The Life of Meaning: A Model of the Positive Contributions to Well-Being from Veterinary Work

Combining sentiment analysis and text mining with content analysis of farm vet interviews on mental wellbeing in livestock practice

BACKGROUND

The aim of the How Farm Vets Cope project was to co-design, with farm veterinary surgeons, a set of web-based resources to help them and others deal with the different situations that they can face. As part of the wider project, participants were recruited for one-to-one semi-structured phone interviews. These interviews focused on elements of job satisfaction and how the participants coped during periods of poor mental wellbeing or with setbacks and failure.

METHODS

Transcripts of these interviews were analysed using both quantitative methods of sentiment analysis and text mining, including term frequency/inverse document frequency and rapid automated keyword extraction, and qualitative content analysis. The twin aims of the analysis were identifying the important themes discussed by the participants and comparing the results of the two methods to see what differences, if any, arose.

RESULTS

Analysis using the afinn and nrc sentiment lexicons identified emotional themes of anticipation and trust. Rapid automated keyword extraction highlighted issues around age of vets and support, whilst using term frequency/inverse document frequency allowed for individual themes, such as religion, not present across all responses, to be identified. Content analysis supported these findings, pinpointing examples of trust around relationships with farmers and more experienced vets, along with some examples of the difference good support networks can make, particularly to younger vets.

FINDINGS

This work has confirmed previous results in identifying the themes of trust, communication and support to be integral to the experience of practicing farm veterinary surgeons. Younger or less experienced vets recognised themselves as benefiting from further support and signposting, leading to a discussion around the preparation of veterinary students for entry into a farm animal vet practice. The two different approaches taken showed very good agreement in their results. The quantitative approaches can be scaled to allow a larger number of interviews to be utilised in studies whilst still allowing the important qualitative results to be identified.

Student Veterinarian Perceptions of Community-Based Primary Care Veterinary Clinics in Indigenous Communities in Southern Ontario, Canada

Community-based primary care veterinary clinics represent an opportunity to benefit multiple populations. Student veterinarians are afforded the opportunity to build technical and non-technical professional skills, while underserved communities are provided with access to companion animal care. The Ontario Veterinary College (OVC), as with many other veterinary colleges across Canada and the United States, has hosted community-based primary care veterinary clinics, including in local Indigenous communities. As these clinics continue and grow, it is critical to evaluate their operation to ensure that they align with community goals and values, adequately support student learning, and do not perpetuate racism and implicit bias. The objective of this study was to explore the perceptions of student veterinarians who had volunteered at community-based primary care veterinary clinics in First Nations communities in southern Ontario, Canada. We used an online survey that consisted of multiple choice and short answer questions focused on motivating factors for involvement, supports available before and during the clinics, exposure to Indigenous cultures, and the challenges and rewards associated with volunteering. Forty-one student veterinarians from OVC completed the survey in January 2020. Most students were motivated to volunteer to make a positive difference in the lives of people and animals and improve their clinical skills. In general, respondents felt adequately prepared for and supported during their experiences but did recommend additional pre-departure instructions on roles and responsibilities. Participants were ambivalent as to whether they had learned about Indigenous culture, with several strongly recommending more cultural sensitivity training. Most students found their experiences rewarding because of the gratitude expressed by clients and the feeling that they had made a difference. We reflect on the potential benefits and challenges of community-based primary care veterinary clinics in light of student responses.

Engage and enjoy-investigating predictors of employee engagement and work satisfaction in equine veterinary professionals

Introduction

Individuals working in the field of veterinary care are regularly affected by their profession. High levels of responsibility to often provide life-saving health care to animals combined with having to manage owners' expectations and irregular working hours can cause considerable levels of work-related stress among professionals in equine veterinary practice. On the positive side, research also shows that working in the veterinary profession can have a positive impact on personal wellbeing and feelings of fulfillment. A limited number of studies has investigated work satisfaction and engagement among veterinarians across the globe, and none specifically in the equine veterinary work field. The aim of the current study was to identify relevant predictors of employee engagement and work satisfaction in relation to demographic and work environment related factors in the equine veterinary profession.

Methods

A cross-sectional study design was used to investigate work satisfaction and employee engagement among equine veterinary professionals from the UK, the US and the Netherlands using an online survey.

Results

Results suggest that levels of work engagement and satisfaction in the veterinary profession may be gauged using four factors. These factors encompass Pride and purpose (the extent to which personal core values align with the mission of the employer, i.e., the veterinary practice), Company culture and relationship with management (the manner in which staff members interact with each other and the management), Working conditions and compensation (formal employment conditions relating to responsibilities and rewards and levels of collegiality) and Team culture and learning possibilities (encouragement to pursue personal and professional growth).

Discussion

Findings underline the importance of being particularly mindful of inexperienced colleagues, those with demanding family commitments and, where feasible, of providing employees with a modicum of autonomy in order to ensure a satisfied equine veterinary workforce.

Latent burnout profiles of veterinarians in Canada: Findings from a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Although burnout is often discussed as 'present' or 'not-present', the conceptual framework of an engagement-burnout continuum is more accurate and useful. Recognition of individuals' transitional states of burnout also allows for earlier detection of issues and tailored interventions to address the full burnout spectrum.

METHODS

Previously reported Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Scale (MBI-HSS) data from a 2017 national survey of 1272 veterinarians across Canada were re-analysed using a latent profile analysis to classify individuals along the engagement-burnout continuum.

RESULTS

Four clusters were identified: engaged (10.8%), ineffective (18.9%), overextended (29.6%) and burnout (40.7%). These results indicate that most participants (89.2%) had one, or a combination, of high exhaustion, high depersonalisation and low professional efficacy.

