Transport of colostral macromolecules into the cerebrospinal fluid via plasma in newborn calves

The application of lactoferrin in infant formula: The past, present and future

Human milk is universally regarded as the gold standard to fulfill nutrition needs of infants. Lactoferrin (LF) is a major multiple bioactive glycoprotein in human milk but little is presented in infant formula. LF can resist digestion in the infant gastrointestinal tract and is absorbed into the bloodstream in an intact form to perform physiological functions. Evidence suggest that LF prevents pathogen infection, promotes immune system development, intestinal development, brain development and bone health, as well as ameliorates iron deficiency anemia. However, more clinical studies of LF need to be further elucidated to determine an appropriate dosage for application in infant formula. LF is sensitive to denaturation induced by processing of infant formula such as heat treatments and spay drying. Thus, further studies should be focus on maximizing the retention of LF activity in the infant formula process. This review summarizes the structural features of LF. Then the digestion, absorption and metabolism of LF in infants are discussed, followed by the function of LF for infants. Further, we summarize LF in infant formula and effects of processing of infant formula on bioactivities of LF, as well as future perspectives of LF research.

Fabrication of a Silk Sericin Hydrogel System Delivering Human Lactoferrin Using Genetically Engineered Silk with Improved Bioavailability to Alleviate Chemotherapy-Induced Immunosuppression

Chemotherapy is one of the main treatments for cancer; however, it usually causes severe atrophy of immune organs and self-immunity damage to patients. Human lactoferrin (hLF) is a multiple biofunctional protein in regulating the immune response and thus holds great promise to alleviate chemotherapy-caused immunosuppression. However, a sufficient hLF resource and efficient delivery of hLF remain a challenge. Here, we provide a useful strategy to simultaneously solve these two problems. A silk sericin hydrogel system delivering recombinant hLF (SSH-rhLF) was fabricated to alleviate the chemotherapeutic drug-caused side effects by rhLF-carrying silk cocoons, which were cost-effectively produced by a transgenic silkworm strain as the resource. SSH-rhLF with a uniform porous microstructural morphology, a dominant β-sheet internal structure, adjustable concentration and sustainable release of the rhLF, and non-cytotoxicity properties was demonstrated. Interestingly, the sericin hydrogel showed effective protection of the rhLF from degradation in the stomach and small intestine, thus prolonging the bioactivity and bioavailability of rhLF. As a result, the oral administration of SSH-rhLF with a low rhLF dose showed significant therapeutic effects on enhancing the immune organs of cyclophosphamide (CTX)-treated mice by protecting the splenic follicles, promoting the expression of immunoregulatory factors, and recovering the intestinal flora family from CTX-induced imbalance, which were similar to those achieved by oral administration of a high dose of free hLF in the solution form. The results suggest that the strategy of producing rhLF silk cocoons via feeding transgenic silkworms overcomes well the shortage of rhLF resources, improves the bioavailability of oral rhLF, and alleviates the side effects of chemotherapeutic drugs on immune organs. The oral SSH-rhLF will be promising for applications in cancer chemotherapy and immunity enhancement of patients.

The pain-relieving effects of lactoferrin on oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain

Oxaliplatin (OXL) therapy often causes side effects including chronic peripheral neuropathy. We investigated the pain-relieving effects of recombinant human lactoferrin (rhLf) as well as a long-acting IgG-Fc fused rhLf (rhLf-Fc) on OXL-induced neuropathic pain. We used the hLf in this study, because the homology between mouse Lf and hLf is higher than that of bovine Lf. In addition, rhLf-Fc is expected to enhance the analgesic effect due to the life extension effect in the body. We administered OXL (2 mg/kg, i.v.) to mice twice weekly for 4 weeks. Phosphate buffered saline (PBS), rhLf (100 mg/kg, i.p.) or rhLf-Fc (100 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered once a week from day 15 to 32. We also assessed the continuous infusion of same drugs (10 mg/kg/day) into the external jugular vein by using an osmotic pump. Both of rhLf and rhLf-Fc significantly reduced the hypersensitivity to mechanical stimulation when they were administered intraperitoneally. The continuous infusion of rhLf resulted in a more pronounced effect. Histopathological analysis of sciatic nerve showed that both rhLf and rhLf-Fc tended to reduce nerve fiber damage, but no significant difference was observed in nerve fiber cross-sectional area. Therefore, it was suggested that rhLf or rhLf-Fc injection could be an option for controlling neuropathic pain, which are side effects of OXL.

Use of somatic cell count as an indicator of colostrum quality

The impact of cow mammary gland diseases on the quality of colostrum is not conclusively defined; research results are conflicting. However, it is widely believed that mastitis lowers the level of immunoglobulins and the quality of the colostrum produced. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the influence of somatic cell counts (SCC) on the colostrum immunostimulating and chemical components. The experiment was conducted on an experimental organic dairy farm in which a herd of approximately 250 cows was kept in a freestall housing system, with the average performance exceeding 6,000 kg of milk per lactation. Colostrum and milk samples were taken individually from each cow seven times during the experiment: from the first to second day after calving–twice per day, and from the third to fifth day after calving–once per day. Therefore, after preliminary analyses, the cows were divided into two groups based on the cytological quality of their colostrum at the first collection: 1. SCC ≤400,000 cells/ml (good quality colostrum; GCC– 18 cows), 2. SCC ≥ 400,000 cells/ml (low quality colostrum; LCC– 22 cows). The study found almost double the concentration of immunoglobulins and essential fatty acids in first milking colostrum in the GCC group than in colostrum from the LCC group. In addition, an increase in the concentration of lysozyme in first milking colostrum was associated with a decrease in the concentration of immunoglobulins. In addition, the increase in the level of lysozyme was associated with a decrease in the concentration of immunoglobulins. In conclusion, the SCC of first milking colostrum can be used as an indicator of colostrum quality.

