Aboriginal population

The objective of the study was to assess, from a health service perspective, whether a systematic program to modify kidney and cardiovascular disease reduced the costs of treating end-stage kidney failure. The participants in the study were 1,800 aboriginal adults with hypertension, diabetes with microalbuminuria or overt albuminuria, and overt albuminuria, living on two islands in the Northern Territory of Australia during 1995 to 2000. Perindopril was the primary treatment agent, and other medications were also used to control blood pressure. Control of glucose and lipid levels were attempted, and health education was offered. Evaluation of program resource use and costs for follow-up periods was done at 3 and 4.7 years. On an intention-to-treat basis, the number of dialysis starts and dialysis-years avoided were estimated by comparing the fate of the treatment group with that of historical control subjects, matched for disease severity, who were followed in the before the treatment program began. For the first three years, an estimated 11.6 person-years of dialysis were avoided, and over 4.7 years, 27.7 person-years of dialysis were avoided. The net cost of the program was 1,210 dollars more per person per year than status quo care, and dialyses avoided gave net savings of 1.0 million dollars at 3 years and 3.4 million dollars at 4.6 years. The treatment program provided significant health benefit and impressive cost savings in dialysis avoided.

Cost-effectiveness in Preventive Cardiology

Cardiovascular disease remains a serious medical problem, which can be associated with death and disability on one hand, and considerable resource utilization on the other. The primary driver for choice of therapy must remain clinical efficacy. Once efficacy is established, cost-effectiveness analysis has an important role. Resources are limited, and responsible choices must be made. The methods involved in cost-effectiveness analysis are complicated and data for the analysis are generally not fully optimal. Nonetheless, cost-effectiveness analysis offers the best method for helping society make rational medical decisions. Effective interventions, when reasonably priced, for the prevention of cardiovascular disease have generally proven to be cost-effective.

The economic implications of three biochemical screening algorithms for pheochromocytoma

Pheochromocytoma is a rare, life-threatening condition. Using a modeling technique, we studied the economic implications of detection strategies for pheochromocytoma (third-party payer perspective). The diagnostic efficacy of biochemical tests was based on Mayo Clinic Rochester data. In all hypothetical algorithms, positive biochemical tests were followed by abdominal computerized tomography and, if negative, metaiodobenzylguanidine scintigraphy. In each hypothetical algorithm, imaging would be indicated after positive biochemical testing as follows: algorithm A, fractionated plasma metanephrine measurements above the laboratory reference range; or algorithm B, abnormal measurements of 24-h urinary total metanephrines or catecholamines. In algorithm C, subjects with fractions of plasma metanephrine at or above 0.5 nmol/liter or normetanephrine at or above 1.80 nmol/liter would undergo imaging, whereas those with values between the reference range and these cutoffs would undergo 24-h urinary measurements (total metanephrines and fractionated catecholamines) and be imaged if positive. We determined that, if 100,000 hypertensive patients (including 500 patients with pheochromocytoma) were tested, algorithm A (measurement of fractionated plasma metanephrines alone) would detect 489 pheochromocytoma patients at a cost of 56.6 million dollars, whereas B (24-h urinary measurements) would detect 457 pheochromocytoma patients for 39.5 million dollars, and C (combination of measurements of fractionated plasma metanephrines and urines) would detect 478 patients for 28.6 million dollars. None of the screening strategies for pheochromocytoma described are affordable if implemented on a routine basis in extremely low-risk patients. However, algorithm C may be the least costly, and at a reasonable level of sensitivity, for subjects in whom the suspicion of disease is moderate.

Incorporating patient-centered outcomes in the analysis of cost-effectiveness: imaging strategies for renovascular hypertension

OBJECTIVE

Our aim was to assess the contribution of patient-centered short-term disutilities and quality-of-life measures in the cost-effectiveness analysis of CT angiography, MR angiography, and conventional angiography in patients with medication-resistant hypertension.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A decision analytic model compared the life expectancy and incremental cost per life year using three initial diagnostic tests in a cohort of hypothetical individuals with medication-resistant hypertension over a range of renal artery stenosis probabilities: CT angiography (sensitivity, 96%; specificity, 96%; cost, $865); MR angiography (98%, 94%, $850); and conventional angiography (99%, 99%, $2,627). All imaging strategies were compared with a base case scenario mimicking the natural history of medication-resistant hypertension and with a scenario immediate enhanced medical therapy without prior imaging. Individuals without evidence of renal artery stenosis on initial testing underwent conventional angiography if enhanced medical therapy failed to control hypertension. Individuals diagnosed with renal artery stenosis on MR angiography required conventional angiography for definitive stent treatment ($11,1223). Blood pressure response to renal artery stenting or enhanced medical therapy varied according to blood pressure, as did the incidence of myocardial infarction and stroke resulting from hypertension. Patients who progressed to end-stage renal disease received dialysis ($60,000 per year). Quality-of-life adjustments were made for patients with hypertension, end-stage renal disease, myocardial infarction, and stroke. Short-term disutilities from undergoing an imaging test were included. The analysis accounted for direct costs derived from Medicare reimbursements and total costs derived from the literature.

