Comparing the Fatty Acid Composition of Organic and Conventional Milk

Performance of dairy cows offered silages produced from grass swards harvested on either three or five occasions during the growing season

The nutritive value of grass silage can be improved by harvesting herbage at a less mature growth stage, which in practice usually involves more frequent harvests. This study examined the performance of dairy cows offered grass silages produced from perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) based swards harvested at 2 different frequencies during the growing season (3-harvest (3H) vs. 5-harvest (5H)). Thirty-four mid-lactation (av. 147 d in milk) dairy cows (30 multiparous, 4 primiparous) were offered either 3H or 5H silages in a continuous design (21 wk) experiment. Within each treatment cows were offered silage from each harvest (in harvest number order) for a pre-determined number of days in proportion to herbage DM yield at each harvest. Silages were offered ad libitum while a common concentrate was offered to all cows at 12.0 kg per cow/d over the first 15 wk of the study, 8.0 kg per cow/d during wk 16 -19 and 6.0 kg cow/d during wk 20 - 21. Total yield of herbage harvested over the season from within 3H and 5H were 12.6 and 11.2 t DM/ha, respectively. Across all harvests the mean ME and CP concentration of silages were 10.9 MJ/kg DM and 131 g/kg DM for 3H, and 11.5 MJ/kg DM and 152 g/kg DM for 5H. Silage DMI was greater for cows offered 5H silages compared with 3H silages (14.1 vs. 11.7 kg/d, respectively). Cows offered 5H silages had a greater daily milk yield (33.5 vs. 31.9 kg) and ECM yield (37.4 vs. 35.6 kg) compared with cows offered 3H silages. Treatment had no effect on milk fat or protein concentration. Cows offered 5H silages produced milk with greater concentrations of CLA and n-3 fatty acids. Treatment had no effect on mean BW or BCS, or on efficiency metrics such as milk yield or ECM yield per kg of DMI. Molar proportions of VFA in ruminal fluid differed between the treatments, with cows offered 3H silages having higher proportion of total butyrate (15.9 vs. 14.4% of total VFA) and lower total valerate (3.2 vs. 3.7% of total VFA) compared with those offered 5H. The acetate: propionate and acetate plus butyrate: propionate ratios were unaffected by treatment. In conclusion, increasing herbage harvesting frequency from 3 to 5 times per year improved the nutritional value of the resulting silages, and this led to higher silage DMI, milk yield and ECM yield. However, overall production efficiency (ECM/DMI) was unaffected by treatment.

Cladodes of Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) as a source of bioactive compounds in dairy products

Recently, the interest in improving livestock product nutraceutical profiles through sustainable feeding systems has increased. In this context, the overall quality and nutraceutical profiles were examined in dairy products obtained from 16 lactating Cinisara cows given an integrated feed in dry season with Opuntia ficus-indica cladodes. Two homogeneous groups of cows (milk yield: 6.3 ± 1.5 kg; body weight: 213 ± 55 kg) were fed with 2 different diets (CON: pasture and wheat bran; OFI: pasture, wheat bran, and cladodes), according to a 2 × 2 Latin square design. The bulk milk produced during the study was used to make Caciotta cheese and was analyzed at 0, 15, and 30 storage days. Milk and cheese samples were analyzed for chemical, physical, and microbiological traits. The nutraceutical and sensorial profiles, as well as the antioxidant capacity, were also determined in the final products. For milk, the urea content in individual samples was reduced in OFI but not in CON. In the cheese, integration of cladodes did not influence the starter cultures development with 2 strains of Streptococcus thermophilus, but it caused a higher content of polyphenols and a consequent greater antioxidant capacity and a change in the fatty acids profile. In particular, the caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, and palmitic fatty acids were higher, as were the petroselinic, vaccenic, rumenic, and α-linolenic fatty acids. In contrast, the oleic and the γ-linolenic fatty acids were lower for OFI. The cheese from the OFI group showed better overall acceptability, and a higher yellow color, odor intensity, and butter flavor. The multivariate analysis well distinguished the cheeses belonging to the 2 groups. Further investigations should be conducted to formulate well-balanced diets that include cladodes for Cinisara lactating cows, but also to determine the content of other important bioactive compounds in fresh and treated cladodes, as well as their effects on animal welfare and production.

Production, Composition and Nutritional Properties of Organic Milk: A Critical Review

Milk is one of the most valuable products in the food industry with most milk production throughout the world being carried out using conventional management, which includes intensive and traditional systems. The intensive use of fertilizers, antibiotics, pesticides and concerns regarding animal health and the environment have given increasing importance to organic dairy and dairy products in the last two decades. This review aims to compare the production, nutritional, and compositional properties of milk produced by conventional and organic dairy management systems. We also shed light on the health benefits of milk and the worldwide scenario of the organic dairy production system. Most reports suggest milk has beneficial health effects with very few, if any, adverse effects reported. Organic milk is reported to confer additional benefits due to its lower omega-6-omega-3 ratio, which is due to the difference in feeding practices, with organic cows predominantly pasture fed. Despite the testified animal, host, and environmental benefits, organic milk production is difficult in several regions due to the cost-intensive process and geographical conditions. Finally, we offer perspectives for a better future and highlight knowledge gaps in the organic dairy management system.