Changes in expression of antimicrobial peptides and Fc receptors in the small intestines of neonatal calves during the passive immunity period

The contribution of colostrum to passive immunity transfer and intestinal protection is well known; however, the effects of colostrum intake on the expression of antimicrobial peptides (AP) and Fc receptors in the intestine of neonatal calves are unclear. Our aim was to investigate changes in the expression of AP and Fc receptor in the small intestine of calves in the first 36 h postpartum. Twenty-four Holstein bull calves were used in this study, of which 18 calves were administered 3.2 L of pooled colostrum for each calf per meal via an esophageal tube. Calves were slaughtered at 8 h (1 meal at 1-2 h), 24 h (2 meals at 1-2 h and 10-12 h), and 36 h (3 meals at 1-2 h, 10-12 h, and 22-24 h) postpartum. The remaining 6 calves without any milk administration were slaughtered at 2 h postpartum. Samples of blood and jejunum digesta were collected to determine immunoglobulin concentration using ELISA. Samples of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum tissues after slaughter were collected to determine AP and Fc receptor expression using quantitative real-time PCR. In calves administered colostrum, IgG concentration in jejunum digesta rapidly decreased in an age-dependent manner (33.41, 9.47, and 0.34 mg/mL at 8, 24, and 36 h, respectively), whereas serum IgG concentration increased significantly, from 0.25 μg/mL at 2 h to 21.72 mg/mL at 24 h. Cathelicidin-4, β-defensin (DEFB)-7, and enteric β-defensin expression was upregulated at 8 h postpartum in the duodenum and jejunum compared with that at 2 h, but progressive recovery was detected from 24 h onward. Higher expression of cathelicidin-4, regenerating family member 3γ, lysozyme (LYZ), LYZ1, and LYZ2 and lower expression of DEFB, DEFB1, DEFB7, DEFB10, and enteric β-defensin were observed in the duodenum and jejunum compared with the ileum. Differences in AP expression between intestinal regions suggested that the innate immune defense mechanism varied significantly among the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. No difference in the expression of Fc fragment of the IgG receptor was observed either among ages or small intestinal regions. The Fcγ receptor (FcγR)Ia and FcγRIIb expression was the highest at 8 h compared with that at 2, 24, and 36 h, and expression of FcγRIa, FcγRIIb, and FcγRIIIa was higher in the duodenum and jejunum than in the ileum. These results indicated that AP and Fcγ receptors might play important roles in intestinal defense during the passive immunity period.

Lactoferrin's Anti-Cancer Properties: Safety, Selectivity, and Wide Range of Action

Despite recent advances in cancer therapy, current treatments, including radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy, although beneficial, present attendant side effects and long-term sequelae, usually more or less affecting quality of life of the patients. Indeed, except for most of the immunotherapeutic agents, the complete lack of selectivity between normal and cancer cells for radio- and chemotherapy can make them potential antagonists of the host anti-cancer self-defense over time. Recently, the use of nutraceuticals as natural compounds corroborating anti-cancer standard therapy is emerging as a promising tool for their relative abundance, bioavailability, safety, low-cost effectiveness, and immuno-compatibility with the host. In this review, we outlined the anti-cancer properties of Lactoferrin (Lf), an iron-binding glycoprotein of the innate immune defense. Lf shows high bioavailability after oral administration, high selectivity toward cancer cells, and a wide range of molecular targets controlling tumor proliferation, survival, migration, invasion, and metastasization. Of note, Lf is able to promote or inhibit cell proliferation and migration depending on whether it acts upon normal or cancerous cells, respectively. Importantly, Lf administration is highly tolerated and does not present significant adverse effects. Moreover, Lf can prevent development or inhibit cancer growth by boosting adaptive immune response. Finally, Lf was recently found to be an ideal carrier for chemotherapeutics, even for the treatment of brain tumors due to its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, thus globally appearing as a promising tool for cancer prevention and treatment, especially in combination therapies.

Influence of selenium administration to dry cows on selected biochemical and immune parameters of their offspring

The study was performed on 16 Holstein-Friesian calves divided into two groups of eight animals each. The first group was composed of calves whose mothers did not receive selenium supplements (Se0). The second group consisted of calves whose mothers were administered intramuscular injections of a selenium and vitamin E supplement containing 0.5 of sodium selenite/ml and 50 mg of tocopherol acetate/ml in a single dose of 30 ml (Se30) ml, 10 days before the expected parturition date (10 ± 2 days). The calves were fed 2.5 L of the mother's colostrum administered by stomach tube 2 hr after birth and another 2 L 6 hr after birth. Blood from all calves was collected 7 times from external jugular vein (day 0-before colostrum administration and on the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 7th, 14th and 21st days of life) for analyses of selenium, ceruloplasmin, transferrin, lactoferrin, immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentrations and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) and lysozyme activity. Selenium concentration was significantly higher in calves whose mothers received selenium supplements than in the offspring of non-supplemented cows until 72 hr after birth (p ≤ .05). Lysozyme and GGTP activity and IgG concentration were significantly higher in the S30 group during the entire experiment (p ≤ .05). Supplementation of selenium to the mothers did not influence the ceruloplasmin, lactoferrin and transferrin levels in calves. A single injection of a selenium supplement administered to cows during late pregnancy increases selenium levels in calves and enhances passive transfer from the mother to the offspring.

Transferrina como marcador de maturação pulmonar em cordeiros nascidos a termo ou prematuros

RESUMO O objetivo do estudo foi procurar proteínas de fase aguda que possam indicar sinais de maturação no neonato prematuro, por meio da quantificação sérica delas. Identificou-se a imunoglobulina A, a ceruloplasmina, a haptoglobina, a glicoproteína ácida, a transferrina, a albumina e as imunoglobulinas G de cadeias leve e pesada, pela comparação do perfil dos proteinogramas de cordeiros nascidos a termo com os prematuros submetidos a diferentes protocolos terapêuticos, a fim de estimular a atividade respiratória. Constituíram-se seis grupos: PN (n= 9): nascidos de parto normal; CN (n= 7): nascidos de cesariana em tempo normal de gestação; CP (n= 6): nascidos de cesariana prematura sem nenhum tipo de tratamento; DEX (n= 9): prematuros cujas mães receberam dexametasona pré-parto; SURF (n= 6): prematuros tratados com surfactante; e DEXSURF (n= 6): prematuros tratados com surfactante cujas mães receberam dexametasona pré-parto. As avaliações foram realizadas nos momentos imediatamente após o nascimento (M0), após 24 (M24) e após 48 horas (M48). As amostras foram processadas por meio de eletroforese em gel de poliacrilamida contendo dodecil sulfato de sódio (SDS-PAGE). A albumina, as imunoglobulinas e a proteína total dos cordeiros tiveram elevação após a ingestão de colostro. Maiores valores séricos de transferrina são referentes a maior período gestacional, podendo essa proteína ser utilizada como marcador de maturação neonatal.