LIMITATIONS

This cross-sectional study represents data from one point in time and may be subject to response bias.

CONCLUSION

We discuss strategies-particularly long-term, organisational-level interventions-to promote engagement and help address workplace issues contributing to inefficacy, overextension and burnout in the veterinary profession. We also recommend MBI data be analysed via latent profiles to provide a more nuanced view of burnout, allow for earlier recognition of workplace issues and facilitate more meaningful interventions and comparisons across populations.

Perceptions of the impact of the RCVS Certificate in Advanced Veterinary Practice on the careers of its graduates

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the perceived effect of the RCVS Certificate in Advanced Veterinary Practice (CertAVP) on its graduates, with respect to career advancement, professional practice and contentment with work in the veterinary industry.

METHODS

A cross-sectional online survey of CertAVP graduates was performed, utilising descriptive analysis of Likert scales, logistic regression of demographic variable associations with key outcomes and free-text analysis.

RESULTS

The majority (89%) of the 103 respondents felt that the CertAVP led to improvements in professional practice, 56% felt it had helped advance their career and 55% stated it had improved their contentment with work in the veterinary industry. The CertAVP was perceived to improve evidence-based practice, clinical governance, intellectual satisfaction and encourage lifelong learning, but was not perceived to improve work-life balance.

LIMITATION

Due to potential response bias, this study may not represent the wider population.

CONCLUSION

Despite respondents reporting career advancement, this was only reflected in mentorship and managing more complex cases; respondents neither felt that the CertAVP resulted in promotion, a pay rise or new leadership roles, nor did it afford greater flexibility in their working schedule.

Professional quality of life among Spanish veterinarians

BACKGROUND

In Spain, the perceived professional quality of life among veterinarians has not been explored.

METHODS

Veterinarians were invited to complete an online questionnaire in which they answered the Professional Quality of Life scale, the Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Survey and the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale. Participants were asked whether they were receiving psychological therapy or were taking anxiolytics, hypnotics or antidepressant medication. Alcohol consumption was measured using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test and nicotine dependence was assessed using the Fagerström test; participants were asked whether they took illegal drugs.

RESULTS

The study sample comprised a total of 602 veterinarians, most of whom reported average levels of compassion satisfaction, secondary stress trauma and burnout. Emotional support and mental wellbeing influenced participants' professional quality of life. The percentage of veterinarians in psychological therapy and/or taking anxiolytics was higher than in the general population.

CONCLUSIONS

A considerable number of clinical veterinarians in Spain may be suffering from work-related stress. Our study identifies salary, emotional support and mental wellbeing as important factors that affect the professional quality of life. Interventions to improve veterinary clinicians' professional quality of life should therefore focus on these factors.

Authentic Conversations about Self-Care with Fourth-Year Veterinary Medical Students

Expanding literature on well-being within veterinary medicine has been instrumental in recognizing the prevalence of psychological distress among students and practitioners and promoting awareness and advocacy for well-being within teaching institutions, professional associations, and the workplace. However, greater focus on distress has also been critiqued for overemphasizing illness and reactive interventions, and a call has been made for more balanced conversations about veterinary well-being, with focus on strengths and proactive interventions. This Best Practices article highlights a proactive, strengths-focused intervention, aimed at increasing fourth-year students' awareness of self-care while in training and in their transition to the profession. Authentic conversations about self-care is a required part of clinical training at Kansas State University College of Veterinary Medicine. All students attend a private meeting with a behavioral scientist, engaging in an authentic conversation about their experience of stress and coping strategies. Current practices in providing stress management interventions are restricted to pre-clinical training. Authentic conversations about self-care are presented here as an alternative to current practices, which the authors argue are not adequately addressing students' needs during clinical training and the transition to the profession. Potential implications of providing self-care interventions during the clinical year of training include greater student engagement, increasing awareness, and self-efficacy as students make efforts to maintain well-being both in training and in the professional realm.

Medical errors: Experiences, attitudes and perspectives of incoming and outgoing final-year veterinary students in the USA

BACKGROUND

Medical errors have an impact on veterinary patient safety. Studies in human medicine suggest that students can help prevent medical errors. However, there are no studies that address the role of veterinary students in patient safety.

METHODS

An electronic survey was distributed to incoming final-year (IFY) and outgoing final-year (OFY) students at the Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine. Response data were compared between class year groups with a Fisher's exact test and Mann-Whitney U test.

RESULTS

The response rate was 26.8% (70/261). Most respondents (85.7%) reported being present during a medical error, and 60% reported causing a medical error. The OFY group indicated lower agreement with documenting an error in the patient record and whether all errors should be disclosed. The IFY group felt more distress surrounding potential errors and sequential career implications. Compared with the IFY group, the OFY group agreed more that errors occur frequently in veterinary medicine and disagreed more that hospital staffing is adequate to ensure patient safety. Open responses recognised a need for communication training and identified that the OFY group regarded errors more actionably, whereas the IFY group viewed errors more emotionally.

CONCLUSION

Most veterinary students will experience medical errors prior to graduation, but some lack clarity around appropriate disclosure and documentation. Additional training on medical errors and error disclosure should be provided to veterinary students.

A taxonomy of occupational and organisational stressors and protectors of mental health reported by veterinary professionals in Australasia

AIM

To develop a taxonomy of positive and negative occupational and organisational factors reported that impact the mental health of veterinary professionals.

METHODS

Veterinary professionals working in Australasia were surveyed between February and June of 2021. The survey comprised two questions related to participants' perceptions of the positive and negative aspects of their job role that impact their mental health and wellbeing. Reflexive thematic analysis was employed to analyse the responses and generate two taxonomies of occupational and organisation stressors and protectors reported by participants.

