Tail-docking alters fly numbers, fly-avoidance behaviors, and cleanliness, but not physiological measures

Heart rate variability and behavioral alterations during prepartum period in dairy cows as predictors of calving: a preliminary study

OBJECTIVE

Parturition is crucial for dams, their calves, and cow managers. The prediction of calving time, which assists cow managers to decide on the relocation of cows to maternity pens and necessity of human supervision, is a pivotal aspect of livestock farming. However, existing methods of predicting calving time in dairy cows based on hormonal changes and clinical symptoms are time-consuming and yield unreliable predictions. Accordingly, we investigated whether heart rate variability (HRV) which is a non-invasive assessment of autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity and behavior during the prepartum period would be useful for predicting calving time in dairy cows.

METHODS

Eight pregnant cows were surveilled under electrocardiogram and video recordings for HRV and behavioral analyses, respectively. HRV parameters in time and frequency domains were evaluated. A 24-h time budget was calculated for each of six types of behavior (standing and lying with or without rumination, sleeping, and eating).

RESULTS

Heart rate on calving day is considerably higher than those recorded on the days preceding calving. Low frequency power declined, whereas high frequency power escalated on the calving day compared to the period between 24 and 48 h before calving. The time budget for ruminating while lying decreased and that while standing increased markedly on the calving day compared to those allocated on the preceding days; nonetheless, the total time budget for ruminating did not differ during the prepartum period.

CONCLUSION

We elucidated the ANS activity and behavioral profiles during prepartum period. Our results confirm that HRV parameters and behavior are useful for predicting calving time, and interestingly indicate that the time budget for ruminating while standing (or lying) may serve as a valuable predictor of calving. Collectively, our findings lay the foundation for future investigations to determine other potential predictors and formulate an algorithm for predicting calving time.

Livestock health and disease economics: a scoping review of selected literature

Animal diseases in production and subsistence environments have the potential to negatively affect consumers, producers, and economies as a whole. A growing global demand for animal sourced food requires safe and efficient production systems. Understanding the burden of animal disease and the distribution of burden throughout a value chain informs policy that promotes safe consumption and efficient markets, as well as providing more effective pathways for investment. This paper surveys existing knowledge on the burden of animal disease across economic categories of production, prevention and treatment, animal welfare, and trade and regulation. Our scoping review covers 192 papers across peer-reviewed journals and reports published by organizations. We find there exists a gap in knowledge in evaluating what the global burdens of animal diseases are and how these burdens are distributed in value chains. We also point to a need for creating an analytical framework based on established methods that guides future evaluation of animal disease burden, which will provide improved access to information on animal health impacts.

Will Fly Repellency Using Deltamethrin Reduce Intramammary Infections, Stress and Fatigue Indicators of Dairy Ewes under Intensive Management?

Intramammary infections (IMIs) caused by various pathogens may lead to clinical or subclinical mastitis, challenging the health and welfare status of infected animals and decreasing the quantity and quality of the produced milk. Additionally, the zoonotic potential of some of the pathogens isolated from IMI cases, the emergence of antibiotic resistance due to the extensive antibiotic use for IMI treatment, and the accumulation of antibiotic residues in milk and meat represent significant concerns for public health. Therefore, the investigation of IMI risk factors and the proposal of efficient measures to mitigate their effects on animal health and welfare is crucial. Although fly infestation is considered to play a significant role in the transmission of IMI pathogens, its adverse effects on udder health and the overall comfort status of dairy ewes have not been quantified and assessed on an evidential basis. Hence, the objectives of this study were to assess, for the first time, the fly repellent effect of deltamethrin and link it to: (i) the occurrence of common bacterial IMI; (ii) the somatic cell counts in milk; and (iii) the serum cortisol and creatine kinase levels (stress and fatigue indicators). The study was carried out in an intensive dairy sheep farm in northern Greece, during peak fly season. Deltamethrin treatment was associated with a reduced (i) number of flies (mostly Musca domestica) landing on treated ewes, compared to untreated ones (p < 0.05); (ii) colony-forming units in the case of Non-aureus Staphylococci IMIs (p < 0.05); and (iii) number of somatic cells in the milk (p < 0.001). Finally, serum cortisol and creatine kinase levels were significantly lower in deltamethrin-treated ewes (p < 0.001), indicating a less stressful environment for them.

[Behavioural and physiological indicators of pain and distress in calves following tail docking]

OBJECTIVES

According to the German law on animal welfare (§ 6, section 3, No. 3), the prophylactic amputation of beef calves' tail end using elastic rubber rings requires authorities' permission. Removal of the tail end is performed in order to avoid tail tip necrosis. Other invasive management procedures such as dehorning and castration are associated with pain reactions and stress in calves. Also, more proximal docking of the tail between 2 vertebrae has a proven impact on the animal's wellbeing. However, little is known concerning the occurrence of pain and stress during docking the soft tail tip in beef calves. For this reason, this pilot study aimed to evaluate pain reactions of calves during tail docking using rubber rings.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Sixteen male Fleckvieh and Fleckvieh-crossbreed calves 8-10 weeks of age were involved using a double-blind study. On day 0, a rubber ring was placed 3 cm proximally to the tip of the tail in the calves in group A (amputation), whereas calves in the group K (control) underwent a similar control handling. Following the procedure, blood plasma concentrations of cortisol and substance P were determined by ELISA. Parameters concerning behavior and activity were collected using video-assisted observation and recording of pedometer data.