Changes in the content of immunostimulating components of colostrum obtained from dairy cows at different levels of production

BACKGROUND

Recent data indicate that almost 60% of colostrum samples do not have enough antibodies to provide adequate protection for the calf. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the influence of the level of production of cows on the content of immunostimulating components of protein fraction of colostrum. The observations were conducted on two farms that keep dairy cows. One of the farms was selected to represent a typical performance level for the mass population of dairy cows in Poland, about 5500 kg of milk per cow per year (LI) and the second one was characterized by a higher level of production, about 8000 kg (HI).

RESULTS

Based on the data obtained, 100% of the samples collected from LI had an immunoglobulin G (IgG) content >50 gL^-1 , in the first collection. In the case of HI, 63% of the samples had an IgG content >50 gL^-1 , with a distribution in the range of 10.7 to 72.7 gL^-1 . The colostrum of LI cows was characterized by a higher content of lactoferrin, lysozyme, α-lactalbumin, and β-lactoglobulin compared to the milk of HI cows.

CONCLUSIONS

The immunostimulating components of colostrum declined rapidly in subsequent milkings or with the increased productivity of the cows. The concentration of IgG was negatively correlated with the performance level of cows, which means that high-producing cows had colostrum with a low concentration of IgG. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

The concentrations of selected blood serum proteins in calves during the first three months of life

This study was aimed at the evaluation of changes in the concentrations of selected blood serum proteins in calves during the first three months of life, including precolostral, colostral, milk, transitional and solid feeding period. Nine clinically healthy calves were used in this study. The first blood sampling was performed before the colostrum intake (day 0) and then at 1, 2, 7, 14, 30, 60, and 90 days of age. Blood serum was analyzed for the concentrations of α1-fetoprotein, prealbumin, transferrin, and lactoferrin. The results showed significant changes in the serum concentrations of all the evaluated proteins in calves during the first three months of life (P< 0.01 andP< 0.001). At birth, the mean concentration of α1-fetoprotein was low and increased more than × 8 at one day after colostrum intake, then a gradual decrease was found up to day 30 of life. Similar tendency was observed in the concentrations of prealbumin and lactoferrin. While the concentrations of prealbumin increased approximately × 3.5 at one day after colostrum intake, the serum lactoferrin values showed approximately 1.5-fold increase. A subsequent gradual decrease from the 2ndday of life was found for both prealbumin and lactoferrin. In the concentrations of transferrin, a significant increase was observed on day 7 (P< 0.05). The highest values were found at the age of 14 and 30 days. These results suggest that concentrations of these proteins in calves are markedly altered during the postnatal period, which should be taken into consideration for their precise interpretation in young animals.

Lactoferrin supplementation of the neonatal calf has no impact on immunoglobulin G absorption and intestinal development in the first days of life

The objectives of this study were to determine if newborn calves receiving supplemental lactoferrin (LF) had improved IgG uptake and if supplemental LF enhanced intestinal development through estimation of xylose uptake. Twenty-four newborn Holstein bull calves were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatments: 0 or 1 g/d of supplemental LF. Calves were fed pooled maternal colostrum from 9 cows in 2 feedings: at birth and 12 h later. Calves consumed in excess of 200 g of IgG. Blood samples were taken before colostrum feeding (0 h) and at 12, 18, and 24 h after birth. Blood samples were analyzed for IgG concentration. On d 2 of life, calves were fed milk replacer with the added LF and 0.5 g/kg of BW xylose to determine if supplemental LF affected intestinal development. Blood was sampled at 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 12 h after the xylose dose. All calves attained passive transfer and supplemental LF did not affect IgG uptake ( ≥ 0.36) or apparent efficiency of absorption of IgG ( = 0.49). Lactoferrin did not enhance rate of absorption at any time point ( ≥ 0.36). There were no differences in xylose ( = 0.28) or glucose ( = 0.27) area under the curve values in calves supplemented with either 0 or 1 g/d LF. Lactoferrin did not enhance IgG uptake during the first 24 h or intestinal development in calves on the second day of life.

Lactoferrin ameliorates prostaglandin E2-mediated inhibition of Na+-glucose cotransport in enterocytes

Various immunoinflammatory cytokines are produced during chronic intestinal inflammation, which inhibits Na+-glucose cotransport (SGLT1) in villus cells. Lactoferrin (Lf), abundantly present in colostrum, is a multifunctional glycoprotein that is absorbed by receptor-mediated transcytosis in humans and animals and has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory effects. Therefore, this study aimed to examine whether Lf would prevent PGE2 effect on SGLT1 for glucose absorption in enterocytes. Intestinal epithelial cells (IEC-6) were grown on transwell plates, treated with phlorizin, PGE2, AH6809, and Lf, and 3-O-methyl d-glucopyranose (OMG) uptake was measured in 10 days postconfluent. Na+-dependent OMG uptake, phlorizin, and immunoblotting studies established the activity and apical membrane localization of SGLT1 in IEC-6 cells. PGE2 inhibited SGLT1 in a concentration- and time-dependent manner with an inhibitory constant (Ki) of 50.0 nmol/L and that was antagonized by prostanoid receptor inhibitor, AH6809. PGE2 did not alter Na+/K+-ATPase activity. In contrast, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analyses revealed that SGLT1-specific transcripts and protein expression level were decreased 3-fold by PGE2. Furthermore, PGE2 treatment increased intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and Ca2+ concentrations and decreased SGLT1 expression on the apical membrane, and these effects were ameliorated by Lf. Therefore, we conclude that Lf ameliorates the PGE2 inhibition of SGLT1 most likely via the Ca2+- and cAMP-signaling pathways.

