Evaluation of changes in calf management from 2012 to 2022 on Austrian dairy farms using an online questionnaire

Calf management is important for the development, health, and welfare of the animals. In this follow-up study, we evaluated calf management practices on dairy farms in Austria using an online questionnaire in 2021 and 2022. We tested the hypothesis that farmers changed calf management on their farm within these 10 years. The total amount of analyzable surveys in 2022 was 2,314. All variables changed significantly between years. Therefore, farms were chosen randomly by controlling for confounding changes in herd size (number of dairy cows), farm type (conventional vs. organic), and type of cows' barn (free stall vs. tied up). From 2012 to 2022, the median number of cows per farm increased from 20 (interquartile range (IQR) 13 to 30) to 22 (IQR 13 to 35), and the percentage of organic-producing farms increased from 23.9% (2012) to 30.6% (2022). The number of farms offering colostrum within 4 h after birth increased from 83.7% to 87.2%. This change was significant when subsampling was performed. The quantity of first colostrum offered to the newborns was mainly 2 to 4 L (69%), with an increased percentage of farms offering less than 2 L (13.3% vs. 18.3%). The percentage of farms testing colostrum quality using an objective method (hydrometer, Brix refractometer, outflow funnel) increased significantly by 4.9-fold and was 9.4% in 2022. On most farms (88.8% and 86.6% in 2012 and 2022), calves were housed individually after birth. A higher percentage stated to group calves at an earlier age than in 2012. In both years, mainly whole milk was fed (85.1% vs. 86.3%). The number of farms where non-salable/waste milk was fed to calves decreased significantly from 84.0 to 74.1%. Milk allowance increased non-significantly. Subsampling revealed that the age at weaning increased significantly between years. The most important health problem in calves was diarrhea (in 59.8% of the farms over 10% of the calves and in 27.4% over 25%), followed by respiratory tract disease (in 39.8% of farms over 10% of the calves and on 16.4% over 25%). Compared with 2012, in 2022, a significantly higher percentage of farmers stated that they had a calf diarrhea incidence of >10% (39.8% vs. 59.8%). In our study, weak points regarding calf management on farms were not offering enough first colostrum, missing testing for colostrum quality, not housing calves socially in the first weeks post natum, and feeding restricted amounts of milk. The median mortality rate of 3% (IQR 1 to 5) and increasing diarrhea incidence also show that calf management practices need improvement. Thus, it is still an open question of how to get farmers motivated to implement changes in their management in accordance with science-based recommendations.

Can milk replacer allowance affect animal performance, body development, metabolism, and skeletal muscle hypertrophy in pre-weaned dairy kids?

We aimed to evaluate performance, body development, metabolism, and expression of genes related to skeletal muscle hypertrophy in non-castrated male dairy kids fed with different levels of MR during the pre-weaning period. Sixty newborn male kids, not castrated, from Saanen and Swiss Alpine breeds, with an average body weight (BW) of 3.834 ± 0.612 kg, were distributed in a randomized block design. Breeds were the block factor in the model (random effect). Kids were allocated into 2 nutrition plans (n = 30 kids per treatment) categorized as follows: low nutritional plan (LNP; 1L MR/kid/day) or high nutritional plan (HNP; 2L MR/kid/day). All kids were harvested at 45 d of life. The majority of nitrogen balance variables were affected by the nutritional plan (P < 0.050). Morphometric measures and body condition score (2.99 - LNP vs. 3.28 - HNP) were affected by nutritional plan (P < 0.050), except hip height, thoracic depth and hip width. The nutritional plan affected the body components (P < 0.050), except esophagus and trachea. Animal performance and carcass traits were influenced by nutritional plan (P < 0.050), except carcass dressing (48.56% on average). Nutritional plan affected (P < 0.050) some blood profile variables as the total cholesterol (141.35 vs. 113.25 mg/dL), triglycerides (60.53 vs. 89.05 mg/dL), LDL (79.76 vs. 33.66 g/mL) and IGF-1 (17.77 vs. 38.55 ng/mL) for LNP and HNP respectively. Hypertrophy was greater in HNP than LNP animals (P < 0.050), being represented by the proportion of sarcoplasm (39.76 vs. 31.99%). LNP had a greater mTOR abundance than HNP (P = 0.045), but AMPK was not affected by the nutritional plan. Our findings show that a higher milk replacer allowance enhances animal performance, body development, metabolic parameters, and cellular hypertrophy in pre-weaned dairy kids.