RESULTS

Treatment had no impact on substance P levels. The development of serum cortisol levels showed a decrease in group K compared to baseline values whereas cortisol levels remained constant in group A. On day 0, calves in group A exhibited higher step counts, tail shaking frequency as well as grooming of tail and hind quarters than calves in group K.

CONCLUSION

Increased step count may be interpreted as restlessness. Frequent tail shaking as well as repetitive tail and rear quarter grooming may be associated with unpleasant sensation of the rubber rings' pressure. Alterations in physiological behavior, as well as a constant level of cortisol on day 0 and day + 1 may be indicative for pain perception provoked by the rubber ring application.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

In the first place, improvement of animal welfare is warranted for a reduction in incidence of tail tip necrosis, especially taking husbandry conditions into account. However, if tail docking is deemed necessary, based on the presented results the administration of a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug is recommended in order to reduce peri-procedural pain.

Invited review: Physiological and behavioral effects of heat stress in dairy cows

Animal welfare can be negatively affected when dairy cattle experience heat stress. Managing heat stress has become more of a challenge than ever before, due to the increasing number of production animals with increased milk yield, and therefore greater metabolic activity. Environmental temperatures have increased by 1.0°C since the 1800s and are expected to continue to increase by another 1.5°C between 2030 and 2052. Heat stress affects production, reproduction, nutrition, health, and welfare. Means exist to monitor and evaluate heat stress in dairy cattle, as well as different ways to abate heat, all with varying levels of effectiveness. This paper is a summary and compilation of information on dairy cattle heat stress over the years.

Short communication: Effects of mesh leggings on fly pressure and fly avoidance behaviors of pastured dairy cows

Ectoparasitic stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans [L.]), horn flies (Haematobia irritans [L.]), and face flies (Musca autumnalis De Geer) negatively affect dry matter intake, milk production, and health of pastured dairy cows. These flies cause fly avoidance behaviors and are a major welfare concern for dairy producers. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of mesh Shoofly Leggins (Stone Manufacturing & Supply, Kansas City, MO) on fly avoidance behaviors and numbers of flies attacking pastured dairy cows. In a crossover design, lactating dairy cows (n = 80) were randomly assigned to groups with and without leggings (Shoofly Leggins worn on all legs). All cows were managed in one group. Cows were observed for 2-wk periods, and then treatments were reversed in the next 2-wk interval. Counts of stable flies, horn flies, and face flies on all cows were recorded twice daily (once in morning per cow: 0930 to 1230 h; and once in the afternoon per cow: 1330 to 1630 h), 3 times per wk on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday of each week during the study period. The total number of flies per cow was greater on cows with leggings than cows without leggings. The number of horn flies per cow was greater on cows in with leggings (26.4 flies/side) compared with cows without leggings (24.1 flies/side). Stable fly numbers were similar for cows with and without leggings (12.8 flies/leg). A random subset of 20 focal cows per group was observed during 5-min intervals to record frequencies of 4 behaviors: leg stomps, head tosses, skin twitches, and tail swishes. Counts of head tosses (2.6 vs. 3.1), skin twitches (20.9 vs. 19.6), and tail swishes (21.3 vs. 19.3) were similar for cows without leggings versus cows with leggings, respectively. However, foot stomps were 39% lower for cows with leggings compared with cows without leggings, and leg stomps were 26% higher in the afternoon than in the morning (2.9 vs. 2.4, respectively). A positive correlation was observed between stable and horn flies and all insect avoidance behaviors. Numbers of stable flies were 1.5 times greater in the afternoon than in the morning. The results of this study indicated that flies were associated with cow fly avoidance behaviors regardless of the use of leggings, but leggings effectively reduced foot stomps by 39%, so their use may provide some relief from stable fly injury to pastured dairy cows.

Cows painted with zebra-like striping can avoid biting fly attack

Experimental and comparative studies suggest that the striped coats of zebras can prevent biting fly attacks. Biting flies are serious pests of livestock that cause economic losses in animal production. We hypothesized that cows painted with black and white stripes on their body could avoid biting fly attacks and show fewer fly-repelling behaviors. Six Japanese Black cows were assigned to treatments using a 3 × 3 Latin-square design. The treatments were black-and-white painted stripes, black painted stripes, and no stripes (all-black body surface). Recorded fly-repelling behaviors were head throw, ear beat, leg stamp, skin twitch, and tail flick. Photo images of the right side of each cow were taken using a commercial digital camera after every observation and biting flies on the body and each leg were counted from the photo images. Here we show that the numbers of biting flies on Japanese Black cows painted with black-and-white stripes were significantly lower than those on non-painted cows and cows painted only with black stripes. The frequencies of fly-repelling behaviors in cows painted with black-and-white stripes were also lower than those in the non-painted and black-striped cows. These results thus suggest that painting black-and-white stripes on livestock such as cattle can prevent biting fly attacks and provide an alternative method of defending livestock against biting flies without using pesticides in animal production, thereby proposing a solution for the problem of pesticide resistance in the environment.

