Effect of stocking density on social, feeding, and lying behavior of prepartum dairy animals

Redefining dominance calculation: Increased competition flattens the dominance hierarchy in dairy cows

Dominance hierarchies are known for mitigating conflicts and guiding priority of access to limited resources in gregarious animals. The dominance hierarchy of dairy cows is typically investigated using agonistic interactions, often monitored at the feed bunk right after fresh feed delivery when competition is high, resulting in frequent interactions. Yet, the outcome of agonistic interactions during times of high competition may be more influenced by cows' high valuation of fresh feed than their intrinsic attributes, such that the dominance hierarchy constructed using agonistic interactions under high versus low competition times might differ. We tested how the structure of the dominance hierarchy changes in relation to different levels of competition in a dynamic group of 48 lactating dairy cows over 10 mo, with 6 cows exchanged every 16 d, for a total of 159 cows. Using a validated algorithm, we continuously detected the actor and reactor of replacement behaviors in 30 feed bins as cows competed for feed. We also calculated the percentage of occupied feed bins to characterize competition at the moment of each replacement. These data were combined to create hierarchies using Elo ratings, separately for 25 occupancy levels ranging from 13% to 100%. For each 1% rise in feeder occupancy, hierarchy steepness fell by 2.41 × 10-3 ± 9.71 × 10-5 (SE), and the percentage of dyads where both cows replaced each other rose by 0.13% ± 0.01%. At the highest feeder occupancy level in comparison to the lowest one, we observed 7.57% more dyads in which the dominant individual (those that won more interactions at the lowest feeder occupancy) started to lose proportionally more. The magnitude of decrease in the winning rate of the dominant individual in those dyads also got amplified by 1.06 × 10-3% ± 1.37 × 10-4% (SE) for each 1% increase in feeder occupancy. These findings illustrate how inferred hierarchies vary with competition, with high competition flattening the hierarchy due to increased success of subordinate animals. We suggest that during heightened competition, increased valuation of resources can affect competitive success more than the individual's intrinsic dominance attributes. We recommend against calculating dominance hierarchies based on agonistic interactions during periods of high competition alone, and more generally urge researchers to differentiate agonistic interactions based on context when constructing dominance hierarchies.

Preference for feed bins shared with cows of the same or different parity and relationships with feeding behavior and feed efficiency

Our objectives were to (1) evaluate cows' preferences for visiting feed bins limited to either same- versus mixed-parity social interactions, depending on their parity; (2) examine the effect of parity and bin social dynamic type on competition behavior and feeding patterns, and (3) investigate cow-level relationships between feed bunk competition behavior, feeding patterns, and feed efficiency. Twenty-eight primiparous and 28 multiparous (2.4 ± 0.6 lactations) lactating Holstein cows (127.8 ± 30.1 and 145.3. ± 10.4 DIM, respectively) were housed in a freestall pen with 28 roughage intake control bins (2:1 stocking density). Each cow was assigned to 2 bins, including 1 shared with 3 other cows of the same parity (SM) and 1 with 3 cows of mixed parities (MX, 50% primiparous and 50% multiparous). Feed bunk competition was recorded via video in the first hour after morning feed delivery for 2 d, and feeding patterns were recorded from 24-h roughage intake control data. Residual feed intake was calculated as the difference between predicted and observed dry matter intake after accounting for known energy sinks. Based on the first visit to the feed bunk after fresh feed delivery, multiparous cows tended to prefer the MX bin compared with the SM one; cows showed no other overall preference for bin type based on number of visits. Over time, multiparous cows remained consistent in their magnitude of preference for visiting each bin type, but involvement in competition was not consistent over time. Primiparous cows tended to be involved in more total competitive contacts and ate faster at the SM bin compared with the MX one. Those primiparous cows who visited the SM bin more often within the first hour after morning feed delivery tended to be less feed efficient. Multiparous cows initiated more successful replacements after a displacement at the MX versus SM bin, with no difference in feeding patterns between bin types. Regardless of parity or bin type, visiting the bunk sooner after feed delivery was correlated with involvement in more competitive interactions and more time eating within the first 30 min. Consuming more feed during a longer first visit to the bunk after fresh feed delivery was correlated with being less feed efficient. Overall, when given the choice of feeding from bins shared with cows of the same or mixed parities at a 2:1 stocking density, primiparous cows showed differences in behavior between those bin types, with implications for feed efficiency; these effects are perhaps an unintended consequence of compensatory strategies to avoid direct competition with multiparous cows.

Behavioral consistency of competitive behaviors and feeding patterns in lactating dairy cows across stocking densities at the feed bunk

Introduction

High feed bunk stocking densities can differentially impact individual dairy cows' competitive behaviors, feeding patterns, and feed efficiency. Our objective was to manipulate feed bunk stocking densities to evaluate intra-individual behavioral consistency across stocking densities and quantify associations with feed efficiency and production.

Methods

Thirty-two primiparous (130.7 ± 29.0 days in milk, DIM) and 32 multiparous (111.3 ± 38.3 DIM) lactating Holstein cows were housed with 32 roughage intake control (RIC) bins. Each cow was assigned to share 8 bins with others of the same parity and similar body weight (16 cows/block; 2:1 feed bunk stocking density except during tests). Competition and feeding patterns were evaluated via video and RIC data, respectively, at 3 stocking densities (1:1, 2:1, 4:1 cows/bin) during 1-h tests (2 tests/stocking density; 6 tests/cow) following 2 h feed deprivation. Residual feed intake (RFI) was calculated across the 45-d study as the difference between observed and predicted dry matter intake (DMI) after accounting for known energy sinks. Linear mixed models were used to evaluate the overall impact of test stocking density on competition and feeding patterns. To evaluate intra-individual consistency between stocking densities, individual stability statistic (ISS) scores were computed. Correlational relationships were determined between RFI and ISS scores.