Physiology of blood-brain interfaces in relation to brain disposition of small compounds and macromolecules

The brain develops and functions within a strictly controlled environment resulting from the coordinated action of different cellular interfaces located between the blood and the extracellular fluids of the brain, which include the interstitial fluid and the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). As a correlate, the delivery of pharmacologically active molecules and especially macromolecules to the brain is challenged by the barrier properties of these interfaces. Blood-brain interfaces comprise both the blood-brain barrier located at the endothelium of the brain microvessels and the blood-CSF barrier located at the epithelium of the choroid plexuses. Although both barriers develop extensive surface areas of exchange between the blood and the neuropil or the CSF, the molecular fluxes across these interfaces are tightly regulated. Cerebral microvessels acquire a barrier phenotype early during cerebral vasculogenesis under the influence of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, and of recruited pericytes. Later in development, astrocytes also play a role in blood-brain barrier maintenance. The tight choroid plexus epithelium develops very early during embryogenesis. It is specified by various signaling molecules from the embryonic dorsal midline, such as bone morphogenic proteins, and grows under the influence of Sonic hedgehog protein. Tight junctions at each barrier comprise a distinctive set of claudins from the pore-forming and tightening categories that determine their respective paracellular barrier characteristics. Vesicular traffic is limited in the cerebral endothelium and abundant in the choroidal epithelium, yet without evidence of active fluid phase transcytosis. Inorganic ion transport is highly regulated across the barriers. Small organic compounds such as nutrients, micronutrients and hormones are transported into the brain by specific solute carriers. Other bioactive metabolites, lipophilic toxic xenobiotics or pharmacological agents are restrained from accumulating in the brain by several ATP-binding cassette efflux transporters, multispecific solute carriers, and detoxifying enzymes. These various molecular effectors differently distribute between the two barriers. Receptor-mediated endocytotic and transcytotic mechanisms are active in the barriers. They enable brain penetration of selected polypeptides and proteins, or inversely macromolecule efflux as it is the case for immnoglobulins G. An additional mechanism specific to the BCSFB mediates the transport of selected plasma proteins from blood into CSF in the developing brain. All these mechanisms could be explored and manipulated to improve macromolecule delivery to the brain.

Nationwide evaluation of quality and composition of colostrum on dairy farms in the United States

The objective of this study was to characterize the quality of maternal colostrum (MC) fed to newborn dairy calves in the United States and identify the proportion of MC that meets industry standards for IgG concentration and total plate count (TPC). Samples of MC (n=827) were collected from 67 farms in 12 states between June and October 2010. Samples were collected from Holsteins (n=494), Jerseys (n=87), crossbred (n=7), and unidentified dairy cattle (n=239) from first (n=49), second (n=174), third or greater (n=128), and unknown (n=476) lactations. Samples were identified as fresh (n=196), refrigerated (n=152), or frozen (n=479) before collection, as well as whether the sample was from an individual cow (n=734) or pooled (n=93). Concentration of IgG in MC ranged from <1 to 200mg/mL, with a mean IgG concentration of 68.8 mg/mL (SD=32.8). Almost 30% of MC contained <50 mg of IgG/mL. The IgG concentration increased with parity (42.4, 68.6, and 95.9 mg/mL in first, second, and third and later lactations, respectively). No differences in IgG concentration were observed among breeds or storage method; however, IgG was highest in samples collected in the Midwest and lowest in samples collected in the Southwest (79.7 vs. 64.3 mg/mL). Total plate count of samples ranged from 3.0 to 6.8 log(10) cfu/mL, with a mean of 4.9 log(10) cfu/mL (SD=0.9) and was greater in samples collected in the Southeast compared with other regions of the country. Pooled samples had greater TPC than individual samples and refrigerated samples had greater TPC than frozen and fresh samples. Almost 43% of samples collected had TPC >100,000 cfu/mL, 16.9% of the samples had >1 million cfu/mL. Only 39.4% of the samples collected met industry recommendations for both IgG concentration and TPC. Almost 60% of MC on dairy farms is inadequate, and a large number of calves are at risk of failure of passive transfer or bacterial infections, or both. Also, the data indicate that regional differences exist in colostrum quality.

Iron-saturated lactoferrin and pathogenic protozoa: could this protein be an iron source for their parasitic style of life?

Iron is an essential nutrient for the survival of pathogens inside a host. As a general strategy against microbes, mammals have evolved complex iron-withholding systems for efficiently decreasing the iron accessible to invaders. Pathogens that inhabit the respiratory, intestinal and genitourinary tracts encounter an iron-deficient environment on the mucosal surface, where ferric iron is chelated by lactoferrin, an extracellular glycoprotein of the innate immune system. However, parasitic protozoa have developed several mechanisms to obtain iron from host holo-lactoferrin. Tritrichomonas fetus, Trichomonas vaginalis, Toxoplasma gondii and Entamoeba histolytica express lactoferrin-binding proteins and use holo-lactoferrin as an iron source for growth in vitro; in some species, these binding proteins are immunogenic and, therefore, may serve as potential vaccine targets. Another mechanism to acquire lactoferrin iron has been reported in Leishmania spp. promastigotes, which use a surface reductase to recognize and reduce ferric iron to the accessible ferrous form. Cysteine proteases that cleave lactoferrin have been reported in E. histolytica. This review summarizes the available information on how parasites uptake and use the iron from lactoferrin to survive in hostile host environments.

Nutritional compounds influence tissue factor expression and inflammation of chronic kidney disease patients in vitro

OBJECTIVE

Nutritional compounds that potentially limit inflammation and tissue factor expression may decrease the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and associated cardiovascular disease. This project aimed to determine the effect of curcumin, bovine colostrum, and fish oil on inflammatory cytokine and tissue factor procoagulant activity of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from patients with CKD before dialysis.