RESULTS

Fifty-three responses from veterinary professionals were analysed. The final stressor taxonomy generated contained 9 overarching themes and 36 subthemes. The most common of these were negative work conditions, challenging relationships with clients, and adverse events and patient outcomes. The taxonomy of protectors contained 11 overarching themes and 32 subthemes, with the most common including fulfillment and satisfaction, positive work conditions, and relationships with colleagues.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first to examine both positive and negative factors in the veterinary industry reported by veterinary professionals in Australasia. The results highlighted stressors that can be addressed on both an individual and organisational level to promote the mental and health well-being of professionals working in the animal care industry.

Exploring the Factors that Affect the Happiness of South African Veterinarians

Happiness is a new field of study in various fields, including health care and veterinary science. Workplace-related happiness, or subjective well-being in the work environment, has become a prominent research field. The happiness of veterinarians has gained academic interest globally over recent years. Previous research indicated that increased happiness levels of employees have social, personal and possible financial gain for employers and employees. The objectives of this study were to determine the factors that affect the happiness of South African veterinarians and develop a conceptual model based on the identified factors. A cross-sectional study using a quantitative survey was conducted using a standardized questionnaire. Of 2,182 registered veterinarians, 360 practicing veterinarians completed the survey and the results were statistically analyzed using exploratory factor analysis. The results indicated that the factors influence in the workplace, social relationships, satisfaction with work-life balance, purpose, optimism, work satisfaction, work stress, and leisure were identified as having significant statistical relationships with the happiness of veterinarians. Managerial recommendations are provided based on the research findings. This study is the first known study to examine the factors that affect the happiness levels of veterinarians. The study forms the base for similar research to be conducted in other countries.

Evaluation of a novel communication and consultation skills model (WISE COACH) on dog owner perceptions of veterinarians and projected spending on veterinary care

OBJECTIVE

To assess the impact of a novel communication and consultation skills model (WISE COACH [WC]) on dog owner perceptions of veterinarians and projected spending on veterinary care.

SAMPLE

1,200 US dog owners who had visited a veterinarian within the prior 18 months.

PROCEDURES

Video recordings of 2 staged client consultations were made, with the veterinarian following the WC recommendations in one video and not following them in the other (control). Participants were randomly assigned to view one of the videos and completed an online survey to assess their perceptions and projected spending. Qualitative responses were coded to identify themes.

RESULTS

The veterinarian was rated significantly higher in the WC video than in the control video for the characteristics first impression, skilled and knowledgeable, cares about me, cares about my pet, and communicates clearly, and was rated significantly lower for the characteristic rushed or abrupt. Participants who viewed the WC video were significantly more likely to follow the veterinarian's recommendations, return to see the veterinarian, and recommend the veterinarian. They were also approximately 1.4 times as likely to approve the full recommended treatment plan, and their projected total spending was approximately 15% higher than projected spending for participants who viewed the control video.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Results showed improved client perceptions, client retention, quality of patient care, and financial metrics when the veterinarian followed the WC recommendations. Further study is needed to determine whether this model may also improve veterinarian well-being by improving client relationships and decreasing resistance to recommendations.

Resilience of veterinarians at different career stages: The role of self-efficacy, coping strategies and personal resources for resilience in veterinary practice

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of demographic and psychological factors on resilience in new graduate-, mid- and late-career veterinarians working in Australia.

METHOD

An online cross-sectional survey of 800 veterinarians collected demographic and descriptive data in two stages from late 2015 to 2017, such as gender, average hours worked per week, type and region of practice and intention to leave veterinary medicine. Psychological factors were measured utilising the Brief Resilience Scale, the Veterinary Resilience Scale-Personal Resources, the Brief COPE and General Self-Efficacy measures.

RESULTS

Using a full-factorial univariate General Linear Model, no significant difference in general resilience was evident between the three career-stage groups (p > 0.05). However, higher self-efficacy, higher personal resources for resilience in veterinary practice, and lower problem-focused, higher emotion-focused and lower dysfunctional coping strategies were related to higher resilience. In the model for mid- and late-career veterinarians, a weak positive relationship existed between higher average hours worked per week and higher resilience, while intention to leave veterinary practice was also related to lower resilience in mid- and late-career veterinarians.

CONCLUSION

This study supports the value of personal resources, rather than career stage, gender or region of work, as influential in developing veterinarian resilience.

Impact of Human-Animal Interactions on Psychological and Physiological Factors Associated With Veterinary School Students and Donkeys

There has been an increased interest in evaluating human-animal interactions and assessing the mutual health and wellbeing. In this study, first-year female and male veterinary school students not paired (n = 58) or paired (n = 25) with immature (≤9 mo) donkeys (n = 13) were engaged in three different types of interactions (1st, hands-off remote learning, 2nd, hands-on passive learning, and 3rd, hands-on active learning) for 30 min each during Week 2 (Time 1), Weeks 5-8 (Time 2), and Week 12 (Time 3) over three, 15-week periods. Student psychological data involved the Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) scores collected from the interactive (student-donkey pairs) and non-interactive (no student-donkey pairs) groups and modified Comfort from Companion Animals Scale (CCAS) scores collected from the interactive group during Times 1, 2, and 3. Donkey physiological data involved collection of saliva within 10 min pre- and post-interaction during Times 1, 2, and 3 in association with the different types of interactions for immunoanalysis of cortisol. There were no significant effects of the various times and types of interactions on CCAS scores. While there were no significant effects of group and types of interactions on PSWQ scores, there was an effect (P = 0.01) of time. Overall mean PSWQ scores were significantly lower during Week 12 versus Week 2. Correspondingly, while there were no effects pre- vs. post-interaction within or among times on saliva cortisol concentrations in donkeys, there was an effect (P = 0.02) of the type of interaction. Mean concentrations were significantly lower with the hands-on passive and hands-on active learning versus the hands-off remote learning. In conclusion, while this study provides preliminary evidence surrounding student donkey interactions, future studies are required with more comprehensive designs to clarify these benefits and better understand the advantages and challenges surrounding student-donkey interactions.