Results and dicsussion

Cows displayed the most competitive behaviors at 2:1 stocking density (p < 0.0001) but experienced the highest rate of contacts per minute of eating time at 4:1 (1:1 vs. 2:1 vs. 4:1: 0.09 vs. 0.95 vs. 1.60 contacts/min; p < 0.0001). Feeding patterns were modulated as stocking density increased; eating rate increased (0.16 vs. 0.18 vs. 0.22 kg/min; p < 0.001) as eating time (40.3 vs. 28.2 vs. 14.6 min; p < 0.001) and DMI decreased (6.3 vs. 5.1 vs. 3.0 kg; p < 0.001). As stocking density doubled, individuals remained consistent (p = 0.018) in time spent near others actively eating and tended to remain consistent in competition behavior and feeding patterns (0.053 ≤ p ≤ 0.094). Between 2:1 and 4:1, cows with higher DMI and milk production were more consistent in first-visit DMI and duration. Feed efficiency was not associated with behavioral consistency across the tests (p ≥ 0.14). Nonetheless, feed bunk stocking density has behavioral implications which should be considered in nutritional management decisions.

Social interactions, feeding patterns, and feed efficiency of same- and mixed-parity groups of lactating cows

Social dynamics in group-housed animals can have important effects on their welfare, feed efficiency, and production potential. Our objectives were to: (1) evaluate the effects of parity and social grouping on competition behavior, feeding patterns, and feed efficiency, and (2) investigate cow-level relationships between competition and feeding behavior, production, and feed efficiency. Fifty-nine Holstein cows (144.5 ± 21.8 starting days in milk, mean ± SD) were housed in a freestall pen with 30 Roughage Intake Control (RIC) bins. We evaluated the effects of parity (primiparous [PR, n = 29] vs. multiparous [MU, n = 30]) and group composition at the feed bunk (same-parity [SM, n = 39] vs. mixed-parity [MX, n = 20, 50% of each parity]) with a 2 × 2 factorial design (SM-MU: n = 20; SM-PR: n = 19; MX-MU: n = 10; MX-PR: n = 10) on competition behavior, feeding patterns, and feed efficiency. Within the pen, groups of 9 to 10 cows were considered subgroups and assigned to treatments defined by sets of 5 assigned bins (2:1 stocking density). Feed bunk competition and feeding patterns were recorded via continuous video in the first hour after morning feed delivery and 24-h RIC data, respectively. Residual feed intake (RFI) was calculated as the difference between predicted and observed dry matter intake (DMI) after accounting for known energy sinks. Linear models were used to evaluate the effects and interactions of parity and group composition on competition, feeding behavior, and feed efficiency. Within-cow correlations were performed between competition, feeding behavior, and RFI. Cows in MX, compared with SM, were involved in more competitive interactions [mean (95% CI): competitive contacts: 11.5 (8.1, 16.3) vs. 7.2 (5.5, 9.3) events; displacements: 4.0 (3.0, 5.3) vs. 2.1 (1.7, 2.7) events, and replacements: 3.5 (2.6, 4.7) vs. 1.9 (1.5, 2.5) events]. Cows in MX vs. those in SM had more bunk visits/meal ( 4.3 [3.9, 4.8] vs. 3.7 [3.4, 3.9] visits/meal) and longer meals (31.2 vs. 27.4 ± 0.9 min/meal) and tended to have higher RFI (0.41 ± 0.3 vs. -0.21 ± 0.2) and were therefore less feed efficient. Multiparous versus PR cows had greater DMI per day (29.3 ± 0.6 vs. 25.5 ± 0.4 kg/d) and per meal (4.2 [4.0, 4.4] vs. 3.4 [3.2, 3.6] kg/meal), faster eating rates (0.14 [0.13, 0.15] vs. 0.12 [0.11, 0.13] kg/min), and fewer bunk visits/d (26.6 [24.0, 29.4] vs. 32.8 [29.7, 35.9]). Regardless of grouping or parity, cows with shorter latencies to first visit the bunk after feed delivery were involved in more competition and tended to be less feed efficient. Overall, individual cow- and group-level relationships among competition, feeding behavior, and feed efficiency play an important role in feed bunk social dynamics. At a competitive 2:1 stocking density, mixed-parity groups for lactating cows may have potentially negative animal welfare and feed efficiency implications that should be considered when selecting grouping strategies on the farm.

Blood in milk in horned dairy cows-Exploration of incidences and prevention opportunities

Husbandry of horned cows is one alternative to disbudding that respects the animals´ integrity. Concurrently, housing and management should be aligned with the animals' needs to minimize social interactions that can result in integument damage (ID) and udder injuries associated with blood in milk (BM). No information is available on incidences of BM, nor on specific preventive measures. Thus, this study aimed at investigating BM incidences in horned herds and testing whether compliance with guideline recommendations on the prevention of ID also contributes to mitigate BM. Twenty-one farms documented BM, cows' parity, social rank, and udder damage over seven months covering part of summer with pasture and winter in the barn. A total of 52 factors relating to the guideline were recorded and grouped into 'milking', 'feeding', 'lying', 'walking/activity' and 'herd management'. Each factor was categorised into fulfilled or not, and for each group percentages of fulfilment were calculated. Monthly BM incidences varied from 0.3 to 7.8% with 38% being associated with visible udder damage (BMvD). Most cows affected were in the 2nd to 4th lactation (44%) and middle-ranking (58%). A mixed model regarding 'monthly binomial BMvD' per farm revealed a higher BMvD risk during the barn season (OR = 2.39), highlighting the importance of pasture to alleviate social conflicts. Higher fulfilment of recommendations concerning 'feeding' and 'walking/activity' was associated with a lower risk (OR = 0.94 and 0.95), indicating that the conflict potential in these areas also plays a role for BMvD and can be lowered by a combination of improvement measures.