Using the conditioned place preference paradigm to assess hunger in dairy calves: Preliminary results and methodological issues

Dairy calves are typically fed restricted amounts of milk. Although feed restrictions are predicted to result in negative affective states, the relative aversiveness of 'hunger' remains largely unexplored in this species. Here, we investigated whether the conditioned place preference paradigm can be used to explore how calves feel when experiencing different levels of satiation. This paradigm provides insight into what animals remember from past experiences, the assumption being that individuals will prefer places associated with more pleasant or less unpleasant experiences. Sixteen Holstein calves were either fed a restricted (3 L per meal totalling 6 L per day) or 'enhanced' milk allowance (ad libitum up to 6 L per meal totalling up to 12 L per day) in their home-pen. Calves were then placed in a conditioning pen for 4 h immediately after being fed their morning meal to allow them to develop an association between the pen and their state of post-prandial satiation. Calves were conditioned across four days with their satiation state alternating between days to allow them to develop an association between pen and satiation levels. On the 5th day, calves were individually allowed to roam freely between the two pens for 30 min. We expected that calves would prefer the pen where they previously experienced higher levels of satiation, but our results show no to limited effects of treatment. However, some methodological issues (colour and side bias) prevent us from drawing strong conclusions. We discuss reasons for these issues and potential solutions to avoid these in future studies.

Butyrate supplementation in the liquid diet of dairy calves leads to a rapid recovery from diarrhea and reduces its occurrence and relapses in the preweaning period

The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of continuous butyrate administration in dairy calves' liquid diet considering diarrhea, metabolic profile, gastrointestinal development, and corporal growth. Immediately after birth, calves were randomly allocated into 2 groups of 62 calves (50 females and 12 males), with access to water and a solid feed ad libitum. The butyrate group (BG) received 4 g/d of sodium butyrate (Admix Easy, Adisseo) diluted in the whole milk, and the control group (CG) received whole milk with no supplementation. Sodium butyrate was administered from d 1 of life until the weaning at 90 d. Feces consistency was assessed daily for the first 30 d of life and characterized by scores from 0 to 4 (0 and 1 for normal, and 2, 3, and 4 for abnormal feces). Diarrhea was diagnosed when the animals had abnormal feces and fever. Morbidity, recurrence, mortality, and lethality data were recorded and compared between the groups. Average daily gain (ADG) and corporal growth (body weight, thoracic perimeter, height at the withers, and croup width) were evaluated weekly, from the first day to d 30, and later at 45, 60, and 90 d of life. Blood samples were taken weekly for up to 30 d to determine the circulating levels of total calcium, phosphorus, chloride, bicarbonate, glucose, β-hydroxybutyrate, and nonesterified fatty acids. The males were euthanized at 15 (n = 6 per group) and 30 d (n = 6 per group) for morphometric, histological, and gene expression analysis of the gastrointestinal tract. The results showed that the BG had a lower rate of morbidity (BG = 30% vs. CG = 50%) and recurrence (BG = 26.7% vs. CG = 60%) of diarrhea than the CG. In addition, the BG had abnormal feces for a shorter period (BG = 4.64 ± 0.47 d vs. CG = 8.6 ± 0.65 d). The ADG tended to be higher in BG than CG up to 30 and 60 d. Metabolic evaluations showed the lowest levels of glucose and highest levels of nonesterified fatty acids in BG. On d 30 of life, rumen papillae length, papilla area, duodenum villus length, and crypt depth were higher in BG than in CG. The duodenal gene expression at 30 d showed that animals with diarrhea episodes that did not receive butyrate had the highest levels of transcripts for the LCT and GLP2 genes. In addition, in different ways, both butyrate and neonatal diarrhea affected the gene expression of IGF1, SLC5A1, and AQP3. These results allow us to conclude that continuous supplementation with sodium butyrate improves gastrointestinal development, reduces the occurrence of diarrhea, and makes clinical conditions milder with faster recovery, favoring a higher ADG in the first 30 and 60 d of life. Based on these results, we conclude that sodium butyrate can be indicated for liquid diet supplementation to accelerate gastrointestinal tract development and prevent severe cases of neonatal diarrhea, tending to improve average daily gain until weaning.

Effects of rumen cannulation combined with different pre-weaning feeding intensities on the intestinal, splenic and thymic immune system in heifer calves several month after surgery

Fistulation is a helpful procedure in animal nutritional research and also common practise in human medicine. However, there are indications that alterations in the upper gastrointestinal tract contribute to intestinal immune modulations. The present study aimed to investigate effects of a rumen cannulation in week 3 of life on the intestinal and tissue specific immune system of 34-week old heifers. Nutrition influences the development of the neonatal intestinal immune system to a high extent. Therefore, rumen cannulation was investigated in combination with different pre-weaning milk feeding intensities (20% (20MR) vs. 10% milk replacer feeding (10MR). Heifers of 20MR without rumen cannula (NRC) showed higher cluster of differentiation (CD)8⁺ T cell subsets in mesenteric lymph nodes (MSL) compared to heifers with rumen cannula (RC) and 10MRNRC heifers. CD4⁺ T cell subsets in jejunal intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) were higher in 10MRNRC heifers compared to 10MRRC heifers. CD4⁺ T cell subsets in ileal IELs were lower and CD21⁺ B cell subsets were higher in NRC heifers compared to RC heifers. CD8⁺ T cell subsets in spleen tended to be lower in 20MRNRC heifers compared to all other groups. Splenic CD21⁺ B cell subsets were higher in 20MRNRC heifers compared to RC heifers. Splenic toll like receptor (TLR) 6 expression was increased and IL4 expression tended to be increased in RC heifers than NRC heifers. Splenic TLR2, 3 and 10 gene expression was higher in 20MR compared to 10MR heifers. Jejunal prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase 2 expression was higher in RC heifers than NRC heifers, and MUC2 expression tended to increase in 20MR heifers compared to 10MR heifers. In conclusion, rumen cannulation modulated T and B cell subsets in the down streaming gastrointestinal tract and spleen. Pre-weaning feeding intensity seemed to affect intestinal mucin secretion and T and B cell subsets in MSL, spleen and thymus until several month later. Interestingly, in MSL, spleen and thymus the 10MR feeding regime evoked similar modulations of T and B cell subsets like rumen cannulation.