Building Veterinarians beyond Veterinary School: Challenges and Opportunities for Continuing Professional Development in Veterinary Medicine

Continuing professional development (CPD) is an important mechanism for veterinarians to acquire, maintain, and enhance their capability to perform competently in their chosen practice area over their career. Although most licensing bodies require veterinarians to complete a minimum number of CPD hours each registration cycle, there are known issues with verifying that these activities are having the desired effects of ensuring professional competence and improving outcomes for patients, owners, and veterinarians. In this review, we summarize the literature across different health care professions to highlight three key challenges for veterinary CPD programs. These are (a) defining what it means to be professionally competent across different career stages from graduation to retirement, (b) delivering CPD activities that are effective in promoting evidence-based medicine and behavioral change in practice, and (c) developing reliable and sustainable systems to formally assess the continued professional competence of veterinarians. A common theme across all challenges was the importance of interacting with colleagues as an opportunity to receive external feedback on their professional strengths and weaknesses and to develop stronger support networks for managing common stressors in clinical practice. There was also a recognized need to develop more transparent outlines of the available and acceptable options for managing different animal health concerns as a first step toward identifying new opportunities for the veterinary profession to elevate the level of care provided. Based on these findings, we propose a new framework for defining, delivering, and evaluating CPD that promotes stronger collaboration between veterinarians to improve professional and personal well-being.

Association of demographic, career, and lifestyle factors with resilience and association of resilience with mental health outcomes in veterinarians in Canada

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association of demographic, career, and lifestyle factors with resilience and the association of resilience with mental health outcomes in Canadian veterinarians.

SAMPLE

1,130 veterinarians in clinical practice across Canada.

PROCEDURES

An online questionnaire was used to collect participant data and included 5 validated psychometric scales to evaluate resilience (through the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale [CD-RISC]), perceived stress (through the Perceived Stress Scale), emotional distress (through the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale), burnout (through the Maslach Burnout Inventory), and secondary traumatic stress (through the Professional Quality of Life Scale). A multivariable linear regression model was used to investigate associations between CD-RISC scores and demographic, career, and lifestyle characteristics. Univariable linear regression models were used to assess the relationship between resilience scores and other mental health outcomes.

RESULTS

The strongest positive association was between CD-RISC score and overall health. The level of satisfaction with support from friends and workplace resources had positive associations with the CD-RISC score. The presence of mental illness had the strongest negative association with the CD-RISC score. Being married, working in a small animal practice, or having an associate role were negatively associated with the CD-RISC score. The CD-RISC score had negative associations with scores for perceived stress, anxiety, depression, burnout, and secondary traumatic stress.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Models provided evidence for the role of resilience in protecting against negative mental health outcomes in veterinarians. Both personal and workplace factors were associated with resilience, presenting opportunities for intervention at each of these levels.

Sources of pleasure in veterinary work: A qualitative study

BACKGROUND

Despite the rise in positive psychology within organisational settings, less is known about the positive factors associated with veterinary work and veterinarian well-being. This qualitative study investigated sources of pleasure for veterinarians.

METHOD

A subset of archival data from a larger study on veterinary well-being was analysed. The current study was based on data from 273 veterinarians responding to a Ten Statements Test (TST) and demographic questions. In the TST, participants provided up to 10 responses to the prompt, 'I derive pleasure in my work as a veterinarian when…'.

RESULTS

Using the job demands-resources model as a framework, a total of 2536 responses were manually coded into themes relating to resources (positive responses) or demands (responses indicating a negative factor). In order of frequency, job resources are related to professional expertise (22%), positive outcomes (20%), job characteristics (19%), relationships (16%), recognition (10%), helping (7%) and personal resources (3%). Top job demands are related to stress and fatigue (17%) and poor work-life balance (16%).

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that there are an abundance of positive factors in veterinary work associated with feelings of pleasure, which may support veterinarian well-being.

Assessment of Safety Culture at a Veterinary Teaching Hospital in the United States

This study assessed the fidelity of an existing questionnaire regarding attitudes toward safety culture in an academic veterinary hospital setting and gathered baseline data on these attitudes in a local population. A cross-sectional study design was used to evaluate perceptions held by veterinary teaching hospital employees. An established veterinary safety culture survey was modified and administered as a confidential online survey to faculty, house officers, and professional staff of a veterinary teaching hospital in the United States. Confirmatory and exploratory factor analysis were conducted to compare the adapted survey to the established version. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize baseline safety culture. The adapted survey exhibited factor groupings that were mostly in agreement with, but slightly different from, the original instrument. In general, survey respondents outlined positive attitudes toward the various domains of safety culture, though we identified opportunities for improvement in some areas. An adapted veterinary safety culture survey can be applied to a veterinary teaching hospital in the United States to assess baseline data surrounding the culture of safety and to identify opportunities for focused improvement efforts.

Is veterinary work more than satisfying? A critical review of the literature

Despite the rise of positive psychology in recent times, research continues to emphasise the risks and negative outcomes associated with veterinary work. Understanding these challenges and risks is imperative in helping those affected and preventing or limiting exposure for future veterinarians. However, it is vital that positive factors associated with their well-being are concomitantly addressed. Drawing on an organisational psychology perspective and associated theories, this review critically analyses the literature on veterinary well-being, job satisfaction and the role of positive emotions at work. This perspective prompts a call to researchers to investigate the positive aspects of veterinary work and offers many suggestions for future research and associated implications. Drawing on an extensive evidence base of research pertaining to positive emotions and well-being in veterinarians, the development, implementation and validation of workplace interventions should follow. The veterinary profession is a highly rewarding one and a focus on pleasure in veterinary work and ways to encourage this, will only help veterinarians flourish and help to promote the profession in the way it deserves.