Individual animal variability in rumination, activity, and lying behavior during the periparturient period of dairy cattle

The aim of the current study was to determine individual animal variability in rumination, activity, and lying behavior during the periparturient period within the context of dairy cattle nutrition, social, and physical environment. Holstein animals (nulliparous = 77, parous = 219) from one sand-bedded, freestall dairy in northwest Wisconsin were enrolled -17 d in milk (DIM, d 0 = calving), when they were fitted with an automated monitoring device (Hi-Tag, SCR Engineers Ltd.). At -11 DIM, animals were fitted with HOBO Pendant G Data Loggers. The HOBO Pendant G Data Loggers were fitted 6 d later because they were set up to collect data for 22 d (d -11 to 11), to avoid constant handling of the animals that could alter their behavior. Prepartum, nulliparous and parous animals were housed separately. Postpartum (1 to 17 ± 3 DIM), primiparous and multiparous cows were commingled. Samples of the total mixed ration were submitted for wet chemistry analysis and determination of physically effective NDF (peNDF). Temperature and humidity data were collected using RH Temp probes (HOBO Pro Series) installed in each of the pens, and the percentages of 30-min intervals within a day with temperature-humidity index ≥68 (PctTHI68) were calculated. Stocking density (cows per stall) during the pre- and postpartum periods were calculated daily. Prepartum data from nulliparous and parous animals were analyzed separately, and postpartum data from primiparous and multiparous animals were analyzed together. Prepartum, nulliparous and parous animals explained 83.9 and 64.5% of the variability in rumination, 70.7 and 60.9% of the variability in activity, and 38.1 and 63.6% of the variability in lying time, respectively. Postpartum, animal explained 49.7, 56.8, and 35.6% of the variability in rumination, activity, and lying time, respectively. Although stocking density, PctTHI68, peNDF, crude protein, and ether extract were associated with the variability in rumination, activity, and lying time, they explained ≤6.6% of the daily variability in these behaviors. We conclude that, within the conditions of the collaborating commercial herd, individual animal is the most important factor explaining daily variability in rumination, activity, and lying time.

Welfare of dairy cows

This Scientific Opinion addresses a European Commission's mandate on the welfare of dairy cows as part of the Farm to Fork strategy. It includes three assessments carried out based on literature reviews and complemented by expert opinion. Assessment 1 describes the most prevalent housing systems for dairy cows in Europe: tie-stalls, cubicle housing, open-bedded systems and systems with access to an outdoor area. Per each system, the scientific opinion describes the distribution in the EU and assesses the main strengths, weaknesses and hazards potentially reducing the welfare of dairy cows. Assessment 2 addresses five welfare consequences as requested in the mandate: locomotory disorders (including lameness), mastitis, restriction of movement and resting problems, inability to perform comfort behaviour and metabolic disorders. Per each welfare consequence, a set of animal-based measures is suggested, a detailed analysis of the prevalence in different housing systems is provided, and subsequently, a comparison of the housing systems is given. Common and specific system-related hazards as well as management-related hazards and respective preventive measures are investigated. Assessment 3 includes an analysis of farm characteristics (e.g. milk yield, herd size) that could be used to classify the level of on-farm welfare. From the available scientific literature, it was not possible to derive relevant associations between available farm data and cow welfare. Therefore, an approach based on expert knowledge elicitation (EKE) was developed. The EKE resulted in the identification of five farm characteristics (more than one cow per cubicle at maximum stocking density, limited space for cows, inappropriate cubicle size, high on-farm mortality and farms with less than 2 months access to pasture). If one or more of these farm characteristics are present, it is recommended to conduct an assessment of cow welfare on the farm in question using animal-based measures for specified welfare consequences.

Effects of feeding rumen-protected methionine pre- and postpartum in multiparous Holstein cows: Health disorders and interactions with production and reproduction

Study objectives were to evaluate the effects of feeding rumen-protected Met (RPM) in pre- and postpartum total mixed rations (TMR) on health disorders and the interactions of health disorders with lactation and reproductive performance. Multiparous Holstein cows [470; 235 cows at University of Wisconsin (UW) and 235 cows at Cornell University (CU)] were enrolled at approximately 4 wk before parturition and housed in close-up dry cow (n = 6) and replicated lactation pens (n = 16). Pens were randomly assigned to treatment diets (pre- and postpartum, respectively): (1) control (CON): basal diet = 2.30% and 2.09% Met as % of metabolizable protein (MP) (UW) or 2.22% and 2.19% Met as % of MP (CU); (2) RPM: basal diet fed with RPM with 2.83% and 2.58% Met (Smartamine M, Adisseo Inc.; 12 g prepartum and 27 g postpartum), as % of MP (UW) or 2.85% and 2.65% Met (Smartamine M; 13 g prepartum and 28 g postpartum), as % of MP (CU). Total serum Ca was evaluated at the time of parturition and on d 3 ± 1 postpartum. Daily rumination was monitored from 7 d before parturition until 28 d postpartum. Health disorders were recorded during the experimental period until the time of first pregnancy diagnosis (32 d after timed artificial insemination; 112 ± 3 d in milk). Uterine health was evaluated on d 35 ± 3 postpartum. Time to pregnancy and herd exit were evaluated up to 350 d in milk. Treatment had no effect on the incidence of most health disorders and did not alter daily rumination. Cows fed RPM had reduced subclinical hypocalcemia (13.6 vs. 22%; UW only) on day of parturition relative to CON. Percentage of cows culled (13.1 vs. 19.3%) and hazard of herd exit due to culling [hazard ratio = 0.65, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.42-1.02] tended to be reduced for cows fed RPM compared with CON. Moreover, cows fed RPM had greater milk protein concentration and protein yield overall, although retrospective analysis indicated that RPM only significantly increased protein yield in the group of cows with one or more health disorders (1.47 vs. 1.40 kg/d), not in cows without health disorders (1.49 vs. 1.46 kg/d) compared with CON. Overall, treatment had no effect on pregnancy per timed artificial insemination; however, among cows with health disorders, those fed RPM had reduced time to pregnancy compared with CON (hazard ratio = 0.71, 95% CI: 0.53-0.96). Thus, except for subclinical hypocalcemia on the day of parturition, feeding RPM in pre- and postpartum TMR did not reduce the incidence of health disorders, but our retrospective analysis indicated that it lessened the negative effects of health disorders on milk protein production and time to pregnancy.