Cow milk or milk replacer in the diet of Holstein calves: effects on complete blood count, biochemistry variables, and performance

ABSTRACT This study aimed to evaluate whether feeding calves with replacers instead of cow's milk interferes with complete blood count, biochemistry variables, survival, and weight gain, and the cost-benefit of these feeds in the suckling phase. We used 16 calves of the Holstein breed with an average of 8±4 days and 39±6 kg of average body weight, randomly divided into two groups: Replacer Group (N=8), receiving four liters of replacer milk during the 60 experimental days; and the Milk Group (N=8), calves receiving four liters of cow's milk. We observed that animals fed with cow's milk had higher body weight and weight gain at all weightings compared to those who consumed the dairy replacer. There was no calve death during the study. The cost (R$) of the diet of the calves that consumed replacer was lower. However, if we consider the weight gain during the experiment, the cost to produce 1 kg of body weight was similar between the treatments, because the calves that consumed milk were weaned with an average of 19kg more body weight. In conclusion, the use of dairy replacers as a replacer for cow's milk caused calves to have an overall lower performance compared to those who received cow's milk during the suckling phase.

Welfare implications on management strategies for rearing dairy calves: A systematic review. Part 1-feeding management

Introduction

Calves are very susceptible to stress in the early stages of life, and it is necessary to ensure maximum welfare. Feeding management has been identified as a major risk factor for calf health and welfare at this stage. However, the management protocol for calf rearing and its impact on animal welfare is unclear. A systematic review of different management strategies for rearing dairy calves according to the three spheres of animal welfare was conducted using an electronic search strategy. In this review, management strategies were studied to identify scientific gaps, to know the welfare problems of these animals in order to prioritize actions and future research and to study the interpretive approach of this management from the three welfare spheres.

Methods

A protocol was used to analyze and extract information from the studies. Of the 1,783 publications screened, only 351 met the inclusion criteria for the management or welfare of calves' items.

Results

The publications identified in the search can be divided into two main groups feeding and socialization, based on the main topic of the publication. The main topics that emerged from the search in the feeding management group were milk replacer, colostrum, and weaning, divided into the three main areas of biological functioning and health, natural life and affective states or cognitive judgement.

Discussion

The main issues to be addressed were the different types of feed consumed by animals from birth to weaning and the weaning management. It has been found that the most researched issues are colostrum and solid starter feed management. Unresolved issues were highlighted, such as the lack of a clear protocol for the administration of milk replacers to reduce hunger and the best management of weaning to reduce stress.

LncRNA-mRNA modules involved in goat rumen development: Insights from genome-wide transcriptome profiling

The rumen is an essential digestive and absorption organ of ruminants. During fetal life, lactation, and post-weaning period, goat rumen undergoes drastic morphological and metabolic-functional changes triggered by potential regulated genes and non-coding RNA molecules. As the essential regulatory factors, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have vital functions in various biological activities. However, their roles during rumen development are still poorly explored in ruminants. To explore the genome-wide expression profiles of lncRNAs and mRNAs in the goat rumens, we generated 5,007 lncRNAs and 19,738 mRNAs identified during the fetal and prepubertal stages by the high-throughput RNA sequencing. Notably, 365 lncRNAs and 2,877 mRNAs were considered to be differentially expressed. The weighted gene co-expression network analysis and functional analysis were performed to explore the regulatory roles of those differentially expressed molecules. The cis-and trans-target genes of differently expressed lncRNAs were enriched for pathways related to focal adhesion, cGMP-PKG signaling pathway, alpha-linolenic acid metabolism, arachidonic acid metabolism, and fat digestion and absorption. Gene Ontology and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analyses showed that the differently expressed genes mainly participated in mitotic cytokinesis, desmosome, fatty acid degradation, cell adhesion molecules, and fatty acid metabolism. The prediction of lncRNA-mRNA interaction networks further revealed transcripts potentially involved in rumen development. The present study profiles a global overview of lncRNAs and mRNAs during rumen development. Our findings provide valuable resources for genetic regulation and molecular mechanisms of rumen development in ruminants.

Effects of dietary supplementation with multispecies probiotics on intestinal epithelial development and growth performance of neonatal calves challenged with Escherichia coli K99

BACKGROUND

Probiotics exhibit antibiotic properties and are capable of treating certain bacterial infections, including diarrhea. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the effects of dietary supplementation with multispecies probiotic (MSP) on diarrhea, average daily gain (ADG) and intestinal development of neonatal calves challenged with Escherichia coli K99.