Veterinarians in a Changing Global Climate: Educational Disconnect and a Path Forward

Objective: To synthesize the beliefs, knowledge and interest of veterinarians on the relationship between veterinary medicine and climate change, with the intent to identify any educational gaps and opportunities.

Sample: Responses from 560 U.S., and 54 non-U.S. veterinarians.

Procedures: An anonymous, online survey of veterinarians was distributed through electronic media, state and professional associations, and a veterinary magazine advertisement. The survey was conducted between July 1st and December 31st of 2019.

Results: Overall, veterinary respondents were confident that climate change is happening, is caused by human activities, and is impacting both human and animal health. Veterinarians also agreed that the profession should have an advocacy role in educating the public on climate change and its health impacts, particularly in clinical practices where environmental sustainability promotion can be shared with clients. Although veterinarians agreed the profession needs to be involved with climate change advocacy, most reported having had no educational opportunities within their veterinary medicine curriculum or access to continuing education on climate change.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: The results highlight the need for the development of educational opportunities on the topic of climate change such that veterinarians are equipped to address their concerns about current and future animal health threats.

Evaluation of team effectiveness and personal empathy for associations with professional quality of life and job satisfaction in companion animal practice personnel

OBJECTIVE

To examine variables of veterinary team effectiveness and personal empathy for associations with professional quality of life (ie, compassion satisfaction, burnout, and secondary traumatic stress) and job satisfaction in companion animal practice personnel.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey.

SAMPLE

Data from 232 surveys completed by personnel from 10 companion animal veterinary practices in 2 regions of the United States between April 7 and December 20, 2016.

PROCEDURES

Online surveys were used to collect practice-level data (eg, practice type, setting, and staffing) and individual-level data (eg, demographics, job position, and years in the position and profession). Instruments used in developing the surveys included the Team Effectiveness Instrument, Davis Interpersonal Reactivity Index, Professional Quality of Life Scale, and a measure for job satisfaction. Data were evaluated for associations with professional quality of life and job satisfaction.

RESULTS

Individual engagement was positively associated with job satisfaction, negatively associated with secondary traumatic stress, and moderated by levels of personal distress for compassion satisfaction and burnout. Toxic team environment was positively associated with burnout and negatively associated with job satisfaction. Empathetic concern and personal distress were both positively associated with secondary traumatic stress. Empathetic concern was moderated by team engagement for compassion satisfaction.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINCAL RELEVANCE

Results indicated that variables influencing professional quality of life and job satisfaction were multimodal and included aspects of team effectiveness and empathy; therefore, workplace strategies that enhance individual and team engagement and mitigate toxic team environments could potentially improve professional quality of life and job satisfaction in veterinary personnel.

Characteristics of Veterinary Students: Perfectionism, Personality Factors, and Resilience

Perfectionism is a topic relevant to veterinary medicine and has previously been found to be related to higher levels of stress and poorer mental health outcomes. However, many aspects of perfectionism have yet to be researched among veterinary students. This research investigates the relationship between perfectionism and the "Big Five" personality factors. Additionally, the relationship between resilience and neuroticism is addressed. This research includes a sample of 99 veterinary students enrolled at a College of Veterinary Medicine in the southeastern United States. Students completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Inventory (MPI), the Big Five Inventory (BFI), and the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS). Results show that perfectionism is significantly correlated with personality factors; specifically, self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism are associated with neuroticism, socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with agreeableness, and self-oriented perfectionism is associated with conscientiousness. Neuroticism was found to have a significant negative correlation with resilience. Findings indicate that veterinary mental health professionals and educators should consider implementing specific strategies to help students develop a healthy balance in their perfectionistic beliefs and have targeted interventions to promote student resilience.

Veterinary Technicians and Occupational Burnout

Burnout and compassion fatigue are common conditions affecting health care providers. Unique occupational conditions in veterinary medicine make technicians especially susceptible to burnout. A total of 1,642 practicing veterinary technicians completed an anonymous online survey comprised of demographic questions, and two tools to assess burnout: the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) and the Stanford Professional Fulfillment Index (PFI). Over half of participants (862/1479, 58.3%) had EE scores over the 3.0 threshold for burnout. On the PFI, the total score for the 10 burnout questions was x = 1.54 (SD = 0.75), which is above the 1.33 cutoff for burnout. The mean score of 2.26 (SD = 0.81) on the professional fulfillment scale is also indicative of burnout. The relationship between enabling resources and scores on each MBI-GS scale was analyzed. Schedule control was the most significant predictor of lower EE scores. The perception of adding value to the practice was associated with lower scores on the CY scale and higher scores on the PE scale. Given the correlation between burnout and environmental factors, veterinary practices are encouraged to explore non-monetary mechanisms for enhancing job satisfaction. This includes giving technicians greater control over their schedules, recognizing their contributions to the team, and providing opportunities for professional development. From a morale standpoint, destigmatizing the dirty work done by technicians can also help combat burnout among veterinary technicians.