METHODS

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with CKD before dialysis (n = 13) and age- and sex-matched healthy controls (n = 12) were cultured alone and with low and high doses of the nutritional compounds for 24 h. Cells were cultured with and without lipopolysaccharide. Supernatants were analyzed for tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, IL-1β, C-reactive protein, and tissue factor procoagulant activity.

RESULTS

The production of C-reactive protein, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, IL-6, and IL-1β by PBMCs was inhibited by low- and high-dose fish oil in the CKD group (P < 0.05). Curcumin decreased secretion of IL-6 (P = 0.015) and IL-1 β (P = 0.016). Curcumin was more effective than colostrum at decreasing the procoagulant activity of PBMCs in the CKD and control groups (P < 0.019).

CONCLUSION

Fish oil decreased inflammatory cytokine secretion from CKD PBMCs. In addition, the beneficial effects of curcumin were demonstrated in decreasing inflammation in vitro, often to a similar magnitude as fish oil.

Anti-nociceptive effect of bovine milk-derived lactoferrin in a rat lumbar disc herniation model

STUDY DESIGN

An experimental animal study.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated the efficacy of lactoferrin (LF) compared with diclofenac to reduce the pain, using a rat lumbar disc herniation model.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

LF is a multifunctional protein that is found in milk. Recent studies have reported that LF reduces nociception in various experimental models.

METHODS

Rats were operated on the left L5 vertebral arch. The left L5 nerve root and dorsal root ganglion (DRG) were exposed by a L5 partial laminectomy. An L-shaped stainless steel rod was inserted from the laminectomy toward the intervertebral foramen to compress the nerve root. In addition, nucleus pulposus from coccygeal discs was applied on the nerve root. At 1 day before operation, all rats were tested regarding the withdrawal threshold of the left plantar surface using von Frey filaments to determine baseline values. Additional von Frey tests were performed on postoperative days 3, 7, 14, and 21. Thirty minutes before each test except for baseline, the rats received LF (100 mg/kg), diclofenac (10 mg/kg), or saline by intraperitoneal injection (n = 6).

RESULTS

As compared with the control group, thresholds of rats in the diclofenac group were significantly higher on postoperative days 3 and 7. However, on postoperative days 14 and 21, there were no significant differences. Thresholds of rats in the LF group were significantly higher on all postoperative days compared with the control group.

CONCLUSION

Analgesic effect of diclofenac reduced with time. However, the effect of LF continued during the whole experimental period. LF might become useful as pain-killer.

Uptake of ingested bovine lactoferrin and its accumulation in adult mouse tissues

Lactoferrin is a glycoprotein with antimicrobial and immunoregulatory properties, which is found in milk, other external secretions, and in the secondary granules of neutrophils. The present study examined the time course of uptake and the pattern of tissue accumulation of bovine lactoferrin (bLf) following intragastric intubation of a single dose to adult naïve mice or to mice daily fed bLf for 4 weeks. Following ingestion, bLf was transferred from the intestine into peripheral blood in a form with intact molecular weight (80 kDa) and localized within 10 to 20 min after oral administration in the liver, kidneys, gall bladder, spleen, and brain of both groups of mice. Immunoreactive bLf could also be detected in the luminal contents of the stomach, small intestine and colon 1 h after intragastric intubation. Interestingly, serum and tissue accumulation of bLf was approximately 50% lower in mice chronically fed this protein than in those given only the single oral dose. Furthermore, significant levels of bLf-specific IgA and IgG antibodies as well as bLf-containing IgA- and IgG immune complexes were detected in mice chronically fed bLf but not in those fed only once. Taken together, these results indicate that bLf resists major proteolytic degradation in the intestinal lumen and is readily absorbed in an antigenic form in blood and various mouse tissues. Chronic ingestion of lactoferrin reduces its uptake, probably through mechanisms such as immune exclusion, which minimize potential harmful reactions to food products.

Bovine lactoferrin protects lipopolysaccharide-induced diarrhea modulating nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 in mice

Lactoferrin (Lf), an iron-binding multifunctional glycoprotein, is abundantly present in colostrum and milk of different species such as humans, bovines, and mice. Our previous observation revealed that bovine colostral Lf is transported into the systemic circulation and cerebrospinal fluid from gut-lumen through receptor-mediated transcytosis in calves. Diarrhea caused by Escherichia coli is one of the important causes of infant morbidity and mortality in developing countries. We investigated the effects of bovine lactoferrin (BLf) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced diarrheogenic activity, gastrointestinal transit (GIT), and intestinal fluid content in mice. LPS accumulated abundant fluid in the small intestine in a dose-dependent manner, induced diarrhea, but decreased the GIT. Pretreatment with BLf significantly attenuated the effects of LPS on the diarrheogenic activity and intestinal content, but reversed the GIT when compared with NG-nitro-L-arginine-methyl ester (L-NAME, a non-selective NOS inhibitor) or indomethacin (an inhibitor of prostaglandin synthesis). Both plasma NO and PGE2 in enterocytes were found to increase in LPS-treated mice and were reversed by BLf. These findings demonstrate that the action of BLf against LPS was specific and it exerts antidiarrheal activity through modulating the cyclooxygenase [NO and PGE2] pathway in the gut.

Milk-derived lactoferrin may block tolerance to morphine analgesia

Lactoferrin (LF) is a multifunctional protein that is widely found in milk, blood, and other biological fluids. In the present study, we investigated the possibility that LF may block a tolerance to morphine-induced analgesia in the mouse. The nociceptive effect of bovine milk-derived LF (bLF) was estimated in the mouse tail-flick test. Although an intraperitoneal (100 mg/kg) or an oral (300 mg/kg) administration of bLF did not show remarkable analgesia, a combination with intraperitoneal administration of morphine (3 mg/kg) strikingly enhanced morphine-induced analgesia. Moreover, repeated administration of morphine at doses of 3 mg/kg (ip) or 5 mg/kg (ip) caused a tolerance to the morphine on the 5th or 7th day, respectively. In contrast, the combination of bLF (100 mg/kg, ip) with morphine (3 mg/kg, ip) retarded the development of tolerance to the 9th day, although bLF did not show any effect on the mice that had obtained tolerance to morphine. Furthermore, the potentiative effect of bLF was partially blocked by pre-treatment with N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), a nonselective nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor, and completely blocked by 7-nitroindazole (7-NI), a selective neuronal NOS (nNOS) inhibitor. Methylene blue (MB), a guanylate cyclase (GC) inhibitor, also dose-dependently prevented the potentiative effect of bLF. These results suggest that bLF selectively activates nNOS and then accelerates NO production. The increased NO in turn modulates the GC activity and finally enhances the endogenous opioid system via cyclic guanosine monophosphate production. We conclude that bLF may block the development of tolerance to morphine in mice, possibly via the selective activation of nNOS.