RESULTS

Thirty-six neonatal Holstein calves were randomly assigned to three treatment groups. After E. coli K99 challenge, calves in the control (C) and MSP treatment groups had significantly higher ADG and feed efficiency, and significantly lower fecal scores than those of calves in the diarrhea (D) group. The mean time of diarrhea resolution was 4.5 and 3.1 days for calves in the D and MSP treatment groups, respectively. Furthermore, the structures of the various segments (duodenum, jejunum and ileum) of the small intestine of the calves, activities of several small intestinal enzymes, and expression of several energy metabolism-related genes in the small intestine segments were significantly affected by MSP treatments.

CONCLUSION

Dietary supplementation of MSP had a positive effect in treating calf diarrhea; it improved ADG and feed efficiency and promoted development of the small intestine. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

A Novel Oral Endoscopic Biopsy Procedure to Obtain Rumen Epithelial Samples

Most in vivo studies related to ruminal development in calves use invasive techniques involving rumen-fistulated or euthanized animals. In consideration of animal welfare, we developed an oral endoscopic biopsy procedure to allow the obtaining of rumen epithelial samples, thus serving as an alternative for measuring the height and width of rumen papillae in calves in a safe, quick, and efficient manner that allows the slaughtering of calves to be avoided. This procedure was tested on 12 Brangus crossbred calves randomly distributed in two groups, with one fed a meal starter and the other an extruded starter feed. Calves underwent a 12-h fasting period, were restrained in a squeeze chute, administered a dose of atropine, and sedated with xylazine before the oral endoscopic biopsy procedure. A 120 cm long Olympus^® oral flexible video endoscope and forceps were used to collect cranial–dorsal sac rumen epithelial tissue samples of approximately 0.5 mm. Endoscopy was successful in all 12 calves and the collected tissue samples were placed in formalin (10%) for further processing for obtaining rumen papillae measurements. Consumption of the extruded starter feed resulted in the increased (p = 0.035) width of rumen papillae. The oral endoscopic biopsy procedure implemented in this study was demonstrated to be successful and is thus an alternative technique for studying rumen epithelial development and morphometric alterations in calf rumen tissue.

Weaning age influences indicators of rumen function and development in female Holstein calves

Background

Prenatal and postnatal conditions are crucial for the development of calves. Primiparous cows are still maturing during pregnancy, thus competing with the nutritional needs of their offspring. Therefore, mature cows might provide a superior intrauterine condition. Furthermore, weaning calves at an older age might affect them positively as well by reducing stress and offering time for various organs and their functions to develop. We aimed to evaluate effects of mothers’ parity and calves’ weaning age on gastrointestinal development and corresponding acid–base balance. Fifty-nine female German Holstein calves (about 8 days old) were investigated in a 2 × 2 factorial experiment with factors weaning age (7 vs. 17 weeks) and parity of mother (primiparous vs. multiparous). Calves were randomly assigned to one of these four groups. Animal behavior that was observed included resting, chewing and active behavior.

Results

Behavioral patterns were interactively affected by time and weaning age. Rumen sounds per 2 min increased in early-weaned calves during their weaning period. In late-weaned calves a consistently increase in rumen sounds was already recorded before their weaning period. Urinary N-containing compounds (creatinine, hippuric acid, uric acid, urea, allantoin) were interactively affected by time and weaning age. Concentrations of all measured compounds except urea increased during early weaning. All except hippuric acid concentration decreased in early-weaned calves after weaning. In late-weaned calves allantoin and uric acid increased before weaning and did not change during weaning.

Conclusion

These results suggest that late-weaned calves developed adequate rumen functions and acid–base balance, whereas early-weaned calves might have suffered from ruminal acidosis and catabolism. Weaning calves at 7 weeks of age might be too early for an adequate rumen development.

Effects of Multispecies Probiotic on Intestinal Microbiota and Mucosal Barrier Function of Neonatal Calves Infected With E. coli K99

Altered gut microbiota are implicated in inflammatory neonatal calf diarrhea caused by E. coli K99. Beneficial probiotics are used to modulate gut microbiota. However, factors that mediate host-microbe interactions remain unclear. We evaluated the effects of a combination of multispecies probiotics (MSP) on growth, intestinal epithelial development, intestinal immune function and microbiota of neonatal calves infected with E. coli K99. Twelve newborn calves were randomly assigned as follows: C (control, without MSP); D (E. coli O78:K99 + gentamycin); and P (E. coli O78:K99 + supplemental MSP). All groups were studied for 21 d. MSP supplementation significantly (i) changed fungal Chao1 and Shannon indices of the intestine compared with group D; (ii) reduced the relative abundance of Bacteroides and Actinobacteria, while increasing Bifidobacteria, Ascomycetes, and Saccharomyces, compared with groups C and D; (iii) improved duodenal and jejunal mucosal SIgA and total Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFA) concentrations compared with group D; (iv) increased relative ZO-1 and occludin mRNA expression in jejunal mucosa compared with group D; and (v) enhanced intestinal energy metabolism and defense mechanisms of calves by reducing HSP90 expression in E. coli K99, thereby alleviating the inflammatory response and promoting recovery of mucosal function. Our research may provide direct theoretical support for future applications of MSP in ruminant production.