Cow characteristics associated with the variation in number of contacts between dairy cows

In modern freestall barns where large groups of cows are housed together, the behavior displayed by herd mates can influence the welfare and production of other individuals. Therefore, understanding social interactions in groups of dairy cows is important to enhance herd management and optimize the outcomes of both animal health and welfare in the future. Many factors can affect the number of social contacts in a group. This study aimed to identify which characteristics of a cow are associated with the number of contacts it has with other group members in 2 different functional areas (feeding and resting area) to increase our understanding of the social behavior of dairy cows. Inside 2 herds housed in freestall barns with around 200 lactating cows each, cow positions were recorded with an ultra-wideband real-time location system collecting all cows' positions every second over 2 wk. Using the positioning data of the cows, we quantified the number of contacts between them, assuming that cows spending time in proximity to one another (within a distance of 2.5 m for at least 10 min per day) were interacting socially. We documented in which barn areas these interactions occurred and used linear mixed models to investigate if lactation stage, parity, breed, pregnancy status, estrus, udder health, and claw health affect the number of contacts. We found variation in the number of contacts a cow had between individuals in both functional areas. Cows in later lactation had more contacts in the feeding area than cows in early lactation. Furthermore, in one herd, higher parity cows had fewer contacts in the feeding area than first parity cows, and in the other herd, cows in third parity or higher had more contacts in the resting area. This study indicates that cow characteristics such as parity and days in milk are associated with the number of contacts a cow has daily to its herd mates and provides useful information for further research on social interactions of dairy cows.

Transition cow nutrition and management strategies of dairy herds in the northeastern United States: Part III-Associations of management and dietary factors with analytes, health, milk yield, and reproduction

The objective was to evaluate relationships between putative periparturient management and dietary factors at the pen and herd levels with metabolic- and inflammation-related analytes, health disorders, milk yield, and reproductive performance. Multiparous and primiparous cows from 72 farms in the northeastern United States were enrolled in a prospective cohort study. Farms were visited 3 times during the prepartum and postpartum periods: during the far-off dry, close-up dry, and fresh periods. Pen measurements were taken at each visit for the pens where cows sampled were housed, and particle size was determined for the total mixed ration for the pen. A survey was used to acquire data on herd-level management variables. Blood samples were collected from the same 11 to 24 cows per farm during the close-up and fresh period visits. Whole blood was analyzed for postpartum β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) concentrations, and plasma was analyzed for prepartum and postpartum nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) and postpartum haptoglobin (Hp) concentrations. Health event, milk yield, and reproductive records were acquired through the records management software program used on the farm. For the pen-level analysis, primiparous and multiparous cows were analyzed separately. For the pen- and herd-level analysis, a simple linear regression was conducted on all possible explanatory variables. Variables were included in the full multivariable general linear model if P < 0.20, and a manual backward stepwise elimination process ensued until all variables had P < 0.10. Our results indicate that pen- and herd-level management factors are associated with blood biomarkers, health, milk yield, and reproductive performance. For the prepartum period, our results support increasing the proportion of particles on the 19-mm sieve of the Penn State Particle Separator, optimizing bunk space, and not overfeeding metabolizable energy (ME), to decrease the prevalence of elevated postpartum NEFA, BHB, and Hp concentrations, decrease disorder incidence, maximize milk yield, and improve pregnancy risk to first service. For the fresh period, our results generally support optimizing bunk space, avoiding commingling, increasing feeding frequency, avoiding high physically effective undigested neutral detergent fiber (NDF) after 240 h of in vitro fermentation and high total fermentable carbohydrate diets while optimizing the inclusion of forage NDF, and ensuring adequate diet ME and metabolizable protein to reduce the prevalence of elevated postpartum NEFA, BHB, and Hp concentrations, minimize disorder incidence, maximize milk yield, and improve pregnancy risk to first service. At the herd level, our results generally support not vaccinating in the calving pen, minimizing the number of prepartum and postpartum pen moves, and avoiding long stays in the calving pen after parturition to reduce the prevalence of elevated biomarker concentrations, decrease disorder incidence, increase milk yield, and improve reproductive performance.

Sensor based time budgets in commercial Dutch dairy herds vary over lactation cycles and within 24 hours

Cows from 8 commercial Dutch dairy farms were equipped with 2 sensors to study their complete time budgets of eating, rumination, lying, standing and walking times as derived from a neck and a leg sensor. Daily sensor data of 1074 cows with 3201 lactations was used from 1 month prepartum until 10 months postpartum. Farms provided data over a 5 year period. The final models (lactational time budget and 24h time budget) showed significant effects of parity, farm and calving season. When primiparous cows were introduced in the lactational herd, they showed a decrease in lying time of 215 min (95% CI: 187–242) and an increase in standing time of 159 min (95% CI: 138–179), walking time of 23 min (95% CI: 20–26) and rumination time of 69 min (95% CI: 57–82). Eating time in primiparous cows increased from 1 month prepartum until 9 months in lactation with 88 min (95% CI: 76–101) and then remained stable until the end of lactation. Parity 2 and parity 3+ cows decreased in eating time by 30 min (95% CI: 20–40) and 26 min (95% CI: 18–33), respectively, from 1 month before to 1 month after calving. Until month 6, eating time increased 11 min (95% CI: 1–22) for parity 2, and 24 min (95% CI: 16–32) for parity 3+. From 1 month before calving to 1 month after calving, they showed an increase in ruminating of 17 min (95% CI: 6–28) and 28 min (95% CI: 21–35), an increase in standing time of 117 min (95% CI: 100–135) and 133 min (95% CI: 121–146), while lying time decreased with 113 min (95% CI: 91–136) and 130 min (95% CI: 114–146), for parity 2 and 3+, respectively. After month 1 in milk to the end of lactation, lying time increased 67 min (95% CI: 49–85) for parity 2, and 77 min (95% CI: 53–100) for parity 3+. Lactational time budget patterns are comparable between all 8 farms, but cows on conventional milking system (CMS) farms with pasture access appear to show higher standing and walking time, and spent less time lying compared to cows on automatic milking system (AMS) farms without pasture access. Every behavioral parameter presented a 24h pattern. Cows eat, stand and walk during the day and lie down and ruminate during the night. Daily patterns in time budgets on all farms are comparable except for walking time. During the day, cows on CMS farms with pasture access spent more time walking than cows on AMS farms without pasture access. The average 24h pattern between parities is comparable, but primiparous cows spent more time walking during daytime compared to older cows. These results indicate a specific behavioral pattern per parameter from the last month prepartum until 10 months postpartum with different patterns between parities but comparable patterns across farms. Furthermore, cows appear to have a circadian rhythm with varying time budgets in the transition period and during lactation.