Antinociceptive and antipyretic effects of a derivatized tetrapeptide from lactoferrin in rats

PEP1261, a tetrapeptide derivative used in this study, corresponds to residues 39-42 of human lactoferrin. The parent protein lactoferrin is known to exhibit antinociceptive activity and it regulates many aspects of inflammation. This study is aimed to evaluate the antinociceptive and antipyretic activities of PEP1261 in rats. PEP1261 exhibits a significant dose dependent antinociceptive activity with optimal effect at 40 mg/kg body weight (b.w.) (i.p.) in both tail-flick model and acetic acid induced writhing in rats. PEP1261 at the doses of 20 and 40 mg/kg b.w. (i.p.) is also observed to exhibit notable antipyretic effect in lipopolysaccharide-induced pyrexia in rats. In conclusion, the results suggest that PEP1261 possesses antinociceptive and antipyretic activities better than the control peptide KRDS.

Suppressive effects of milk-derived lactoferrin on psychological stress in adult rats

Lactoferrin (LF) is known as an iron-binding glycoprotein. It has been shown that bovine LF (bLF) is transported into cerebrospinal fluid via blood although its physiological effects in the central nervous system (CNS) are still unclear. In this study, a suppressive effect of bLF on psychological distress was investigated in adult rats. Intraperitoneal injection of bLF (100 mg/kg) reduced stressful behaviors in a conditioned fear-induced freezing test and an elevated plus-maze test. Interestingly, the suppressive effect of bLF was enhanced by pretreatment with electric foot-shock (FS). This suppressive effect of bLF in the elevated plus-maze test was reversed by pretreatment with naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist, at a dose of 1 mg/kg (ip). N(omega)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME), a nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor, also blocked the suppressive effect of bLF and foot-shock. In addition, combined application of a low dose of bLF (30 mg/kg, ip) and l-arginine (30 and 100 mg/kg, ip) showed significant potentiated effects on psychological stress. These results suggest that bLF has suppressive effects on psychological distress, especially under the condition of moderate stress. Furthermore, it is suggested that bLF possibly activates an endogenous opioidergic system via nitric oxide synthase activation.

Effect of withholding macromolecules on the duration of intestinal permeability to colostral IgG in foals

OBJECTIVE

To quantify absorption of colostral IgG by healthy neonatal foals and to test the hypothesis that delayed ingestion of macromolecules prolongs the duration of intestinal permeability to immunoglobulins (Ig) in newborn foals.

ANIMALS

Thirteen mixed breed foals.

PROCEDURE

Foals were randomly assigned to two treatment groups, which were fed either a glucose-electrolyte solution or a commercial milk replacer for 12 h after birth, before being fed a known amount of colostral IgG. A control group was fed a known amount of colostral IgG from birth. The efficiency of IgG absorption was calculated following determination of plasma IgG concentration for each foal.

RESULTS

Foals given colostrum immediately after birth transferred approximately 51% of ingested IgG into their vascular space. Delayed colostral ingestion significantly reduced the amount of IgG absorbed by foals. Withholding macromolecules for 12 h had no effect on the subsequent efficiency of IgG absorption.

CONCLUSIONS

Colostrum should be supplied to foals within 12 h of birth for best uptake of Ig. The type of fluid administered to foals before the ingestion of colostrum does not influence subsequent absorption of Ig, suggesting that the process of gut closure in foals is not mediated by a finite capacity for macromolecular uptake.

Safety determination for the use of bovine milk-derived lactoferrin as a component of an antimicrobial beef carcass spray

Bovine milk-derived lactoferrin (BMDL), an iron-binding glycoprotein, is known to be an effective natural antimicrobial. It is used as a spray, applied electrostatically, to raw beef carcasses to detach bacteria adhering to the surface in order to reduce microbial contamination. The use of BMDL as a component (at not more than 2% by weight) of an antimicrobial spray was determined Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) (GRN 67) for three proposed uses (i.e., beef carcasses, subprimals, and finished cuts), provided that the ingredient statement of food products that contain milk-derived lactoferrin identifies the source of the protein. The use of BMDL spray on only beef carcasses (not subprimals or finished cuts) at a level not to exceed 0.20 ml of formulation per kg of beef was determined safe without the requirement of labeling of food products so treated. The two key components of the assessment are: (1) a determination that exogenous lactoferrin exposure (resulting from its application to beef carcasses) is in the range of existing background exposures of lactoferrin as a result of lactoferrin found naturally in beef, and (2) a determination that this potentially small incremental increase in lactoferrin is safe (i.e., there is no reasonable expectation that BMDL will become an allergen under the conditions of its intended use).

Evidence of lactoferrin transportation into blood circulation from intestine via lymphatic pathway in adult rats

Using adult rats, the characteristic transporting system for lactoferrin (LF) from intestinal lumen into the blood circulation was investigated. The rats were randomly divided into two groups, a non-collected thoracic lymph (NC) group and a collected thoracic lymph (LC) group. Peripheral blood and thoracic lymph were collected from a jugular vein and a thoracic lymph duct, respectively, under anaesthesia. Bovine LF (bLF) was infused into the duodenal lumen by needle over a 1-min period at a dose of 1 g kg(-1). The transported bLF in the plasma and lymph was assayed quantitatively by double-antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Morphological investigation was also carried out in the intestine, lymph node, and liver. Following intraduodenal administration of bLF, the transported bLF in the NC group was detected in the plasma, and reached a peak value at 2 h. Furthermore, the bLF concentration in the thoracic duct lymph fluid in the LC group increased significantly, and peaked 2 h after the administration. In addition, bLF was not detected in the plasma of the LC group. Immunohistochemical analysis clearly showed anti-bLF positive particles in the epithelial cells of the apical villi. The striated border and baso-lateral membrane were also bLF positive. These results suggest that intraduodenally infused bLF is transported into the blood circulation via the lymphatic pathway, not via portal circulation in adult rats.