Effect of the Length of Oat Hay on Growth Performance, Health Status, Behavior Parameters and Rumen Fermentation of Holstein Female Calves

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the length of oat hay on the performance, health, behavior, and rumen fermentation of dairy calves. For this purpose, two hundred and ten healthy two-day-old Holstein dairy calves were randomly allocated into three groups: basic diet (calf starter) without hay (CON), or a basic diet with oat hay at either long (OL: 10-12 cm) or short (OS: 3-5 cm) length cut. The basic diet was fed from day 4, while the hay was offered from day 14. All calves were weaned at day 56 and remained in their individual hutches till the end of the trial (day 70). Calf starter intake and fecal scores were recorded daily. Bodyweight, body size, and rumen fluid samples were collected biweekly before weaning and weekly after weaning. Overall, providing oat hay (OS and OL) in the diet increased the body weight, starter intake, and average daily gain compared to the CON group. Similarly, feeding oat hay improved rumen fermentation. More specifically, hay enhanced the rumen pH and changed the rumen fermentation type. Hay fed calves spent more time on rumination but less time performing abnormal behaviors compared to control. As it can be concluded, feeding oat hay to calves enhances the growth performance, rumen fermentation, and normal calf behaviors, implying improved animal welfare irrespective of the hay length.

Gut microbiome colonization and development in neonatal ruminants: Strategies, prospects, and opportunities

Colonization and development of the gut microbiome is a crucial consideration for optimizing the health and performance of livestock animals. This is mainly attributed to the fact that dietary and management practices greatly influence the gut microbiota, subsequently leading to changes in nutrient utilization and immune response. A favorable microbiome can be implanted through dietary or management interventions of livestock animals, especially during early life. In this review, we explore all the possible factors (for example gestation, colostrum, and milk feeding, drinking water, starter feed, inoculation from healthy animals, prebiotics/probiotics, weaning time, essential oil and transgenesis), which can influence rumen microbiome colonization and development. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of potential strategies used to manipulate gut development and microbial colonization to improve the production and health of newborn calves at an early age when they are most susceptible to enteric disease. Moreover, we provide insights into possible interventions and their potential effects on rumen development and microbiota establishment. Prospects of latest techniques like transgenesis and host genetics have also been discussed regarding their potential role in modulation of rumen microbiome and subsequent effects on gut development and performance in neonatal ruminants.

Effect of maternal supplementation with essential fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid on metabolic and endocrine development in neonatal calves

We tested the hypothesis that the maternal supply of essential fatty acids (EFA), especially α-linolenic acid, and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), affects glucose metabolism, the endocrine regulation of energy metabolism and growth, and the intestinal development of neonatal calves. We studied calves from dams that received an abomasal infusion of 76 g/d coconut oil (CTRL; n = 9), 78 g/d linseed oil and 4 g/d safflower oil (EFA; n = 9), 38 g/d Lutalin (BASF SE) containing 27% cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12 CLA (CLA; n = 9), or a combination of EFA and CLA (EFA+CLA; n = 11) during the last 63 d of gestation and early lactation. Calves received colostrum and transition milk from their own dam for the first 5 d of life. Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, leptin, and adiponectin concentrations were measured in milk. Blood samples were taken before first colostrum intake, 24 h after birth, and from d 3 to 5 of life before morning feeding to measure metabolic and endocrine traits in plasma. On d 3 of life, energy expenditure was evaluated by a bolus injection of NaH¹³CO₃ and determination of CO₂ appearance rate. On d 4, additional blood samples were taken to evaluate glucose first-pass uptake and ¹³CO₂ enrichment after [¹³C₆]-glucose feeding and intravenous [6,6-²H₂]-glucose bolus injection, as well as postprandial changes in glucose, nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), insulin, and glucagon. On d 5, calves were killed 2 h after feeding and samples of small intestinal mucosa were taken for histomorphometric measurements. The concentrations of IGF-I, adiponectin, and leptin in milk decreased during early lactation in all groups, and the concentrations of leptin in first colostrum was higher in EFA than in CTRL cows. Plasma glucose concentration before first colostrum intake was higher in EFA calves than in non-EFA calves and was lower in CLA calves than in non-CLA calves. Plasma IGF-I concentration was higher on d 1 before colostrum intake in EFA calves than in EFA+CLA calves and indicated an overall CLA effect, with lower plasma IGF-I in CLA than in non-CLA calves. Postprandial NEFA concentration was lowest in EFA and CLA calves. The postprandial rise in plasma insulin was higher in EFA than in non-EFA calves. Plasma adiponectin concentration increased from d 1 to d 2 in all groups and was higher on d 3 in CLA than in non-CLA calves. Plasma leptin concentration was higher on d 4 and 5 in EFA than in non-EFA calves. Maternal fatty acid treatment did not affect energy expenditure and first-pass glucose uptake, but glucose uptake on d 4 was faster in EFA than in non-EFA calves. Crypt depth was lower, and the ratio of villus height to crypt depth was higher in the ilea of CLA than non-CLA calves. Elevated plasma glucose and IGF-I in EFA calves immediately after birth may indicate an improved energetic status in calves when dams are supplemented with EFA. Maternal EFA and CLA supplementation influenced postprandial metabolic changes and affected factors related to the neonatal insulin response.