The effect of stocking density and a blind on the behavior of Holstein dairy cows in group maternity pens. Part II: Labor length, lying behavior, and social behavior

In natural settings, dairy cows separate from the herd to give birth. When kept indoors, seeking isolation before calving may be restricted and may depend on space and resources provided in maternity housing. The effect of group maternity pens on behavior around calving and labor progress is unknown. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the effects of stocking density and provision of a blind in group bedded pack maternity pens on lying and social behavior as well as length of labor of preparturient dairy animals. The study was conducted as a complete randomized block design with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments including stocking density and presence or absence of a blind, resulting in a total of 4 treatments: (1) high stocking density (7.7-12.9 m² lying space/cow) with a blind, (2) low stocking density (15.4-25.8 m²) with a blind, (3) high stocking density without a blind, and (4) low stocking density without a blind. A total of 127 primiparous heifers and 247 multiparous cows were housed in mixed-parity groups from approximately 3 wk before and immediately after calving. During the 4 h before calving, lying behavior (lying time and bouts) was collected automatically using accelerometers, and social behavior (agonistic interactions, allogrooming, and attention from other cows), stage II labor duration, and frequency of position change during stage II labor were collected using video. Lying behavior was collected with accelerometers. Regardless of treatment, lying time and bouts increased as calving approached. Cows and heifers performed more lying bouts in low stocking density pens compared with high stocking density pens. Agonistic interactions and allogrooming were not different between treatments. Other cows spent more time paying attention to focal animals regardless of stocking density as calving approached, but time spent paying attention was reduced by the presence of a blind during h -2 before calving. The hazard of calving unassisted was greater for cows and heifers in low stocking density pens with a blind compared with all other treatments. Further, animals in pens with a blind tended to change positions fewer times during stage II labor. These results suggest that providing a blind in group maternity pens may improve the calving environment for cows and heifers and, in combination with low stocking density, may reduce the amount of time spent in labor.

Monitoring and Improving the Metabolic Health of Dairy Cows during the Transition Period

Simple Summary

The transition from late gestation to early lactation is a challenging period for dairy cows. A successful transition period depends on metabolic adaptation to the new physiological state in early lactation and proper management in order to support the cow’s requirements. This review paper will discuss various aspects of routine and consistent approaches to collect and analyze herd records, to detect unintended disruptions in performance. In addition, we discuss how to incorporate methods to assess health, production, nutrition, and welfare information to monitor cows during the transition period. Lastly, we discuss management strategies that can be implemented to improve the metabolic health and performance of transition dairy cows.

Abstract

The peripartum period of a dairy cow is characterized by several physiological and behavioral changes in response to a rapid increase in nutrient demands, to support the final stages of fetal growth and the production of colostrum and milk. Traditionally, the transition period is defined as the period 3 weeks before and 3 weeks after parturition. However, several researchers have argued that the transition period begins at the time of dry-off (~60–50 days prior to calving) and extends beyond the first month post-calving in high producing dairy cows. Independent of the definition used, adequate adaptation to the physiological demands of this period is paramount for a successful lactation. Nonetheless, not all cows are successful in transitioning from late gestation to early lactation, leading to approximately one third of dairy cows having at least one clinical disease (metabolic and/or infectious) and more than half of the cows having at least one subclinical case of disease within the first 90 days of lactation. Thus, monitoring dairy cows during this period is essential to detect early disease signs, diagnose clinical and subclinical diseases, and initiate targeted health management to avoid health and production impairment. In this review, we discuss different strategies to monitor dairy cows to detected unintended disruptions in performance and management strategies that can be implemented to improve the metabolic health and performance of dairy cows during the transition period.

Prepartum behavior changes in dry Holstein cows at risk of postpartum diseases

The objective of this study was to identify changes in prepartum behavior associated with the incidence of postpartum diseases in dairy cows. Multiparous Holstein cows (n = 489) were monitored with accelerometers for 3 wk prepartum. Accelerometers measured steps, time at the feed bunk, frequency of meals, lying bouts, and lying time. Postpartum health was monitored from 0 to 30 d in milk and cases of metritis, mastitis, retained placenta, displaced abomasum (DA), ketosis, and hypocalcemia were recorded. A multivariate linear mixed model was used to assess differences in behavior between diseased and not diagnosed diseased cows. A multivariate logistic regression was used to predict the occurrence of diseases. Predictors were selected using a manual backward stepwise selection process of variables until all remaining predictors had a P < 0.10. Models were submitted to a leave-one-out cross-validation process, and sensitivity, specificity, false discovery rate, and false omission rate were calculated. On average, over the 3-wk prepartum period, cows not diagnosed diseased (n = 345) took 1,613 ± 38 steps, spent 181 ± 7.1 min at the feed bunk, had 8.3 ± 0.17 meals, had 9.8 ± 0.32 lying bouts, and spent 742 ± 11.3 min lying per day. Behavior of diseased cows (n = 144) did not differ from those not diagnosed diseased. However, differences for specific diseases were observed, being significant in the week prepartum. When considering changes in behavior for only the week before calving, cows with metritis had more lying bouts (+21%), cows with DA had fewer meals (-24%) and tended to take fewer steps (-18%), and cows with ketosis had fewer meals (-22%) and spent less time at the feed bunk (-40%). Prediction models with the best outcomes were found for DA and ketosis using data of the prepartum week only. The model for DA included time at the feed bunk. Cross-validation resulted in a 80% sensitivity, 58.1% specificity, 59.2% accuracy, 91.2% false discovery rate, and 1.7% false omission rate. The model for ketosis included time at the feed bunk and number of meals. Cross-validation resulted in 64.3% sensitivity, 59.3% specificity, 59.5% accuracy, 93.0% false discovery rate, and 2.8% false omission rate. Prepartum behavior of cows affected with metritis, DA, and ketosis was different from that of cows not diagnosed with diseases. Prediction equations were able to classify cows at high or low risk of ketosis and DA and can be used in taking management decisions, but the high false discovery rates requires further refinement.