Oral Administration of Lactoferrin Inhibits Inflammation and Nociception in Rat Adjuvant-Induced Arthritis

Lactoferrin (LF) is a ubiquitous protein which exists in milk, plasma, synovial fluids, cerebrospinal fluid and other biological fluids. LF is also well known as a natural immunomodulator. Recently, we found that bovine milk-derived LF (BLF) produced micro-opioid receptor-mediated analgesia. In this study, we examined whether oral administration of BLF causes anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects, and also whether it modulates LPS-induced TNF-alpha and IL-10 production in rat model of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), rat adjuvant arthritis. BLF was administrated once daily, starting 3 hr before (preventive experiment) or 19 days after (therapeutic experiment) adjuvant injection. In both experiments, BLF suppressed the development of arthritis and the hyperalgesia in the adjuvant-injected paw. The single-administered BLF produced a dose-dependent analgesia, which was reversed by naloxone, in the adjuvant arthritis rats. Both repeated and single administration of BLF suppressed TNF-alpha production and increased IL-10 production in the LPS-stimulated adjuvant arthritis rats. These results suggest that orally administered BLF has both preventive and therapeutic effects on the development of adjuvant-induced inflammation and pain. Moreover, the immunomodulatory properties of BLF, such as down-regulation of TNF-alpha and up-regulation of IL-10, could be beneficial in the treatment of RA. Thus, we concluded that LF can be safely used as a natural drug for RA patients suffering from joint pain.

Bovine lactoferrin has a nitric oxide-dependent hypotensive effect in rats

Lactoferrin (LF) is a multifunctional protein that is found in milk, neutrophils, and other biological fluids. Under inflammatory conditions, LF production is increased in the periphery by neutrophils. However, the cardiovascular function of LF is still unknown. In the present study, we investigated the effect of bovine LF (BLF) on the mean blood pressure (MBP) and heart rate (HR) in urethane-anesthetized rats and the vascular function of BLF in the rat thoracic aorta. Intravenous injection of BLF produced dose-dependent decreases in MBP but did not affect HR, while the opioid agonist morphine decreased both MBP and HR. The hypotensive effect of BLF was not altered by naloxone methiodide, which cannot pass through the blood-brain barrier, but was significantly reduced by naloxone hydrochloride, which does pass through the blood-brain barrier. BLF-induced hypotension was completely blocked by the NO synthase inhibitor NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME) but not by the inactive enantiomer of l-NAME, NG-nitro-d-arginine methyl ester (d-NAME). BLF-induced hypotension was not altered by the muscarinic ACh receptor antagonist atropine or the cyclooxygenase inhibitor diclofenac. BLF produced relaxation in endothelium-intact but not endothelium-denuded aortic rings precontracted with phenylephrine. The relaxation evoked by BLF was completely blocked by l-NAME but not by d-NAME or the ATP-sensitive potassium channel blocker glibenclamide. These results suggest that BLF causes hypotension via an endothelium-dependent vasodilation that is strongly mediated by NO production and that BLF-induced hypotension also may be mediated by the central opioidergic system.

C-Reactive Protein and Antibacterial Activity in Blood Plasma of Colostrum-Fed Calves and the Effect of Lactulose

Several milk proteins are very important for immunological defense and can be absorbed in the intestine of calves in the first hours after birth. The influence of colostrum intake and the effect of additional lactulose application on the concentration of C-reactive protein (CRP) in blood were investigated. The CRP is known as a mediator of innate immunity. Results were compared to the bovine acute phase protein haptoglobin, and to lactalbumin, lactoferrin, and immunoglobulins in plasma from calves. After colostrum intake, the concentration of most proteins were strongly increased. The data show, for the first time, a significant increase of CRP in the blood of calves 1 d after colostrum intake (nonlactulose group, n = 10), and an even more significant increase in CRP concentration (1 d postpartum) was measured in the group of animals with additional application of lactulose (lactulose group, n = 10) when compared to the nonlactulose group. In an in vitro assay with the plasma of these animals, an increased bactericidal activity was detected against Morganella morganii (1 d postpartum) in both groups, but again a higher activity occurred in the lactulose group. The results of these investigations emphasize the importance of colostrum intake during the first hours after birth for the defense potential of newborn calves. In addition, lactulose may have a positive effect in the period of passive transfer of colostrum proteins and in the immune defense.

Lactoferrin enhances opioid-mediated analgesia via nitric oxide in the rat spinal cord

Lactoferrin (LF) is a multifunctional protein that is found in milk, neutrophils, and other biological fluids, and its receptors have also been identified in the central nervous system. Recently, we found that bovine milk-derived LF (BLF) produced analgesia via a mu-opioid receptor-mediated response in the spinal cord. However, the precise mechanism of this analgesic effect remains unclear. In this study, spinally applied BLF produced analgesia that was reversed by coadministration with a nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor, NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester, during phases 1 and 2 in the formalin test. Spinal coadministration of a mu-opioid receptor agonist, morphine, with a subeffective dose of BLF produced a much more highly potentiated analgesia than that produced by morphine alone during phases 1 and 2 in the formalin test. This potentiated analgesia by morphine with BLF was reversed by a mu-opioid receptor antagonist, d-Phe-Cys-Tyr-d-Trp-Orn-Thr-NH2, or by NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester. In the tail-flick test, continuous spinal infusion of morphine via an osmotic minipump over 6 days resulted in development of tolerance by day 4, but no tolerance of BLF was observed throughout the experiment. These results suggest that BLF acts as an enhancer of the spinal opioidergic system via an NO-mediated mechanism.