Effects of milk replacer meal size on feed intake, growth performance, and blood metabolites and hormones of calves fed milk replacer with or without butyrate ad libitum: A cluster-analytic approach

This study intended to classify ad libitum-fed calves according to their milk replacer (MR) meal size using the K-means clustering approach. This study aimed to investigate the effects of MR meal size on feed intake, growth performance, and blood metabolic and hormones of ad libitum MR-fed calves. German Holstein calves (16 male and 16 female) were studied from birth until d 77 of age. All calves received first colostrum (2.5 kg) milked from their dams within 2 h after birth. Subsequent colostrum meals (subsequent 4 meals until 2.5 d of age; 2 meals/d) and MR (125 g of powder/L; 21.7% crude protein, 18.6% crude fat) were fed ad libitum by teat bucket until d 10 ± 2 of age. Afterward, calves were housed in group pens with automatic feeders for MR (maximum of 25 L/d) and concentrate from 10 ± 3 d of age. Half of the calves received MR supplemented with butyrate to improve growth performance. Milk intake was stepped down to 2 L/d from wk 9 to 10, and 2 L/d of MR were offered until the end of the study. On d 1, 2, 4, and 7, and then weekly until wk 11 of age, blood samples were collected for measurement of metabolites and hormones related to energy metabolism and growth. The K-means cluster analysis on the MR meal size data collected from the automatic feeder resulted in 3 clusters (n = 14, n = 12, and n = 6). Two clusters with a sufficient cluster size (n = 14 and n = 12) were included for further statistical analysis using repeated measures mixed-model ANOVA. In both clusters, butyrate supplementation was equally distributed and failed to affect a difference in MR meal size. Cluster 1 showed calves with higher MR meal size (HI; 2.2 ± 0.11 L/visit of MR) and cluster 2 with lower meal size (LO; 1.8 ± 0.07 L/visit of MR) supplemented MR without (HIB-; n = 6; LOB-, n = 7) or with 0.33% calcium-sodium butyrate (HIB+; n = 6; LOB+, n = 7). Dry matter intake of MR did not differ between HI and LO, but intakes of concentrate and total dry matter tended to be greater in HI than in LO and increased more distinctly in HI than in LO at the end of the study. The average daily gain (g/d) was greater in HI than in LO. Plasma concentrations of total protein (g/L), albumin (g/L), glucose (mmol/L), urea (mmol/L), insulin (µg/L), and glucagon (ng/L) were higher, and the concentrations of insulin-like growth factor I tended to be higher, in HI than in LO calves. Plasma β-hydroxybutyrate was higher in LO than in HI at d 63 and lower in calves fed MR with butyrate at d 77. In conclusion, clustering analysis discriminates 2 main groups of calves with different MR meal size and indicates an effect of MR meal size on solid feed intake, growth performance, and metabolic changes.

Review: Importance of colostrum supply and milk feeding intensity on gastrointestinal and systemic development in calves

Feeding management of the postnatal and preweaning calf has an important impact on calf growth and development during this critical period and affects the health and well-being of the calves. After birth, an immediate and sufficient colostrum supply is a prerequisite for successful calf rearing. Colostrum provides high amounts of nutrient as well as non-nutrient factors that promote the immune system and intestinal maturation of the calf. The maturation and function of the neonatal intestine enable the calf to digest and absorb the nutrients provided by colostrum and milk. Therefore, colostrum intake supports the start of anabolic processes in several tissues, stimulating postnatal body growth and organ development. After the colostrum feeding period, an intensive milk feeding protocol, that is, at least 20% of BW milk intake/day, is required to realise the calf potential for growth and organ development during the preweaning period. Insufficient milk intake delays postnatal growth and may have detrimental effects on organ development, for example, the intestine and the mammary gland. The somatotropic axis as the main postnatal endocrine regulatory system for body growth is stimulated by the intake of high amounts of colostrum and milk and indicates the promotion of anabolic metabolism in calves. The development of the forestomach is an important issue during the preweaning period in calves, and forestomach maturation is best achieved by solid feed intake. Unfortunately, intensive milk-feeding programmes compromise solid feed intake during the first weeks of life. In the more natural situation for beef calves, when milk and solid feed intake occurs at the same time, calves benefit from the high milk intake as evidenced by enhanced body growth and organ maturation without impaired forestomach development during weaning. To realise an intensive milk-feeding programme, it is recommended that the weaning process should not start too early and that solid feed intake should be at a high extent despite intensive milk feeding. A feeding concept based on intensive milk feeding prevents hunger and abnormal behaviour of the calves and fits the principles of animal welfare during preweaning calf rearing. Studies on milk performance in dairy cows indicate that feeding management during early calf rearing influences lifetime performance. Therefore, an intensive milk-feeding programme affects immediate as well as long-term performance, probably by programming metabolic pathways during the preweaning period.