RESULTS

All imaging strategies were cost-effective compared with enhanced medical therapy alone or with natural history. When only direct costs were considered, MR angiography was the preferred strategy, with conventional angiography as a cost-effective alternative to MR angiography. When total costs were considered, conventional angiography dominated all other strategies. Adjusting for quality of life decreased the incremental cost-effectiveness ratios, making an already competitive strategy a more favorable alternative to the base case. Adjusting for test-related disutility did not significantly influence the cost-effectiveness of any of the imaging tests. Despite marked variation in the key clinical and cost variables, MR angiography remained the most cost-effective strategy.

CONCLUSION

In the evaluation and treatment of medication-resistant hypertension, strategies that included preliminary imaging saved more lives than did the immediate institution of enhanced medical therapy at a lesser cost.

Percutaneous stenting of incidental unilateral renal artery stenosis: decision analysis of costs and benefits

PURPOSE

To determine the incremental cost-effectiveness of prophylactic percutaneous transluminal angioplasty with stent placement (PTA-S) in patients with incidentally discovered, asymptomatic renal artery stenosis (RAS) compared to delaying PTA-S until patients develop refractory hypertension or renal insufficiency (therapeutic PTA-S).

METHODS

The Markov decision analysis model was used to determine the incremental cost per quality adjusted life year (QALY) saved for prophylactic PTA-S as compared to therapeutic PTA-S in a hypothetical cohort of patients with 50% unilateral atherosclerotic RAS followed from age 61 to death.

RESULTS

Prophylactic PTA-S compared to therapeutic PTA-S results in more QALYs/patient (10.9 versus 10.3) at higher lifetime costs ($23,664 versus $16,558). The incremental cost effectiveness of prophylactic PTA-S was estimated to be $12,466/QALY. Prophylactic stenting was not cost effective (>$50,000/QALY) if the modeled incidence of stent restenosis exceeded 15%/year and the incidence of progression in the contralateral renal artery was <2% of arteries/year.

CONCLUSIONS

PTA-S of incidental, asymptomatic unilateral RAS may improve patients' quality of life at an acceptable incremental cost. However, this technology should be used hesitantly until a randomized comparison confirms its effectiveness.

Economic model of first-line drug strategies to achieve recommended glycaemic control in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE

To assess the short-term direct medical costs and effectiveness associated with achieving recommended glycaemic goals using commonly prescribed first-line oral antihyperglycaemic medications in type 2 diabetes mellitus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A literature-based, decision-tree model was developed to project the number of patients achieving glycosylated haemoglobin values of <7% on oral therapies and the associated costs over a 3-year timeframe. For each first-line strategy, patients could progress to combination therapy using two or more agents prior to the introduction of insulin. The overall cost of treatment included costs (2001/2002 values; US dollars) of comprehensive medical care, laboratory tests, patient education, drug therapy, home glucose monitoring and adverse events.

RESULTS

At 3 years, the overall cost of treatment for the various first-line strategies was 6,106 US dollars for glipizide gastrointestinal therapeutic system, 6,727 US dollars for metformin immediate release, 6,826 US dollars for metformin extended release, 7,141 US dollars for glibenclamide (glyburide)/metformin, 7,759 US dollars for rosiglitazone and 9,298 US dollars for repaglinide. Costs of comprehensive routine medical care ranged from approximately 1,538-2,128 US dollars in year 1 and from approximately 952-1,543 US dollars in subsequent years, for controlled and uncontrolled patients, respectively. Adverse events represented <1%, and drug therapies represented approximately 50%, of the overall cost, respectively. Substantial cost differences between the strategies were seen within the first year. Regardless of first-line therapy, patients progressed quickly to combination therapies, with effectiveness among the agents being similar.

CONCLUSIONS

Short-term costs required to provide comprehensive diabetes care and achieve glycemic goals can be substantial. The model suggests a sulphonylurea strategy may provide similar effectiveness with cost savings over other agents and should be considered when selecting an initial drug therapy in newly diagnosed patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Health services utilization with reference drug pricing of histamine(2) receptor antagonists in British Columbia elderly

BACKGROUND

In October 1995, British Columbia introduced a reference pricing policy for five therapeutic classes of drugs, including histamine(2) receptor antagonists (H(2)RAs), for beneficiaries of its prescription drug program, Pharmacare.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate utilization trends in consumption of health services in a cohort of Pharmacare beneficiaries to determine if a worsening of health outcomes could be detected after implementation of the reference pricing policy.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Two cohorts, "control" (21 months before the reference pricing policy) and "exposed" (at risk for policy effects), were followed for 21 months. Using a longitudinal generalized linear model (Poisson), and controlling for age, sex, and prescriptions in unique drug classes, trend lines in each of these time series were compared for 3 periods: 9 months before policy implementation (or corresponding index date in the control cohort), 6 months after policy implementation, and a subsequent 6-month period.