The Complex Relationship Between Veterinarian Mental Health and Client Satisfaction

A relatively high risk of poor mental health has been described among Canadian veterinarians, but no published studies have explored the impact that veterinarian mental health may have on veterinary clients and patients. In order to investigate the association between veterinarian mental health and veterinary client satisfaction, veterinarians were randomly sampled and recruited throughout southwestern Ontario, Canada, from November, 2017, through January, 2019. Sixty participating veterinarians completed an enrollment survey that included psychometric scales measuring resilience, perceived stress, anxiety, depression, emotional distress, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, personal accomplishment, burnout, secondary traumatic stress, and compassion satisfaction. Nine hundred and ninety-five companion animal clients of these veterinarians were recruited in-clinic over 2–3 days and completed a post-appointment survey including the Client Satisfaction Questionnaire. The associations between clients' satisfaction scores (as the outcome variable) and each of the veterinarians' mental health measures (as the explanatory variables) were assessed using separate, multilevel, multivariable linear regression models. The associations between client satisfaction and veterinarian mental health measures were non-linear and complex; in several of the models, relatively higher client satisfaction was unexpectedly associated with poor veterinarian mental health states, while lower client satisfaction was associated with mental health scores suggesting wellness. Given that client satisfaction may impact client adherence to medical recommendations, client loyalty, and business income, the association with veterinarian mental health may have broad implications and warrants further investigation.

Challenging identity: development of a measure of veterinary career motivations

BACKGROUND

While little is known about the motivations underpinning veterinary work, previous literature has suggested that the main influences on veterinary career choice are early/formative exposure to animals or veterinary role models. The aim of this study was to develop and provisionally validate a veterinary career motivations questionnaire to assess the strength of various types of career motivations in graduating and experienced veterinarians.

METHODS

A cross-sectional sample of experienced veterinarians (n=305) and a smaller cohort of newly graduated veterinarians (n=53) were surveyed online using a long-form questionnaire. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to iteratively derive a final, short-form questionnaire for survey of a second cross-sectional sample of experienced veterinarians (n=751).

RESULTS

EFA derived a final questionnaire with 22 items loading onto six factors (social purpose, animal orientation, vocational identity, challenge and learning, career affordances, and people orientation). While motivations based on animal orientation were predictably strong, those based on vocational identity were not universal and were weaker in younger and graduate veterinarians; both of these motivations were rated lower by male veterinarians. Motivations based on challenge and learning emerged as some of the strongest, most universal and most influential; people orientation and social purpose were also important, particularly for older veterinarians.

CONCLUSION

The major motivations for pursuing a veterinary career may best be represented as an intrinsic passion for animal care and for learning through solving varied challenges. These motivations are largely intrinsically oriented and autonomously regulated, thus likely to be supportive of work satisfaction and wellbeing.

Meaningful work and well-being: a study of the positive side of veterinary work

OBJECTIVES

Mental health is a growing concern in many healthcare professions, including veterinary medicine, as research suggests that veterinarians report higher levels of distress, burnout and suicidal ideation than other healthcare occupations and the general public. A recent literature review found that about twice as many articles published on veterinary wellness refer to the negative aspects of mental health (eg, stress and depression) compared with the positive aspects of well-being. Little attention has been devoted to examining the positive aspects of veterinarians' work, and few models have been developed to explain their well-being. This paper empirically assesses a veterinary model of work-derived well-being based on the theory of eudaimonia. Eudaimonic well-being reflects having fulfilling work that contributes to the greater good. Three core clusters of job characteristics are hypothesised relevant to veterinarian well-being that include: actualising self, helping others (animals or people) and a sense of belonging (to team or profession). In addition, meaningful work is proposed as the mechanism through which situational job characteristics may exert a positive influence on well-being.

METHODS

Survey data from 376 veterinarians in clinical practice were analysed using path analysis.

DISCUSSION

Meaningful work is important in understanding the well-being of veterinarians. Job characteristics (self-actualising work, helping animals and people and a sense of belonging) contribute to a sense of meaningful work, which in turn is related to eudaimonic well-being. Excessive job demands (work overload, financial demands and physical health risks) appear less relevant in understanding meaningful work but are clearly important in having negative consequences for veterinarians' well-being.While strategies that cultivate meaningful work may be effective in nurturing veterinarians' well being, several limitations of this study should be noted. First, due to the cross-sectional data, definitive statements about the causal ordering of variables cannot be made. Second, the data were derived from a single source such that monomethod bias may be an issue. Third, the data rely on self-report measures and the responses may be influenced by social desirability or response biases. Lastly, while the sample may be representative of the veterinarians throughout a large geographic area in Canada, it may not represent the work arrangements of veterinarians in other countries.

CONCLUSIONS

The significance of these findings is that they may shift research attention from focusing on the harmful, demanding aspects of veterinary work to better understanding the deeply meaningful aspects that improve veterinarians' well-being. In addition, the results may stimulate consideration of strategies that move beyond individual-level interventions that focus on veterinarians adopting better coping strategies and becoming more resilient. This may lead to adopting organisational and occupational-level strategies that can involve promoting more positive and supportive workplace cultures and developing more professional resources for promoting wellness and meaning in the profession of veterinary medicine.

Impact of dealing with bereaved clients on the psychological wellbeing of veterinarians

BACKGROUND

Research has identified that members of the veterinary profession are at high risk of occupational stress, burnout, poor psychological wellbeing and an elevated rate of suicide. Although scholarly interest in veterinarians has increased in recent years, relatively few studies have specifically examined the emotional work in veterinary interactions and what effect dealing with companion animal owners' grief has on the wellbeing of veterinarians. The purpose of this study was to determine if dealing with bereaved clients affected the psychological wellbeing of veterinarians. The concept of compassion fatigue was explored, including whether veterinarians believed that their training had equipped them for communicating with grieving clients.

METHODS

Veterinary surgeons registered in South Australia in 2015 were invited to complete an online survey, with 105 participants responding.