Appropriate Dairy Calf Feeding from Birth to Weaning: "It's an Investment for the Future"

Dairy calves must be fed appropriately to meet their nutritional needs, supporting optimal growth and development to achieve the recommended target age at first calving (AFC) of 24 months. Traditional restricted milk feeding practices suppress growth, contribute to negative welfare states and may result in malnutrition and immunosuppression. Despite more recent recommendations to increase milk allowances for pre-weaned calves, restricted feeding remains a common practice. This study explored the rationales behind the calf feeding protocols used by dairy farmers in England. Forty qualitative interviews (26 farmers, 14 advisors) were conducted between May 2016 and June 2017, transcribed in full, then coded into themes. Results indicate that a variety of calf feeding regimes are used on farms, largely determined by farmers' attitudes regarding ease of management and the wellbeing of calves. Advisors were concerned about widespread underfeeding of calves, which may be partially due to insufficiently clear recommendations for calf milk replacer (CMR) feeding rates. There was also evidence of uncertainty regarding best practices for weaning calves. Collaboration between academic research and industry is essential to establish a consensus on calf feeding standards which support physiological function, facilitate weaning, support growth targets and ensure calf health and welfare is protected.

Effect of Immediately-After-Birth Weaning on the Development of Goat Kids Born to Small Ruminant Lentivirus-Positive Dams

Simple Summary

Caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE) is one of the most important and devastating viral diseases of small ruminants in developed countries. The disease spreads easily from one goat to another, and neither curative therapy nor preventive vaccinations exist to break the chain of infections. Hence, the only way to suppress the epidemic in a herd is to identify and cull infected goats. However, it is both costly and cruel as most of them remain apparently healthy for many months or even years, yet they constantly shed the virus. Therefore, many farmers decide to wean kids away from their infected mothers as soon as they are born and keep them in separation, feeding them on bovine or artificial colostrum and milk. Even though this approach is quite effective, it may be recommended only if it has no negative impact on kids’ development. Therefore, we conducted the study which compared the development of kids weaned immediately after birth and kids kept with mothers. We showed that early weaning did not seem to have any detrimental effect on kids’ health. On this basis, we conclude that this procedure may be an advisable alternative for those farmers who cannot afford to implement radical eradication program in their herds.

Abstract

A longitudinal study was carried out to investigate the influence of two different rearing systems of young kids on their development to sexual maturity. Kids born to small ruminant lentiviruses-infected (SRLV) female goats were split into two groups: the immediately-after-birth weaned group and the unweaned group. Kids’ body weight (BWT) was measured before the first consumption of colostrum, and then at the age of one week, and one, two, four, and seven months. The relationship between the rearing system and BWT at each age was investigated using mixed linear models adjusted for potential confounders. The mean BWT of kids of the immediately-after-birth weaned group was significantly lower at the age of one week, one month, and two months, and then the difference became insignificant. The mean daily body weight gain (DWG) was significantly lower in the immediately-after-birth weaned group during the whole first month of life, but then DWG in both groups became equal. Crude mortality rate did not differ significantly between groups. This study shows that weaning kids immediately after birth does not appear to have any negative impact on kids’ development except transient growth retardation, which is fully compensated until they reach sexual maturity.

Invited Review: Nutritional regulation of gut function in dairy calves: From colostrum to weaning

Purpose

Published literature regarding calf nutrition was reviewed to create an information base for the implementation of proper nutritional management to maximize health and productivity.

Sources

The main source of data and information for this review was peer-reviewed literature.

Synthesis

Feeding a sufficient volume of colostrum during the first hours of life is crucial to calf health and survival; however, less is known about transition milk feeding and the potential benefits of the myriad of bioactive compounds it contains. After feeding colostrum and transition milk, calves are susceptible to diarrhea when moved onto high amounts of milk, and antibiotic use is often necessary to decrease disease. Feeding an elevated plane of milk nutrition results in increased ADG and, in some studies, increased future milk production. Thus, this nutritional strategy is recommended; however, weaning calves from high volumes of milk represents massive changes in the structure and microbiology of the gastrointestinal tract.

Conclusions and Applications

Colostrum and transition milk contain an abundance of bioactive molecules that can positively affect gut development and microbiota. There is significant potential for the use of novel feeding strategies and microbial-based products as alternatives to antibiotics. Calves fed an elevated plane of nutrition in the first month of life have greater productivity and growth. However, weaning should take place later in life. Moreover, applying a proper step-down feeding protocol is recommended, as it allows calves to intake and digest sufficient solid feed for growth and minimize distress at weaning.