SUBJECTS

Two cohorts, each of size 10,000, were constructed by randomly sampling the population of Pharmacare beneficiaries exposed to H(2)RAs and other antisecretory drugs for 1993 through 1996.

MEASURES

Prescriptions, physician office visits and associated transactions (ie, laboratory tests), emergency room visits, hospitalizations, hospital length of stay, and vital statistics.

RESULTS

Differences between periods and between cohorts for health services utilization were not significant or decreased after imposition of the reference pricing policy.

CONCLUSION

For these measures, there has been no worsening of health outcomes associated with implementing the reference pricing policy.

Cost-effectiveness of hypertension treatment: a population-based study

CONTEXT

The cost-effectiveness of the treatment of hypertension has scarcely been investigated in population-based studies. Most data come from secondary analysis of clinical trials and administrative sources.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the health care costs for outpatient hypertension treatment in comparison with diabetes mellitus and chronic bronchitis, and to examine the cost-effectiveness of different classes of antihypertensive drugs.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional population-based study.

SETTING

Urban area of Pelotas, southern Brazil.

PARTICIPANTS

Individuals aged 20-69 years, identified through multi-stage probability sampling.

METHODS

Participants were interviewed at home. Demographic data, education, income, smoking, previous morbidity, use of medicine and other characteristics were assessed via a pre-tested questionnaire, and blood pressure while seated was measured in a standardized way.

RESULTS

Approximately 24% of the participants had high blood pressure or were taking antihypertensive drugs, and among these, 33% had had a physician consultation during the month preceding the interview. The monthly mean costs of care for hypertension (R$ 89.90), diabetes (R$ 80.64) and bronchitis (R$ 92.63) were similar. Treatment of hypertension consumed 22.9% of the per-capita income, corresponding to R$ 392.76 spent per year exclusively on antihypertensive drugs. Most of the direct costs associated with hypertension and diabetes were spent on drugs, while patients with bronchitis had greater expenditure on appointments. The cost-effectiveness relationship was more favorable for diuretics (116.3) and beta blockers (228.5) than for ACE inhibitors (608.5) or calcium channel blockers (762.0).

CONCLUSION

The costs of hypertension care are mainly dependent on the expenditure on blood pressure-lowering drugs. Treatment of hypertension with diuretics or beta blockers was more cost-effective than treatment with ACE inhibitors and calcium channel blockers.

Effects of home telemonitoring and community-based monitoring on blood pressure control in urban African Americans: a pilot study

BACKGROUND

African Americans have a higher prevalence and greater severity of hypertension than do other minorities and whites. This fact is particularly problematic when one realizes that the rate of control and treatment of hypertension in the US population is getting worse rather than better. Alternative strategies to promote blood pressure control need to be tested.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this pilot study was to test the following hypothesis: Persons who participate in nurse-managed home telemonitoring (HT) plus usual care or who participate in nurse-managed community-based monitoring (CBM) plus usual care will have greater improvement in blood pressure from baseline to 3 months' follow-up than will persons who receive usual care only.

METHODS

This study used a randomized controlled design; participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups that were stratified by use or nonuse of antihypertension medication. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) controlling for age and body weight were used to determine changes in blood pressure from baseline to 3 months. The sample contained 26 African Americans with a mean age of 59 years.

RESULTS

Both the HT group and the CBM group had clinically and statistically significant (P <.05) drops in systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) at 3 months' follow-up, with participants in the HT group demonstrating the greatest improvement (HT: baseline SBP 148.8 +/- 13.8, DBP 90.2 +/- 5.79; 3 months' follow-up SBP 124.1 +/- 13.82, DBP 75.58 +/- 11.4; CBM: baseline SBP 155.25 +/- 17.014, DBP 89.42 +/- 10.95; 3 months' follow-up SBP 142.3 +/- 12.1, DBP 78.25 +/- 6.86). There was little change in SBP or DBP at 3 months' follow-up in the usual care only group.

CONCLUSION

These are important pilot results, which if replicated in a larger sample will significantly improve care for urban African Americans with hypertension.

Disease management and pharmacoeconomics as tools for mass prevention of hypertensive complications

Hypertension has been identified as a major predictor of cardiovascular disease, which is a worldwide cause of morbidity and premature mortality. Optimal management of hypertension involves finding a balance among the benefits, risks, and costs of disease treatment and prevention of hypertensive sequelae. Cost-effectiveness analysis helps to clarify the trade-offs between the costs and benefits of treatment and also to evaluate the effects on quality of therapy. Disease management programs that incorporate pharmacoeconomic analysis and computerized methods of targeting patients at high risk of hypertensive sequelae are useful and cost-effective tools. Critical to these cost-effectiveness analyses and disease management programs are the expected benefits attributable to blood pressure reduction. The utility of these programs in helping to determine which patients will benefit from intensive intervention depends to a great extent on the assumptions made and the quality of the data used for the analyses--that is, the degree to which the data are evidence based.