Refinement of international recommendations for cubicles, based on the identification of associations between cubicle characteristics and dairy cow welfare measures

Maladjusted cubicles for dairy cattle may cause increased skin alterations, lameness, and dirtiness. The International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering has produced several recommendations for cubicle design, but a previous study showed that not all of them seem efficient. Here, we aim to refine and complete these recommendations. We collected data on 76 dairy farms (2,404 cows). We modeled the association between combinations of cubicle properties (e.g., type of bedding litter) and dimensions (e.g., cubicle width) relative to cow size, and prevalence of cow skin alterations, lameness, and dirtiness. We used weighted multivariable logistic regression models to predict the presence of skin alteration on the carpus; the neck, shoulder, and back; the flank, side, and udder; and the tarsus or hindquarters. We also evaluated the presence of lameness as well as the dirtiness of the lower hind legs including hocks; the hindquarters, upper hind legs, and flank; the cow rear including tail; and the udder. The risk factors highlighted led us to recommend (1) position cubicles in a way that leaves more than 1 m of clearance from any obstacle in front of the cubicle; (2) if there is an obstacle on the lateral plane (i.e., where the cubicle partition is) in front ahead of the cow, put the obstacle in front of the fore knees; (3) if there is an obstacle in front of the cow on the median plane (e.g., neck or front rail), the position the obstacle between 1.25 and 1.5 of the cow length from the curb and between 1.0 and 1.25 of its height; (4) use curb height between 0.11 and 0.15 of cow height with no sharp edges on the curb; (5) use round or at least has no sharp edges brisket board; (6) use a stone-free soil instead of concrete or use a mattress thicker than 1 cm, with microrelief, and a soft fixing area at the curb, (7) litter with straw (rather than nothing or sawdust) and keep it dry. This risk factor analysis should be followed by experiments in controlled environments to further validate these conclusions and used to update the International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering recommendations.

Invited review: Lying time and the welfare of dairy cows

Adequate time lying down is often considered an important aspect of dairy cow welfare. We examine what is known about cows' motivation to lie down and the consequences for health and other indicators of biological function when this behavior is thwarted. We review the environmental and animal-based factors that affect lying time in the context of animal welfare. Our objective is to review the research into the time that dairy cows spend lying down and to critically examine the evidence for the link with animal welfare. Cows can be highly motivated to lie down. They show rebound lying behavior after periods of forced standing and will sacrifice other activities, such as feeding, to lie down for an adequate amount of time. They will work, by pushing levers or weighted gates, to lie down and show possible indicators of frustration when lying behavior is thwarted. Some evidence suggests that risk of lameness is increased in environments that provide unfavorable conditions for cows to lie down and where cows are forced to stand. Lameness itself can result in longer lying times, whereas mastitis reduces it. Cow-based factors such as reproductive status, age, and milk production influence lying time, but the welfare implications of these differences are unknown. Lower lying times are reported in pasture-based systems, dry lots, and bedded packs (9 h/d) compared with tiestalls and freestalls (10 to 12 h/d) in cross-farm research. Unfavorable conditions, including too few lying stalls for the number of cows, hard or wet lying surfaces, inadequate bedding, stalls that are too small or poorly designed, heat, and rain all reduce lying time. Time constraints, such as feeding or milking, can influence lying time. However, more information is needed about the implications of mediating factors such as the effect of the standing surface (concrete, pasture, or other surfaces) and cow behavior while standing (e.g., being restrained, walking, grazing) to understand the effect of low lying times on animal welfare. Many factors contribute to the difficulty of finding a valid threshold for daily lying time to use in the assessment of animal welfare. Although higher lying times often correspond with cow comfort, and lower lying times are seen in unfavorable conditions, exceptions occur, namely when cows lie down for longer because of disease or when they spend more time standing because of estrus or parturition, or to engage in other behaviors. In conclusion, lying behavior is important to dairy cattle, but caution and a full understanding of the context and the character of the animals in question is needed before drawing firm conclusions about animal welfare from measures of lying time.

Periparturient stocking density affects lying and ruminating behavior and one-week-calf performance of Holstein cows

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the effect of stocking density on the behavior, productivity, and metabolism of periparturient Holstein cows as well as calf performance.

Methods

A total of 48 periparturient cows were randomly assigned into three groups at 28 days (±3 days) before their expected calving date. The stocking densities of the groups, relative to the standard cubicle and feed bunk number, were i) 80% (13 cows), ii) 100% (16 cows), and iii) 120% (19 cows). Lying and rumination behavior was recorded using electronic data loggers and HR-Tags from d −21 (“d-” means days before calving) until the calving date, d 0. Lying time was assessed to determine the diurnal total hours spent lying per day. Rumination time was averaged in 2 hours interval periods over 24 hours during the experimental period.

Results

Cows in the 80% group spent more time lying and ruminating between d −21 and d −7 and tended to ruminate more between d −14 and d 0. Calcium levels tended to be higher for cows in the 80% group, no other observable differences were found in monitored blood parameters. Moreover, 3.5% fat corrected milk and energy corrected milk yields were higher in 80% group in the first month of lactation. No other observable differences were found in the yield and composition of colostrum and milk in the first 10 months of lactation. The growth and performance of calves in the first week of life was not affected by stocking density of the dams.

Conclusion

We concluded that lower stocking density may increase lying and ruminating behavior of prepartum Holstein cows. However, this did not translate into improved productivity and metabolism.