Technical note: Establishment of an ileal cannulation technique in preweaning calves and use of a piecewise regression approach to evaluate effects on growth and pH fluctuation of ileal digesta

Digestibilities of nutrients, especially protein, are crucial characteristics of milk replacers in a calf-rearing program. Endogenous synthesis of proteins and microbial fermentation in the large intestine alter apparent total-tract digestibility of AA. Therefore, collection of digesta samples at the end of the ileum is the only method to estimate true small intestinal digestibility of AA. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effectiveness of inserting a T-cannula into the distal ileum of preweaning calves for use in digestibility studies. A second objective was to evaluate the use of a "broken-line" statistical model to compare treatment effects on calf growth and digesta pH. A T-cannula was surgically installed in the terminal ileum of 2 calves approximately 5 cm anterior to the ileocecal junction at 15 d of age, and 2 paired noncannulated calves were used as controls. Cannulation did not affect mean body weight (BW), average daily gain, milk and water intakes, and body frame dimensions. However, final BW (89.2 vs. 94.6 kg) was lower and starter intake (0.06 vs. 0.21 kg/d) tended to be decreased in cannulated calves compared with control calves. No effects on health scores, rectal temperature, or the odds of incurring diarrhea or being medicated were observed. Flow of digesta (46.4 ± 0.04 g/h) increased linearly after feeding, whereas there was a quadratic effect of time on digesta pH, with the nadir at approximately 8.5 h postfeeding. The broken-line model successfully fitted daily fluctuations of pH and allowed us to detect differences in growth slopes between cannulated and control calves. Despite the expected negative effect on BW, we conclude that this technique permitted sampling of representative ileal digesta while allowing satisfactory growth and health of the calves.

Review of Strategies to Promote Rumen Development in Calves

Simple Summary

The rumen is an important digestive organ that plays a key role in the growth, production performance and health of ruminants. Promoting rumen development has always been a key target of calf nutrition. Current research reveals that an early feeding regime and nutrition have effects on rumen development and the establishment of rumen microbiota. The effects may persist for a long time, and consequently, impact the lifetime productive performance and health of adult ruminants. The most sensitive window for rumen manipulation may exist in the postnatal and weaning period. Thus, the early feeding regime and nutrition of calves deserve further research. The establishment of the rumen bacterial community is a mysterious and complex process. The development of microbial 16S rDNA gene sequencing and metagenome analysis enables us to learn more about the establishment of rumen microbes and their interactions in host gastrointestinal (GI) tract development.

Abstract

Digestive tract development in calves presents a uniquely organized system. Specifically, as the rumen develops and becomes colonized by microorganisms, a calf physiologically transitions from a pseudo-monogastric animal to a functioning ruminant. Importantly, the development of rumen in calves can directly affect the intake of feed, nutrient digestibility and overall growth. Even minor changes in the early feeding regime and nutrition can drastically influence rumen development, resulting in long-term effects on growth, health, and milk yields in adult cattle. Rumen development in newborn calves is one of the most important and interesting areas of calf nutrition. This paper presents a comprehensive review of recent studies of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract development in calves. Moreover, we also describe the effect of the environment in shaping the GI tract, including diet, feed additives and feeding management, as well as discuss the strategies to promote the physiological and microbiological development of rumen.

Effects of ad libitum milk replacer feeding and butyrate supplementation on the epithelial growth and development of the gastrointestinal tract in Holstein calves

Intensive milk feeding and butyrate supplementation in calves stimulate body growth and affect gastrointestinal development. The aim of the present study was to investigate the synergistic effects of ad libitum milk replacer (MR) feeding and butyrate supplementation of MR on rumen and small intestinal growth and on gene expression in the small intestine related to growth and energy metabolism at weaning. Male Holstein calves (n = 32) received colostrum from birth to d 3 of age and MR either ad libitum (Adl) or restrictively (Res; 6 L of MR/d; 12.5% solids) with (AdlB+, ResB+) or without (AdlB-, ResB-) 0.24% butyrate from d 4 until wk 8 of age. From wk 9 to 10, all calves were weaned and were fed 2 L/d until the end of the trial. Concentrate, hay, and water were freely available. At d 80, calves were slaughtered, volatile fatty acids were measured in rumen fluid, and rumen and small intestine samples were taken for histomorphometric measurements. The expression of mRNA associated with the local insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system and glucose metabolism as well as lactase and maltase activities were measured in the intestinal mucosa. The small intestine was 3 m longer in Adl than in Res. In the atrium ruminis, papilla width was greater in Res than in Adl. Villus circumference, cut surface, and height in the duodenum, proximal jejunum, and ileum were greater in Adl than in Res and in the proximal, mid, and distal jejunum and ileum were greater in calves treated with butyrate. Crypt depth in the duodenum and proximal jejunum was greater in Adl than in Res and in the ileum was smaller in calves treated with butyrate. The villus height:crypt depth ratio was greatest in AdlB+ calves. In the proximal and mid jejunum, IGF1 mRNA abundance was lower in calves treated with butyrate. In the proximal jejunum, INSR mRNA abundance was greater in Res than in Adl. The abundance of PCK2 mRNA was greater in Res than in Adl in the duodenum and was greatest in ResB- in the mid jejunum. Lactase activity tended to be greater in Res than in Adl and after butyrate treatment in the proximal jejunum. The results indicated an elevated growth of the small intestinal mucosa at weaning due to intensive milk feeding and butyrate supplementation, and the local IGF system was involved in intestinal growth regulation. Rumen development was not affected by butyrate supplementation of MR and was slightly delayed due to ad libitum MR feeding.