Short communication: A comparison of cow cleanliness, fly population, and fly avoidance behaviors among docked, switch-trimmed, and switch-intact dairy cows in 3 commercial dairy herds

Tail docking is a controversial practice in the dairy industry. Proponents claim that tail docking keeps the udder cleaner, and therefore improves milk quality and decreases somatic cell count. Opponents of tail docking cite that it causes unnecessary pain, backed by multiple studies that demonstrate no positive benefits of tail docking and that tail docking increases aggravation from flies. The objective of this study was to evaluate and compare cow cleanliness, fly population, and fly-avoidance behaviors among cows with docked, switch-trimmed, and switch-intact tails. A total of 206 cows from 3 Kentucky dairy herds were included in the longitudinal observational study. Each farm included previously docked cows, switch-intact cows, and cows whose switches were trimmed at the initial farm visit. Researchers visited each farm every 2 wk for 8 wk to record cow cleanliness, teat cleanliness, fly population, and fly-avoidance behavior scores. No significant differences were found in cow cleanliness scores, teat cleanliness scores, fly population scores, skin twitching, or foot stomping counts among docked, switch-trimmed, or switch-intact cows. Although the fly population scores did not differ, the amount of tail swings among docked, switch-intact, and switch-trimmed cows were significantly different. The odds of exhibiting tail swinging were 2.63 times greater for docked cows than for switch-trimmed cows and 1.92 times greater than for switch-intact cows. Overall, switch trimming resulted in similar outcomes to tail docking, although neither showed improvements over intact tails.

Mechanical/thermal sensitivity and superficial temperature in the stump of long-term tail-docked dairy cows

Background

Tail docking of dairy cows is a painful procedure that affects animal welfare level. The aims of this study were first to evaluate the response to mechanical and thermal stimulation, and second to determine the superficial temperature of the stump of tail-docked dairy cows.

Methods

One hundred and sixty-four dairy cows were enrolled. From these, 133 cows were assigned to the tail-docked (TD) group and 31 cows were selected as control animals. The following sensory assessments to evaluate pain in tail-docked cows were performed. Sensitivity of the tail region in both groups of animals was evaluated using a portable algometer. Cold and heat sensitivity assessment was performed using a frozen pack (0 °C) and warm water (45 °C), respectively. Pinprick sensitivity was evaluated using a Wartenberg neurological pinwheel. Superficial temperature was evaluated using a thermographic camera. All sensory assessments and superficial temperature were evaluated in the ventral surface of the tail stump (TD) and tail (C).

Results

Pressure pain threshold was lower in TD cows (5.97 ± 0.19 kg) compared to control cows (11.75 ± 0.43 kg). Heat and cold sensitivity was higher in the TD cows compared to control cows with 29% and 23% of TD cows responding positively, respectively. Similarly, after pinprick sensitivity test was performed, 93% of TD cows elicited a positive response to stimulation. Tail-docked cows had lower superficial temperature (26.4 ± 0.27 °C) compared to control cows (29.9 ± 0.62 °C).

Discussion

Pressure pain threshold values in both groups of animals were higher than those previously reported for TD pigs, sows and cows. In contrast, pinprick stimulation evaluates the presence of punctate mechanical hyperalgesia/allodynia, usually related to traumatic nerve injury, and this association may reveal that it is possible that these animals developed a disorder associated to the development of a tail stump neuroma and concurrent neuropathic pain, previously reported in TD lambs, pigs and dogs. Thermal sensitivity showed that TD cows responded positively to heat and cold stimulation. These findings suggest that long-term TD cows could be suffering hyperalgesia/allodynia, which may be indicative of chronic pain. Lower superficial temperature in the stump may be associated to sympathetic fiber sprouting in the distal stump, which can lead to vasoconstriction and lower surface temperatures. Further studies are needed in order to confirm neuroma development and adrenergic sprouting.

Risk of introduction of lumpy skin disease in France by the import of vectors in animal trucks

BACKGROUND

The lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) is a dsDNA virus belonging to the Poxviridae family and the Capripoxvirus genus. Lumpy skin diseases (LSD) is a highly contagious transboundary disease in cattle producing major economic losses. In 2014, the disease was first reported in the European Union (in Cyprus); it was then reported in 2015 (in Greece) and has spread through different Balkan countries in 2016. Indirect vector transmission is predominant at small distances, but transmission between distant herds and between countries usually occurs through movements of infected cattle or through vectors found mainly in animal trucks.