RESULTS

Many participants, particularly female and younger veterinarians, were experiencing mild to severe psychological distress and nearly half of the sample was experiencing high to very high levels of compassion fatigue. No participants reported seeking psychological or other professional mental health support and the majority had not referred a grieving client to a psychologist or other mental health professional. A significant proportion of veterinarians felt their own mental health was affected by dealing with clients grieving the loss of a companion animal.

DISCUSSION

The findings are discussed in terms of increasing the wellbeing of veterinarians through improved curriculum training and workplace health promotion, particularly considering the high suicide rate reported for the profession.

An Exploration of the Career Motivations Stated by Early-Career Veterinarians in Australia

Despite the critical influence of motivation on education and work outcomes, little is known about the motivations driving people to become and remain veterinarians. This qualitative study explored the career motivations stated by Australian veterinary graduates (n = 43) using a free-response Ten Statements Test (TST) at graduation, with follow-up interviews 6-8 months later (n = 10). TST responses were coded using an alternate inductive-deductive approach that tested their fit against existing theories of motivation. Results showed that the stated motivations were predominantly oriented to perceived value, rather than self-beliefs such as expectancy of success. About a quarter of the statements were animal-related, principally themed around intrinsic animal orientation (e.g., I like animals) or extrinsic animal-related purpose (e.g., I want to help animals). However, many non-animal themes also emerged, including both intrinsic (e.g., love of learning, challenge/problem solving, variety, social relatedness) and extrinsic (e.g., helping people, social contribution, career opportunity) motivations. Interview data revealed a motivational narrative of early formative influences, with some interviewees describing a later transition toward more people- or goal-oriented motivations. This exploratory study, outlining a broad taxonomy of veterinary career motivations and their alignment to self-determination theory in particular, may provide a useful framework for exploring career motivations in veterinary education.

Beyond Competence: Why We Should Talk About Employability in Veterinary Education

The purpose of this article is to explore employability as a complement to competency in defining the overarching objectives of veterinary education. Although the working usage of the term competency has evolved and stretched in recent years, and contemporary competence frameworks have expanded to better reflect the range of capabilities required of a veterinary professional, the potential remains for the dominance of competency-led discourse to obscure the aim of producing not only competent but also successful and satisfied veterinarians. Expanding the educational mission to include employability may provide this broader focus, by stretching the end point, scope, and scale of veterinary education into the crucial transition-to-practice period, and beyond. In this article we review available evidence from multiple stakeholder perspectives and argue that employability expands the focus beyond servicing the needs of the public to better integrate and balance the needs of all the stakeholders in veterinary education, including the graduates themselves. By refocusing the goal of veterinary education to include the richer end point of success, turning the attention to employability could enhance current attribute frameworks and result in veterinarians who not only better meet the needs of those they serve but are also better prepared to experience fulfilling and satisfying careers. Finally, we suggest one educational approach may be to conceptualize competency, professionalism, and employability as overlapping dimensions of the successful veterinary professional.

The Healer's Art (HART): Veterinary Students Connecting with Self, Peers, and the Profession

This case study sought to understand veterinary students' perceptions and experiences of the Healer's Art (HART) elective to support well-being and resilience. Students' "mindful attention" was assessed using the MAAS-State scale. Course evaluations and written materials for course exercises (artifacts) across the 2012-2015 cohorts of Colorado State University's HART veterinary students (n=99) were analyzed for themes using a grounded theory approach, followed by thematic comparison with analyses of HART medical student participants. HART veterinary students described identity/self-expression and spontaneity/freedom as being unwelcome in the veterinary curriculum, whereas HART medical students described spirituality as unwelcome. HART veterinary students identified issues of "competition" and "having no time," which were at odds with their descriptions of not competing and having the time to connect with self and peers within their HART small groups. HART veterinary students shared that the course practices of nonjudgment, generous listening, and presence (i.e., mindfulness practices) helped them build relationships with peers. Although not statistically significant, MAAS pre-/post-scores trended in the positive direction. HART provides opportunities for students to connect with self and foster bonds with peers and the profession, factors that are positively associated with resilience and wellness.

Veterinary Students' Perspectives on Resilience and Resilience-Building Strategies

In recent years, resilience has been lauded as a valuable, even necessary, facet of an effective veterinary practitioner. This study describes a mixed-methods research exploration of the impact of a self-care and mental well-being teaching intervention on the self-reported resilience of 105 first-year veterinary students enrolled at the School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, UK. Quantitative data were obtained through a questionnaire, the 10-item Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC 10), which students completed before and after the teaching intervention. The median total score on the scale increased from 27 (IQR=25-30) to 29 (IQR=26-32) (p<.001), a medium effect size (r=-0.28). Student focus groups were held to allow qualitative data analysis of the students' perspectives on the teaching intervention and on the topic of resilience in general. The results of this study suggest that appropriate training in resilience-building strategies can help veterinary students build greater awareness of resilience, and potentially support their development of a more resilient approach in their personal and professional lives. In this study, veterinary students felt that resilience training was a valuable addition to the veterinary curriculum, and that resilience likely plays an important role in achieving a successful veterinary career. The study also suggested that veterinary students utilize a variety of different resilience-building strategies, including drawing on past experiences, seeking help from support networks, and developing an ability to change their perspectives.

Finding the Balance: Uncovering Resilience in the Veterinary Literature

Resilience is an issue of emerging importance in veterinary education and research, as in other professional contexts. The aim of this study was to perform an appraisal of how resilience is portrayed in the contemporary (1995-present) research and education literature around veterinary mental health, and to attempt a provisional synthesis informing a conception of resilience in the veterinary context. Qualitative analysis of the literature (59 sources included) revealed a dominant emphasis on mental health problems, particularly stress, which outweighs and potentially obscures complementary approaches to well-being and resilience. We found the construct of resilience underdeveloped in the veterinary literature and in need of further research, but provide a preliminary synthesis of key themes emerging from the current literature (emotional competence, motivation, personal resources, social support, organizational culture, life balance, and well-being strategies). We advocate for greater balance between complementary perspectives in veterinary mental health education and research, and propose that an increasing focus on resilience (here endorsed as a dynamic and multi-dimensional process involving personal and contextual resources, strategies, and outcomes) will help to address this balance.