Review: Relationships between metabolism and neutrophil function in dairy cows in the peripartum period

Aspects of neutrophil function are diminished or dysregulated in dairy cows in the weeks just before and after calving, which appears to be an important contributor to the occurrence of retained placenta, mastitis, metritis and endometritis. The timing and mechanisms by which specific elements of neutrophil function are impaired are only partially understood. Oxidative burst capacity is the element of neutrophil function most consistently shown to be impaired in the week after calving, but that observation may partially be biased because oxidative burst has been studied more than other functions. There is sufficient evidence to conclude that the availability of calcium and glucose, and exposure to elevated concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids or β-hydroxybutyrate affect some aspects of neutrophil function. However, these factors have mostly been studied in isolation and their effects are not consistent. Social stressors such as a competitive environment for feeding or lying space should plausibly impair innate immune function, but when studied under controlled conditions such effects have generally not been produced. Similarly, treatment with recombinant bovine granulocyte colony-stimulating factor consistently produces large increases in circulating neutrophil count with modest improvements in function, but this does not consistently reduce the incidence of clinical diseases thought to be importantly attributable to impaired innate immunity. Research is now needed that considers the interactions among known and putative risk factors for impaired neutrophil function in dairy cows in the transition period.

Symposium review: The impact of management and facilities on cow culling rates

This symposium review examines the association between comfort and cow longevity, with a particular emphasis on optimizing resting behavior in confinement-housed systems. Housed dairy cattle demonstrate a variety of negative behavioral and physiological effects when lying time is restricted, with cows prioritizing the recovery of rest over feeding when both are deprived. There is, however, wide individual-cow variation in daily lying times, influenced by an array of cow-, housing-, and management-related factors. Cow-related factors include individual preference, parity, stage of lactation cycle, milk yield, ill health, and lameness. Lying time tends to increase with age and days in milk and during periods of ill health, whereas milk yield is negatively correlated with lying time. The effect of lameness is complicated by severity and by interactions with bedding type, which modifies the cows' ability to rise and lie down. Generally, lame cows suffer prolonged lying bouts of greater variability in length and take fewer bouts per day. Often this results in an overall increase in lying time. Thus, higher standards of cow comfort and improved cow health are not always reflected by longer lying times. Housing and management factors that influence resting behavior include the design of the resting area, access to the resting space, and the thermal microenvironment of the lying area. Provision of dry, deep loose bedding, stocking cows to allow each animal access to a resting space, allowing sufficient time to access the resting area, and providing heat abatement to reduce heat load optimize resting behavior. Because lameness and poor body condition are commonly found in culled dairy cattle, the link between cow comfort and culling is likely mediated through lameness onset and management. Optimal comfort helps prevent the onset of lameness and facilitates recovery once cows become lame, which limits the effect of lameness on feeding behavior and reduces the risk for other health-related disorders, poor reproductive performance, and early herd removal. Cow comfort cannot be assessed by measuring the duration of lying time alone. Rather, comfort is reflected by the optimization of resting behavior, providing facilities and management to allow cows to lie down when they choose to do so for as long as they need to.

Influence of Lameness on the Lying Behaviour of Zero-Grazed Lactating Jersey Dairy Cattle Housed in Straw Yards

Thirty-five lactating Jersey cows were recruited to the study. They were grouped according to locomotion score (LS), where low scores indicate normal gait. LS-1 (n = 12), LS-2 (n = 12) and LS-3 (n = 11) were used. Locomotion scores were balanced for parity and stage of lactation. Lying behaviour was recorded using IceTag™ data loggers attached to the cows for four consecutive days. The study animals remained in the straw based yards with grooved concrete flooring throughout the duration of the study. All data were normally distributed and assessed using a one-way ANOVA with a post hoc Tukey test. There were no statistically significant differences between locomotion score and the time spent lying, active and standing of zero-grazed lactating Jersey dairy cattle housed on straw yards. Lame cows (LS-3) had significantly shorter lying bouts than sound cows (LS-1) (34 min vs. 42 min, respectively). There has been limited research to date measuring the lying behaviour of cattle on straw and into the Jersey breed. The cows had longer than expected standing times and an increased frequency of lying bouts. This may have been attributed to the stocking density in which the cows were kept. We also reported a prevalence of lameness within the herd of 38%.

The behavior of dairy cattle in late gestation: Effects of parity and dystocia

The aim of this study was to objectively assess, using an automated behavioral monitoring system, any behavioral differences between primiparous and multiparous cows before calving, and to quantify any behavioral differences between assisted (dystocic) and unassisted (eutocic) calvings. Data were collected from 32 multiparous and 12 primiparous Holstein dairy cattle to describe normal calving behavior and parity differences. To quantify behavior related to calving difficulty, the data from 14 animals that had dystocia at calving were matched to cows that had an eutocic calving based on parity, locomotion score, calf breed, calf sex, month, and year of calving. An IceQube (IceRobotics Ltd., South Queensferry, United Kingdom) was fitted to the right hind leg of cows 4 wk before their expected calving date. Data for lying time, standing time, number of steps, motion index (total motion), and the total number of standing and lying bouts (postural transitions) were automatically collected and summed into 15-min blocks. Behavioral variables were summarized into 2-h periods and 24-h periods before analyses. Mixed-effect models were used to analyze cow behavior in the last 4 d before calving (d -4 to -1), and on the day of calving. In the 4 d before calving, compared with multiparous cows, primiparous cows lay down an average 2.8 h/d less, had 9.1 more postural transitions/d (37.7 ± 1.2 vs. 27.6 ± 0.7), walked 172 more steps/d, and had a higher motion index (2,673.2 vs. 1,981.5 units/d). There was an effect of 2-h period on all behavioral variables on the day of calving. No indicator of calving difficulty was found on the day of calving, nor the days leading up to calving. These findings suggest that parity should be considered when predicting the day of calving, and changes in cow behavior on the day of calving could be used to identify calving cows, and to predict the time of calving.