METHODS AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

In order to estimate the threat for France due to the introduction of vectors found in animal trucks (cattle or horses) from at-risk countries (Balkans and neighbours), a quantitative import risk analysis (QIRA) model was developed according to the international standard. Using stochastic QIRA modelling and combining experimental/field data and expert opinion, the yearly risk of LSDV being introduced by stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans), that travel in trucks transporting animals was between 6 x 10-5 and 5.93 x 10-3 with a median value of 89.9 x 10-5; it was mainly due to the risk related to insects entering farms in France from vehicles transporting cattle from the at-risk area. The risk related to the transport of cattle going to slaughterhouses or the transport of horses was much lower (between 2 x 10-7 and 3.73 x 10-5 and between 5 x 10-10 and 3.95 x 10-8 for cattle and horses, respectively). The disinsectisation of trucks transporting live animals was important to reduce this risk.

CONCLUSION AND SIGNIFICANCE

The development of a stochastic QIRA made it possible to quantify the risk of LSD being introduced in France through the import of vectors that travel in trucks transporting animals. This tool is of prime importance because the LSD situation in the Balkans is continuously changing. Indeed, this model can be updated to process new information on vectors and the changing health situation, in addition to new data from the TRAde Control and Expert System (TRACES, EU database). This model is easy to adapt to different countries and to other vectors and diseases.

Short communication: Relationship between serum cortisol concentration and defensive behavioral responses of dairy cows exposed to natural infestation by stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans

The aim of this study was conducted to evaluate the effect of natural infestation by Stomoxys calcitrans on the behavioral and adrenocortical responses of dairy cattle. Twenty Holstein cows randomly selected were individually sprayed with insecticide once every 7d, whereas no insecticide was applied to the other 20 animals. The average number of flies per cow was estimated daily, and the frequency of fly-avoidance behaviors was measured daily; plasma cortisol concentration was measured each morning. No flies were ever counted on the treated cows at any time during the experiment, whereas an average of 17.13±1.14 (±standard error) flies/d were recorded on untreated cows. Tail movement was the most frequent behavior displayed, with stamps or kicks showing the highest increment rate (41.2×) when fly population increased from zero to greater than 51 flies/cow. Cortisol concentration increased to a maximum of 56.81±39.53ng/mL with 26 to 30 flies/cow per day. Coefficients of determination between the number of flies, cortisol concentration, tail movements, and stamps or kicks were 0.73, 0.78, and 0.81, respectively. The multiple correlation coefficient was 0.90, with 81% of the variation in cortisol concentration explainable by variation in the number of flies per cow and the frequency of fly-avoidance behaviors. It was concluded that plasma cortisol concentration is linearly related to a combination of the number of flies and the frequency of fly-dislodging behaviors, producing a maximum response before reaching maximum fly loads.

Prevalence of contagious and environmental mastitis-causing bacteria in bulk tank milk and its relationships with milking practices of dairy cattle herds in São Miguel Island (Azores)

This study aimed to assess the degree of contamination of bulk tank milk (BTM) by Staphylococcus spp. and coliform bacteria and to identify major milking practices that help perpetuate them in dairy cattle herds in São Miguel Island. In July 2014, BTM was sampled and a survey concerning local milking practices was conducted on 100 herds. Semi quantitative multiplex polymerase chain reaction detected coagulase-negative staphylococci, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and other coliform bacteria (Klebsiella oxytoca, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Serratia marcescens) in 100, 75, 59, and 35 % of BTM, respectively. According to multivariable univariate models, on herds not using hot water for cleaning the milking machine and teat liners, there was at least 3.4 more odds (P < 0.01) to have S. aureus or coliform bacteria contamination in BTM. The likelihood of finding S. aureus in BTM was higher (P < 0.001) on herds without high hygiene during milking, when milking mastitic cows at the end, on abrupt cessation of milking at dry-off, and official milk control implementation. The glove use also favored (odds ratio (OR) 5.8; P < 0.01) the detection of coliform bacteria in BTM. Poor milking practices identified in this study should be avoided in order to decrease S. aureus and coliform bacteria contamination of BTM. Other factors associated with milk quality in São Miguel Island also should be further investigated.

Indoor Confined Feedlots

Indoor confined feedlots offer advantages that make them desirable in northern climates where high rainfall and snowfall occur. These facilities increase the risk of certain health risks, including lameness and tail injuries. Closed confinement can also facilitate the rapid spread of infectious disease. Veterinarians can help to manage these health risks by implementing management practices to reduce their occurrence.