An Exploration of the Relationship between Psychological Capital and Depression among First-Year Doctor of Veterinary Medicine Students

This study examined the impact of psychological capital on depressive symptoms among Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) students (n=84) over their first two semesters of studies. Our results indicated elevated rates of depression in both the first and second semesters relative to published norms. Using the typology developed by Hafen, Reisbig, White, and Rush (2008), students were classified as either "adaptive" (i.e., improving depressive symptomatology from semester to semester) or "struggling" (i.e., worsening depressive symptomatology from semester to semester). All four components of psychological capital (i.e., self-esteem, optimism, hope, and resilience) were positively associated with adaptive response to depression. These results are significant, as the components of psychological capital can be learned and strengthened through deliberate interventions, providing tangible guidance for students, faculty, and health professionals in their efforts to improve student wellness.

Changes in Affective and Cognitive Empathy among Veterinary Practitioners

Clinical empathy is a multi-dimensional concept characterized by four dimensions: (1) affective-the ability to experience patients' or clients' emotions and perspectives, (2) moral-the internal motivation to empathize, (3) cognitive-the intellectual ability to identify and comprehend others' perspective and emotions, and (4) behavioral-the ability to convey understanding of those emotions and perspectives back to the patient or client. The Davis Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) was used to examine the affective and cognitive facets of empathy in veterinary practitioners. The IRI consists of four subscales that measure cognitive (perspective taking and fantasy) and affective (emphatic concern and personal distress) components of empathy. Data from a cross-sectional sample of practicing veterinarians (n=434) were collected. Veterinarians' fantasy scores were lowest for those with the most clinical experience. Personal distress scores were highest among new veterinarians and lowest for those with 26 or more years in practice. High levels of personal distress in the early years of practice are concerning for the professional wellness of veterinarians. To combat this trend, the implementation of resilience-building interventions should be considered to support veterinary practitioners.

Resilience in Veterinary Students and the Predictive Role of Mindfulness and Self-Compassion

Resilience is a dynamic and multifaceted process in which individuals draw on personal and contextual resources. In difficult situations, resilient people use specific strategies to learn from the situation without being overcome by it. As stressors are inherent to veterinary work, including long work hours, ethical dilemmas, and challenging interactions with clients, resilience is an important component of professional quality of life. However, while resilience in other health professionals has received attention, it has received little in the veterinary field. In this cross-sectional study, veterinary students from six veterinary schools in Australia completed an online survey, with 193 responses (23%). Very few veterinary students (6%) reached the threshold to be considered highly resilient using the Brief Resilience Scale, and approximately one third classified as having low levels of resilience. In the final linear multiple regression model, predictors of resilience included nonjudgmental and nonreactive mindfulness (Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire) and self-compassion (Neff Self-Compassion Scale). Students with higher nonjudgmental and nonreactive mindfulness and self-compassion had higher resilience scores. These findings indicate that fostering these qualities of mindfulness and self-compassion may be aligned with strengthening veterinary student resilience. Importantly, if the factors that help veterinary students develop a capacity for resilience can be identified, intervention programs can be targeted to educate future veterinary professionals with a high quality of life, both professional and personal.

Stressors and Protective Factors among Veterinary Students in New Zealand

A study was undertaken to investigate the stressors faced by veterinary students and the protective factors against those stressors. The study was conducted as a workshop during which students collaborated with their peers through an iterative process to identify personal and external factors that contributed to or protected against stress as a veterinary student, and then to suggest strategies that would protect their mental health and well-being. Workload and assessment were the most commonly reported stressors. Students reported a variety of effective coping strategies and avoidance behaviors, although most of the suggested solutions revolved around organizational change within the university. Students also recognized that their own perspectives, traits, and behavior could enhance their student experience or increase their perceived levels of stress. While it is important that educators monitor student feedback about the program and make changes when required, students must recognize that stress is an expected component of life and develop effective coping strategies. They should develop a balanced view of the positive and negative aspects of the student experience and, ultimately, of working as a veterinary professional.

The Art of Staying Engaged: The Role of Personal Resources in the Mental Well-Being of Young Veterinary Professionals

Health care professionals perceive transitions (e.g., from university to professional practice) to be challenging and stressful. The aim of the present research was to identify person-related characteristics that, in addition to work-related aspects, affect the mental well-being and performance of recently graduated veterinary professionals, and to reach a greater understanding of the role of personal resources in mental health and well-being. Based on the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model, a questionnaire measuring work engagement as well as burnout and its potential predictors was developed and distributed to 1,760 veterinarians who graduated in the Netherlands between 1999 and 2009 (response rate 41%, of which 73% were females). An intervention aiming at increasing personal resources was evaluated using qualitative and quantitative methods. The intervention was designed so that participants could set their own learning objectives toward which they could work during a yearlong multimodular program. The results show that gender and the number of years after graduation have a small effect on exhaustion resulting in 16% of the veterinarians (18% for females) meeting the criteria for burnout in the first 5 years after graduation. Thirteen percent of respondents could be classified as being highly engaged. While burnout resulted mostly from job characteristics (demands and resources), work engagement resulted mostly from job resources and personal resources. Personal resources appear to have an important mediating and initiating role in work engagement and performance. Self-reported ratings of reflective behavior, proactive behavior, and self-efficacy were significantly increased after a yearlong resources development program. Practical implications are discussed.