Effects of overstocking at the feedbunk on the growth performance and sorting characteristics of a forage-based diet offered for ad libitum intake to replacement Holstein dairy heifers

Various forms of overcrowding are common in heifer-rearing operations. Our objectives for this study were to evaluate the effects of overstocking at the feedbunk (100, 133, 160, or 200% of capacity) on the growth performance, feedbunk sorting behaviors, and hygiene of 128 gravid Holstein heifers (475 ± 55.3 kg) consuming an alfalfa haylage and corn silage diet diluted with processed wheat straw at an inclusion rate of 25.2% (DM basis). In this study, heifers were overstocked only at the feedbunk, and not with respect to available freestalls or pen area. Heifers were blocked by weight, and subsequently assigned to 1 of 16 identical research pens. A total mixed ration was distributed at 1000 h daily for 91 d via a drive-through feed alley, with heifers allowed access to the feedbunk through head-locking feeding gates. Mean weights for the 4 blocks (32 heifers/block) were 406 ± 14.9, 453 ± 15.3, 493 ± 17.6, and 548 ± 21.9 kg. Generally, nutrient intakes were not affected by stocking rate at the feedbunk; mean intakes of dry matter, neutral detergent fiber, and total digestible nutrients across all feedbunk stocking rates were 10.63, 5.19, and 6.29 kg/d, respectively. Overall, the effects of competition at the feedbunk on heifer growth performance were minor, with a collective average daily gain of 1.02 kg/d across all treatments. Only trends for linear increases in total weight gain and BCS were observed with overstocking at the feedbunk. Collectively, overstocked rates also exhibited a trend for better feed-to-gain ratio than pens stocked at 100% of feedbunk capacity (10.3 vs. 11.0 kg:kg). We observed solid evidence that heifers collectively sorted against large (>19 mm) particles, and also exhibited preference for short (>1.18 and <8 mm) and fine (<1.18 mm) feed particles; however, these responses were not affected by feedbunk stocking rate. Additionally, heifers sorted against neutral detergent fiber as the concentration of neutral detergent fiber remaining in the feedbunk increased during the 24-h period following feeding; conversely, they preferred crude protein, as indicated by a decreasing concentration of this nutrient over time. Heifer hygiene was not affected by competition at the feedbunk. Under the experimental conditions established for this trial, overstocking at the feedbunk did not affect heifer growth performance, but it should not be practiced blindly without attention to other critical components of animal welfare.

Survey of dry cow management on UK commercial dairy farms

Dry period management of the dairy cow focuses on maximising milk production during the subsequent lactation but may include procedures that negatively affect dry cow health and welfare. A survey of dairy farmers in the UK was conducted to investigate dry cow management procedures. The questionnaire was completed by 148 farmers. Most farms (84 per cent) kept dry cows in dynamic social groups. The median length of the dry period was 56 days, and 83 per cent of farms stopped milking abruptly, regardless of milk production level at dry-off. Twenty-seven per cent of cows from respondent farms produced more than 20 kg of milk per day at dry-off. The majority of farms (78 per cent) used antibiotic dry cow intramammary tubes at dry-off, in combination with internal or external teat sealants. Procedures that were commonly practised and potentially stressful for dry cows included abrupt cessation of milking of high yielding cows and frequent changes in diet and social environment.

Measurement of heat stress conditions at cow level and comparison to climate conditions at stationary locations inside a dairy barn

The objectives of this study were to examine heat stress conditions at cow level and to investigate the relationship to the climate conditions at 5 different stationary locations inside a dairy barn. In addition, we compared the climate conditions at cow level between primiparous and multiparous cows for a period of 1 week after regrouping. The temperature-humidity index (THI) differed significantly between all stationary loggers. The lowest THI was measured at the window logger in the experimental stall and the highest THI was measured at the central logger in the experimental stall. The THI at the mobile cow loggers was 2·33 THI points higher than at the stationary loggers. Furthermore, the mean daily THI was higher at the mobile cow loggers than at the stationary loggers on all experimental days. The THI in the experimental pen was 0·44 THI points lower when the experimental cow group was located inside the milking parlour. The THI measured at the mobile cow loggers was 1·63 THI points higher when the experimental cow group was located inside the milking parlour. However, there was no significant difference for all climate variables between primiparous and multiparous cows. These results indicate, there is a wide range of climate conditions inside a dairy barn and especially areas with a great distance to a fresh air supply have an increased risk for the occurrence of heat stress conditions. Furthermore, the heat stress conditions are even higher at cow level and cows not only influence their climatic environment, but also generate microclimates within different locations inside the barn. Therefore climate conditions should be obtained at cow level to evaluate the heat stress conditions that dairy cows are actually exposed to.

Association between Prepartum Feeding Behavior and Periparturient Health Disorders in Dairy Cows

The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between prepartum feeding behavior, measured as time spent feeding per day, and periparturient health disorders, milk yield, milk composition, and milk somatic cell count in Jersey cows. Pregnant Jersey cows were marked with unique alphanumeric symbols and were moved into a prepartum group 4 weeks prior to their expected calving date. At enrollment, cows with a body condition score <2 or >4 or a locomotion score >3 were not included. Time spent feeding was measured using 10-min video scan sampling for 24-h periods of 2–4 days per week of the study. A total of 925 cows were eligible for analysis. Parity was based on lactation number at the time of enrollment and classified as nulliparous (cows pregnant with their first calf), primiparous (cows pregnant with their second calf), and multiparous (lactation ≥2). Multiparous cows with two or more health disorders spent approximately 10% less time feeding prepartum than cows that did not have any health disorders. Multiparous cows subsequently diagnosed with metritis had a tendency to spend 5% less time feeding prepartum than healthy counterparts. Primiparous cows with retained placenta had a 10% reduction in feeding time compared to healthy primiparous cows. Monitoring time spent feeding prepartum by primiparous and multiparous cows, even on a limited number of days, appeared to be beneficial in predicting cows at risk for periparturient health disorders. Real-time daily feeding behavior monitoring technologies that can be used by dairy farms are now available, which might prove to be even more helpful in identifying cows at risk for periparturient cow health disorders as more data points can be recorded for each cow and compared to her own behavior or that of specific cohorts.