Societal views and animal welfare science: understanding why the modified cage may fail and other stories

The innovations developed by scientists working on animal welfare are often not adopted in practice. In this paper, we argue that one important reason for this failure is that the solutions proposed do not adequately address the societal concerns that motivated the original research. Some solutions also fail because they do not adequately address perceived constraints within the industry. Using examples from our own recent work, we show how research methods from the social sciences can address both of these limitations. For example, those who persist in tail-docking cattle (despite an abundance of evidence showing that the practice has no benefits) often justify their position by citing concern for cow cleanliness. This result informs the nature of new extension efforts directed at farmers that continue to tail dock, suggesting that these efforts will be more effective if they focus on providing producers with methods (of proven efficacy) for keeping cows clean. Work on pain mitigation for dehorning shows that some participants reluctant to provide pain relief believe that the pain from this procedure is short lasting and has little impact on the calf. This result informs the direction of new biological research efforts to understand both the magnitude and duration of any suffering that result from this type of procedure. These, and other examples, illustrate how social science methodologies can document the shared and divergent values of different stakeholders (to ensure that proposed solutions align with mainstream values), beliefs regarding the available evidence (to help target new scientific research that meets the perceived gaps), and barriers in implementing changes (to ease adoption of ideas by addressing these barriers).

Scientific Opinion on the welfare of cattle kept for beef production and the welfare in intensive calf farming systems

Information given in previous Opinions "Welfare of cattle kept for beef production" (SCAHAW, 2001) and "The risks of poor welfare in intensive calf farming systems" (EFSA, 2006) is updated and recent scientific evidence on the topics reviewed. Risks of poor welfare are identified using a structured analysis, and issues not identified in the SCAHAW (2001) beef Opinion, especially effects of housing and management on enteric and respiratory diseases are reviewed. The Opinion covers all systems of beef production, although the welfare of suckler cows or breeding bulls is not considered. The Chapter on beef cattle presents new evidence and recommendations in relation to heat and cold stress, mutilations and pain management, digestive disorders linked to high concentrate feeds and respiratory disorders linked to overstocking, inadequate ventilation, mixing of animals and failure of early diagnosis and treatment. Major welfare problems in cattle kept for beef production, as identified by risk assessment, were respiratory diseases linked to overstocking, inadequate ventilation, mixing of animals and failure of early diagnosis and treatment, digestive disorders linked to intensive concentrate feeding, lack of physically effective fibre in the diet, and behavioural disorders linked to inadequate floor space, and co-mingling in the feedlot. Major hazards for white veal calves were considered to be iron-deficiency anaemia, a direct consequence of dietary iron restriction, enteric diseases linked to high intakes of liquid feed and inadequate intake of physically effective fibre, discomfort and behavioural disorders linked to inadequate floors and floor space.

Invited review: associations between variables of routine herd data and dairy cattle welfare indicators

As farm animal welfare is high on the political and societal agendas of many countries, considerable pressure exists to establish audit programs in which farm animal welfare is routinely monitored. On-farm assessment of animal welfare, however, is time-consuming and costly. A promising strategy to monitor animal welfare more efficiently is to first estimate the level of animal welfare on a farm based on routine herd data that are available in national databases. It is not currently known which variables of routine herd data (VRHD) are associated with dairy cattle welfare indicators (WI). Our aim was to identify VRHD that are associated with WI in a literature review. The 27 VRHD used in this review included the main types of data that are currently collected in national herd databases of developed countries, and related to identification and registration, management, milk production, and reproduction of dairy herds. The 34 WI used in this review were based on the Welfare Quality Assessment Protocol for Cattle. The search yielded associations in 146 studies. Twenty-three VRHD were associated with 16 WI. The VRHD that related to milk yield, culling, and reproduction were associated with the largest number of WI. Few associations were found for WI that referred to behavioral aspects of animal welfare, nonspecific disease symptoms, or resources-based indicators. For 18 WI, associations with VRHD were not significant (n=5 WI) or no studies were found that investigated associations with VRHD (n=13 WI). It was concluded that many VRHD have potential to estimate the level of animal welfare on dairy farms. As strengths of associations were not considered in this review, however, the true value of these VRHD should be further explored. Moreover, associations found at the animal level and in an experimental setting might not appear at the farm level and in common practice and should be investigated. Cross-sectional studies using integrated welfare scores at the farm level are needed to more accurately determine the potential of VRHD to estimate levels of animal welfare on dairy farms.

Tail docking dairy cattle: responses from an online engagement

Tail docking remains a common practice on dairy farms in the United States. This paper describes the results of an online engagement designed to create discussion on tail docking, to document the reasons participants put forward for and against the practice, and to compare these reasons with the literature available on this topic. A total of 178 people responded; 30% were producers, 23% were veterinarians, 25% had no experience with the dairy industry, and 22% included a mixture of teachers, students, and industry professionals. Approximately 79% of participants were opposed to docking. Responses varied with participant demographics (e.g., females were more likely than males to oppose docking), but in every demographic subgroup (e.g., by sex, age, country of origin, and dairy production experience), the majority of respondents were opposed to tail docking. Common reasons for opposition to docking included the lack of scientific evidence that docking improves cleanliness or udder health, that docking is painful for cows, that docking is unnatural, and that tails are important for controlling flies. Some respondents in favor of docking cited cow cleanliness as an issue, despite the scientific evidence showing no positive effect of docking on cow cleanliness or udder health. Additional reasons included protecting producer safety. These results illustrate the range of reasons that are cited for supporting and opposing tail docking. This approach can be used to better target outreach efforts (e.g., improving farmer education on the lack of positive effects of docking on cleanliness and udder health while addressing concerns about producer safety). More generally, this type of online discussion provides a safe and productive format for discussions about contentious issues in the dairy industry and provides a mechanism for producers, industry professionals, and the public to share perspectives on these topics.