Persorption of bovine lactoferrin from the intestinal lumen into the systemic circulation via the portal vein and the mesenteric lymphatics in growing pigs

The absorption and the transportation of intestinally administrated bovine lactoferrin (LF) were immunohistochemically and physiochemically investigated in the small intestine of growing pigs. At the apical halves of the small intestinal villi, bovine LF was absorbed by transcytosis as small vesicles through villous columnar epithelial cells. The presence of bovine LF-positive membranes of transcytotic vesicles suggests that the absorption was mediated by LF-binding factors on the epithelial cell membranes. Almost all of the absorbed bovine LF was demonstrated to be transported via the lymphatics and the portal vein into the systemic circulation. The LF-concentration in systemic circulation was significantly higher at 1 hr following intestinal administration of bovine LF. Bovine LF-positive lymphocytes also were transferred into the systemic circulation from intestine via the lymphatics and the portal vein.

Characteristics of lactoferrin receptor in bovine intestine: higher binding activity to the epithelium overlying Peyer's patches

Several lines of evidence have recently demonstrated the occurrence of specific lactoferrin (Lf) receptors in different cells. We report here, for the first time, the characteristics of binding, and distribution of Lf receptors in the bovine intestinal tract with special emphasis on the epithelium overlying Peyer's patches (EOPP). Brush-border membrane vesicles (BBMV) were prepared from the mucosa of duodenum, jejunum, ileum, colon, EOPP in jejunum and EOPP in ileum. Receptor binding assays were carried out using 125I-labelled bovine Lf. Specific and saturable Lf receptors were found in BBMV of all the intestinal segments examined. Non-linear regression and Scatchard plot analyses clearly revealed that EOPP had the highest binding maximal (Bmax), and lowest in colon. The maximum dissociation constant (Kd) 3.74 microm was in the ileum. We found that bovine transferrin competed with Lf for the same binding site of receptors. In contrast, no binding of bovine serum albumin occurred. It was concluded that Lf receptors in the mucosal lining are attributable to mediate multifunctional activities of Lf in the gut, especially in the EOPP.

Novel function of bovine milk-derived lactoferrin on antinociception mediated by mu-opioid receptor in the rat spinal cord

Lactoferrin (LF) is a multifunctional protein that is found in milk, neutrophils, and other biological fluids. Although LF and the LF receptor have been identified in the central nervous system (CNS), the physiological role of LF remains unknown. We found that bovine milk-derived LF (BLF) reduces nociception in various pain models, as shown by the formalin test, hot plate test, and acetic acid writhing test in rats. Intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of BLF significantly inhibited nociception in these pain models. These antinociceptive effects were also confirmed in BLF-fed rats. The antinociceptive effects of BLF were blocked by naloxone treatment, even though prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) production in the ascites fluid that accumulated during the writhing test was not affected by BLF. Intrathecal (i.t.) application of BLF caused marked antinociceptive effects that were reversed by co-administration of a specific mu-opioid receptor antagonist, D-Phe-Cys-Tyr-D-Trp-Orn-Thr-NH(2) (CTOP), or by naloxone during the formalin test. We conclude that LF possesses mu-opioid receptor-mediated antinociceptive activity in the spinal cord.

Receptor-Mediated Transport of Lactoferrin into the Cerebrospinal Fluid via Plasma in Young Calves

Milk, especially colostrum, contains different kinds of macromolecules abundantly, such as immunoglobulin G (IgG), lactoferrin (Lf), transferrin (Tf), and growth factors. These are essential for the development and maintenance of health, which greatly depends on the absorption and transportation of macromolecules to the target organs. To evaluate the macromolecular transport, and concentrations in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), colostrum was fed to newborn calves followed by milk and milk replacer, and maintained up to the 4th week under farm conditions. Plasma and CSF were collected at different times, and were analyzed for Lf, Tf, IgG and iron concentrations. Lf, Tf and IgG concentrations were steeply increased in plasma and CSF after colostrum feeding, and fluctuating patterns were observed during the experiments. Furthermore, intraduodenal administration of bovine Lf alone in young calf experiments revealed that the Lf concentration reached a peak at 4 hr, and was 7 and 4 times higher than preadministration in plasma and CSF, respectively. To explore the transport mechanism of Lf into CSF in young calves, epithelial membranes of the choroid plexus were prepared and a binding assay for Lf receptors (Lf-R) was carried out with 125I-Lf. The saturation kinetics revealed that the Bmax of epithelial membranes was 26.15 nmol/mg protein with a Kd of 0.11 microM, which also showed that Lf-R is saturable and specific. Scatchard plot transformation showed the presence of a single type of Lf-R in the choroid plexus. These results suggest that Lf is transported into the CSF through receptor mediated transcytosis in young calves, and that Lf may play an important role(s) in brain function.

Characteristic transfer of colostrum-derived biologically active substances into cerebrospinal fluid via blood in natural suckling neonatal pigs

The characteristic transfer of colostral components into cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) via serum after natural suckling has been studied by sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) electrophoresis, two-dimensional electrophoresis, immunoblot and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay methods in non-suckling pigs. Total protein concentrations in the serum increased immediately after first suckling, reached a peak value at 12 h, corresponding to a 2.3-fold compared with pre-suckling level. The protein concentration in CSF also increased and reached peak value at 6 h corresponding to 1.6-fold compared with presuckling level. IgG in serum not detected before suckling, increased steeply after suckling, IgG, IgM and IgA transported into the serum were observed in completely intact form by immunoblot method. The IgG transported into serum was quickly transferred into CSF after natural suckling in contrast to the case of bovine IgG. Serum concentration of transferrin was maintained at high level before suckling and was not changed by suckling. Transferrin also detected in CSF was not changed by suckling. Bovine lactoferrin (Lf) administered into the intestinal lumen was transported into serum (0.01%) and also detected in CSF after 6 h as undegraded form (3.1%). Thus, homologous IgG and bovine Lf are transported into CSF, suggesting that the transport of macromolecules into CSF is selective in neonatal pigs.