Invited review: ruminating conscientiously: scientific and socio-ethical challenges for US dairy production

Despite the predominantly positive depictions of dairy production, public concern about farm animal production practices in the United States is currently higher than at any point in recent history. Many standard industry practices, including some used by the US dairy industries, are increasingly challenged not just on scientific grounds, but also on ethical grounds. Concerns include the environmental impacts and sustainability of modern farm animal production practices, food safety and security, and the increasingly complex issue of animal welfare. As the impetus increases to achieve broad stakeholder engagement in discussions of US food policy, understanding and addressing the ethical concerns associated with contemporary dairy production is critically important to ensure the industry's autonomy and long-term viability. Animal welfare assessment or accountability tools such as the Ethical Matrix or Campbell's Ethics Assessment Process can provide a structured, transparent method of making appropriate ethical choices about the care and welfare of farm animals that are also scientifically grounded.

Strengthening US organic standards on animal health and welfare

Organic livestock production has been increasing in the US, although it still merely constitutes a small fraction of total production. Its success will require detailed standards supported by scientific knowledge and consistent with organic farming principles. However, such standards, mandated under the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990, are yet to be fully developed. Regulations issued by the USDA's National Organic Program identify livestock health and welfare concerns that must be addressed in a farmer's organic farm plan (eg that there be appropriate housing). However, specifics regarding achievement of these goals are not provided in the form of clear standards for organic livestock production. This paper provides a new starting point to further the development of such standards. First, we outline a rationale based upon the legal context and state of the organic livestock industry detailing the reasons why development of these standards is timely. Second, using a review of existing organic and nonorganic national and international animal health and welfare standards, a search of available scientific research, and a consensus of key stakeholders, we identify areas in which organic standards should be readily adopted. We conclude by presenting one example of a plausible organic standard for each of four major US livestock categories: minimum space for feedlot beef cattle; prohibition of routine tail-docking in dairy cows; provision of perches for laying hens and prohibition of gestation crates for sows.

Survey of dairy management practices on one hundred thirteen north central and northeastern United States dairies

The objective was to conduct a broad survey of dairy management practices that have an effect on animal well-being. Dairies were visited during the fall and winter of 2005 and 2006 in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Indiana, Iowa, and New York. Data were collected on 113 dairies on colostrum feeding, dehorning, tail-docking, euthanasia methods, producer statements about welfare, use of specialized calf-raising farms (custom), level of satisfaction with calf-raising by producers, and cow behavior. Calves were raised by the owner on 50.4% of dairies; 30.1% were raised on custom farms during the milk-feeding period, 18.6% were custom raised after weaning, and 1% sold calves with the option to buy them back as first-lactation heifers. A total of 51.8% of producers were very satisfied with their current calf-raising methods. Three feedings of colostrum were fed to the calves on 23.9% of dairies, 2 feedings on 39.8% of farms, 1 feeding on 31.0% of farms, and colostrum replacement products were fed on 5.3% of farms. Many farms (61.9%) provided 3.8 L at first feeding. Calves were dehorned at different ages by various methods. By 8 wk, 34.5% of calves were dehorned. By 12 wk, 78.8% of calves were dehorned. The majority of calves were dehorned by hot iron (67.3%). The remainder were dehorned by gouging (8.8%), paste (9.7%), saw (3.5%), or unknown by calf owner (10.6%). Anesthetic use was reported by 12.4% of dairy owners and analgesia use by 1.8%. Tail-docking was observed on 82.3% of dairies. The most common reported docking time was pre- or postcalving (35.2%). The second most commonly reported time was d 1 (15.4%). Rubber band was the most common method (92.5%), followed by amputation (7.5%). Three dairies amputated precalving, 1 at 2 mo and 3 at d 1 or 2. Cow hygiene was the most common reason given to dock (73.5%), followed by parlor worker comfort (17.4%) and udder health (1.0%). Producers reported 2.0% of cows obviously lame. Gun was the preferred euthanasia method (85.7%), followed by i.v. euthanasia (8.0%), live pick-up (1.8%), and nondisclosure (3.5%). Most producers (77.9%) stated that cows were in an improved environment as compared with 20 yr ago, whereas 8.0% stated conditions were worse, and 14.2% were undecided. Dairies with higher percentages of cows that either approached or touched the observer had lower somatic cell counts. The survey results showed management practices that were important for animal welfare.

Sprinklers and Shade Cool Cows and Reduce Insect-Avoidance Behavior in Pasture-Based Dairy Systems

The body temperature of dairy cows in pastoral systems during summer reaches a peak during and following the p.m. milking. Shade and sprinklers can be used separately or in combination at the milking parlor to reduce heat load. Farmers anecdotally report that the use of sprinklers reduces irritation from insects that occurs while cows are waiting for milking. Once daily, we assessed the effectiveness of short-term exposure to shade and sprinklers for cooling cows [via respiration rate and body (vaginal) temperature] and reducing insect-avoidance behaviors before the p.m. milking in a pasture-based dairy system. Head position was measured as an indicator of whether cattle were avoiding water from the sprinklers. Forty-eight Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were divided into 12 groups (4 cows per group, n = 3 groups/treatment) and were exposed to 1 of 4 treatments for 90 min before the p.m. milking: 1) shade, 2) sprinklers, 3) shade and sprinklers, or 4) uncooled control. Respiration rate was reduced by 30% with shade alone compared with controls [54 vs. 78 +/- 2.3 ( +/- SED) breaths/min, respectively]. Sprinklers alone (30 +/- 2.3 breaths/min) and the combined effects of shade and sprinklers (24 +/- 2.3 breaths/min) reduced the respiration rate by 60 and 67%, respectively, compared with controls. Shaded cows had lower body temperatures during the 90-min treatment period compared with controls (shade: 38.6 degrees C; shade and sprinklers: 38.6 degrees C; control: 38.9 +/- 0.09 degrees C). The decrease in body temperature of cows under sprinklers was more marked than for shade alone and remained lower for at least 4 h after milking (sprinklers: 38.7 degrees C; shade and sprinklers: 38.6 degrees C; shade: 38.9 degrees C; control: 39.2 +/- 0.10 degrees C). The sprinkler treatment reduced the number of tail flicks (control: 12.6 vs. sprinklers: 6.6 +/- 2.4 flicks/min) and hoof stamps (control: 4.4 vs. sprinkler: 2.2 +/- 0.5 stamps/min). Cows exposed to sprinklers spent more time with their heads lowered compared with cows in the shaded and control treatments. The reductions in body temperature and respiration rate attributable to shade and sprinklers were greatest when the temperature-humidity index and heat-load index were > or = 69 and 77, respectively, and cows benefited from cooling when these levels were exceeded.

Short Communication: Behavioral and Physiological Indicators of Sensitivity or Chronic Pain Following Tail Docking

Docking the tails of dairy cattle causes mild to moderate behavior changes and physiological indicators of acute pain, but no studies have investigated the possibility that tail docking may lead to chronic pain. In human amputees, an incidence of increased limb surface temperature is associated with phantom limb pain, a central nervous system representation that survives peripheral loss. The objectives of this study were to assess indicators of sensitivity or chronic pain in heifers by using behavioral indicators and thermography. We tested 14 Holstein heifers, 7 docked and 7 intact, from a previous neonatal tail-docking experiment. All 14 animals were videotaped during a test sequence of alternating cold (-9 degrees C), hot (54 degrees C), and neutral packs applied to the underside of the tail. Packs were placed approximately 30.5 cm from the tail head on all animals. A thermal image of the tail was taken using infrared imagery prior to and after temperature sensitivity testing. Docked heifers tended to have greater changes in surface temperatures following the test sequence than did nondocked heifers. In docked heifers, temperatures on the underside of the tail were higher than those at the tip of the tail, both prior to and following the test sequence. Docked heifers also showed substantially higher stomping activity following application of the cold pack. Shifting increased in intact heifers after application of the hot pack, but shifting of the docked heifers did not change. Greater changes were observed in the tail surface temperatures of the docked heifers following temperature manipulation, similar to human amputees who are experiencing phantom limb pain, indicating that similar mechanisms are present in the stump of the docked tail. The behaviors of docked heifers indicated changes in their sensitivity to heat and cold.

Behavioural responses of dairy cattle to the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans, in an open field environment

Individual cows (25 in each of four herds) were monitored 8-10 times weekly for 12 weeks (stable fly season) on a southern California dairy, with 100 observations per cow. The numbers of biting stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) on the front legs and the frequencies of four fly-repelling behaviours per 2-min observation period [head throws, front leg stamps, skin twitches (panniculus reflex) and tail flicks] were recorded. Fly numbers varied, peaking at 3.0-3.5 flies per leg in week 9 (late May). Weekly herd mean frequencies of fly-repelling behaviours were highly dependent on fly numbers, with a linear regression r(2) > 0.8. Head throws and stamps were less frequent than skin twitches and tail flicks. Individual cows differed in numbers of stable flies and behaviours. Behaviours were correlated with flies for individual cows, but at a lower level than were herd means (r = 0.3-0.7). Cows that stamped more within a herd tended to have lower fly counts; other fly-repelling behaviours were less effective. Cows maintained ranks within a herd with regard to fly numbers (r = 0.47), head throws (0.48), leg stamps (0.64), skin twitches (0.69) and tail flicks (0.64). Older cows tended to harbour higher fly numbers and to stamp less relative to younger adult cows. Ratios of leg stamps and head throws to fly numbers dropped significantly through time, suggesting habituation to pain associated with fly biting. Tail flicks were not effective for repelling Stomoxys, but were easiest to quantify and may help in monitoring pest intensity. At this low-moderate fly pressure, no consistent impacts on milk yield were detected, but methods incorporating cow behaviour are recommended for future studies of economic impact.

Routine surgical procedures in dairy cattle under field conditions: Abomasal surgery, dehorning, and tail docking

This article discusses the different methods used for the correction of left displaced abomasum. The advantages, disadvantages, and success rates of each technique are reviewed. The most common complications are described, and the economics of repeat surgery after a failed left displaced abomasum repair are examined. This article also addresses the need for anesthesia when dehorning and tail docking dairy cattle. The justifications for routine use of these two procedures are discussed, mainly from an animal welfare standpoint.

Responses to tail docking in calves and heifers

The primary objective of this study was to determine the behavioral and physiological effects of tail banding and atrophy using rubber rings 2 to 4 mo before first parturition in dairy heifers either with or without the use of epidural anesthesia. The secondary objective was to determine behavioral responses to tail banding using rubber rings in calves 7 to 42 d of age. Preparturient heifers (n = 24) were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups: 1) tails were cleaned and handled; 2) tails were cleaned, handled, and an elastrator band was applied to the tail; 3) an epidural was administered 15 min before cleaning and handling; and 4) an epidural was administered 15 min before application of an elastrator band. Behavioral observations and physiological responses were collected for 6 wk. Additionally, behavioral responses to tail banding were recorded for 10 d on Holstein heifer calves that were 1 to 6 wk of age (n = 40). No significant differences in behavior were observed among treatment groups of preparturient heifers at any time during the 6-wk observation period. Preweaned calves that were 21 to 42 d of age demonstrated significantly more restlessness after application of tail bands compared to younger calves or control calves of the same age. Plasma cortisol values of preparturient heifers remained within limits previously described for nonstressed animals and no significant differences were detected among groups. Hematological values remained within the reference values for cattle, and there were no significant differences between groups except for relatively more eosinophils in the heifers that received epidurals. No significant differences in heart rate or body temperature were detected among groups.

Indicators of acute pain and fly avoidance behaviors in Holstein calves following tail-docking

Previous work showed that the banding process of docking minimally affected mature cows' behavior and physiology, but cutting off the necrotic tail increased haptoglobin. Additionally the docked cows had more flies on the rear legs and exhibited more fly avoidance behaviors. Because many producers dock young calves while they are in hutches where fly problems are more pronounced, we investigated changes in behavior and physiology of young calves following docking by banding. Twenty calves (3 to 5 wk of age) were assigned to a docked or control group, at each of two locations (Indiana and Wisconsin). After applying a band to dock the tail, calves were tested every 15 min for sensitivity to heat below the band at the Indiana location. Calf behavior was recorded for 2 h postbanding and analyzed continuously for that period. After 3 wk, tails were removed and then 1 wk later, fly counts and fly avoidance behaviors were observed at both locations. Tails were sensitive to heat below the banding site, for 60 to 120 min postbanding (mean 87 min). Banded calves were more active than control calves during the 2 h following banding. Percentage of time spent lying was greater for control calves, and the percentage of time spent walking was greater for docked than control calves. More importantly, movements of the head to touch the tail were increased for banded calves (eight-fold more movements). Fly avoidance behaviors directed toward the rear of the calf were evident at noon or in the afternoon. Ear twitches were more frequent for the docked calves and less frequent in the morning for all calves. Licking was more frequent for the docked calves at 1200 and 1600 h. Tail swings were most frequent at 1200 and more frequent for control calves. Two acute phase proteins, haptoglobin and alpha1 acid-glycoprotein, were not different at any time. In this study, calves that were banded at 3-wk-of-age showed behaviors indicative of discomfort for 2 h, were attacked by more flies, and showed increased fly avoidance behaviors when docked.

Effects of tail docking on milk quality and cow cleanliness

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of tail docking on somatic cell count (SCC), intramammary infection (IMI), and udder and leg cleanliness in commercial dairy herds. Lactating dairy cows (n = 1250) from eight Wisconsin farms were blocked by farm and randomly allocated to tail docked (D) or control (C) groups. Milk samples, somatic cell counts, and hygiene scores were collected for 8 to 9 mo. The prevalence of IMI was determined for each of the five occasions when milk samples were obtained. Udder and leg cleanliness were assessed during milk sample collection. Docked and control animals were compared by logSCC, prevalence of IMI, and leg and udder cleanliness score. Variables were analyzed according to all treatment, period, and farm interactions. At the end of the study period 76 (12.2%) and 81 (13%) of cows were culled in the D and C groups, respectively. There were no significant differences in the initial data for parity, daily milk yield, logSCC, or DIM between treatment groups. Effects significant to farms were identified for all variables over all periods. Period was significant for all variables except for the prevalence of environmental pathogens, but no period x treatment interactions were detected. There was no significant difference between treatment groups for somatic cell count. The prevalence of contagious, environmental, or minor pathogens did not differ significantly between treatment groups. This study did not identify any differences in udder or leg hygiene or milk quality that could be attributed to tail docking.