Implications of Organic Dairy Management on Herd Performance and Milk Fatty Acid Profiles and Interactions with Season

Interest in organic cows' milk has increased due to the perceived superior nutritional quality and improved sustainability and animal welfare. However, there is a lack of simultaneous assessments on the influence of organic dairy practices and dietary and breed drivers on productivity, feed efficiency, health parameters, and nutritional milk quality at the herd level. This work aimed to assess the impact of organic vs. conventional management and month on milk yield and basic composition, herd feed efficiency, health parameters, and milk fatty acid (FA) composition. Milk samples (n = 800) were collected monthly from the bulk tanks of 67 dairy farms (26 organic and 41 conventional) between January and December 2019. Data on breed and feeding practices were gathered via farm questionnaires. The samples were analyzed for their basic composition and FA profile using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas chromatography (GC), respectively. The data were analyzed using a linear mixed model, repeated measures design and multivariate redundancy analysis (RDA). The conventional farms had higher yields (kg/cow per day) of milk (+7.3 kg), fat (+0.27 kg), and protein (+0.25 kg) and higher contents (g/kg milk) of protein, casein, lactose, and urea. The conventional farms produced more milk (+0.22 kg), fat (+8.6 g), and protein (+8.1 g) per kg offered dry matter (DM). The organic farms produced more milk per kg of offered non-grazing and concentrate DM offered, respectively (+0.5 kg and +1.23 kg), and fat (+20.1 g and +51 g) and protein (+17 g and +42 g). The organic milk had a higher concentration of saturated fatty acid (SFA; +14 g/kg total FA), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA; +2.4 g/kg total FA), and nutritionally beneficial FA alpha linolenic acid (ALNA; +14 g/kg total FA), rumenic acid (RA; +14 g/kg total FA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; +14 g/kg total FA); the conventional milk had higher concentrations of monounsaturated FA (MUFA; +16 g/kg total FA). Although the conventional farms were more efficient in converting the overall diet into milk, fat, and protein, the organic farms showed better efficiency in converting conserved forages and concentrates into milk, fat, and protein as a result of reduced concentrate feeding. Considering the relatively small differences in the FA profiles between the systems, increased pasture intake can benefit farm sustainability without negatively impacting consumer nutrition and health.

Evaluation and quantification of associations between commonly suggested milk biomarkers and the proportion of grassland-based feeds in the diets of dairy cows

This study is a first step approach towards the prediction of the proportion of grassland-based feeds (%GB) in dairy cow diets with the aid of three different groups of milk biomarkers. We aimed to evaluate and quantify the associations between biomarkers commonly suggested in the literature and %GB in individual cows as a hypothesis-generating stage for the prospective establishment of accurate %GB prediction models. Consumers and governments financially encourage sustainable, local milk production making grass-based feeding, in grassland-dominated regions, of major interest. Milk from grassland-fed cows differs from that of other feeding systems by inferential fatty acids (FA), β-carotene content and yellow color; however, these biomarkers have not been evaluated together for their association with %GB. Using approved methods of parametric regression analysis, gas chromatography (GC), mid-infrared spectra (MIR) and color spectroscopy, we aimed to develop a first step towards an easy-to-implement, cost-effective milk-based control to estimate %GB in dairy cow diets. The underlying database was generated with 24 cows each fed one of 24 different diets gradually increasing in grass silage and decreasing in corn silage. Our results indicate that GC-measured α-linolenic acid, total n-3 FA and the n-6:n-3 ratio, MIR-estimated PUFA and milk red-green color index a* are robust milk biomarkers for constructing accurate prediction models to determine %GB. Based on simplified regression analysis, diets containing 75% GB should contain ≥ 0.669 and 0.852 g α-linolenic acid and total n-3 FA per 100 g total FA, respectively, and an n-6:n-3 FA ratio of < 2.02 measured with GC; estimated with MIR, polyunsaturated FA should be ≥ 3.13 g/100 g total FA. β-carotene was not a good predictor for estimating %GB. Unexpectedly, the milk became greener with increasing %GB (negative a* values, ‒6.416 for 75% GB), suggesting the red-green color index, not yellow-blue, as a suitable biomarker.

Factors Affecting Fatty Acid Composition of Holstein Cow's Milk

Milk fatty acid composition has gained the interest of both manufacturers and consumers during recent years. The present paper aimed to perform an analysis of C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C18:1, saturated (SFA), monounsaturated (MUFA), polyunsaturated (PUFA) and short chain fatty acid (SCFA) concentration in cow's milk in relation to the type of ration, parity, lactation phase and season. Cows' milk from animals being fed total mixed rations, including corn silage, had higher C14:0, C16:0 and SFA concentrations than those being fed pasture-based rations but lower concentrations of C18:0 and PUFA. Comparing to 1st parity cows, 2nd and 3rd parity animals had higher SFA and SCFA concentrations in milk. With respect to spring, C14:0, C16:0 and SFA concentrations increased in summer, autumn and winter while MUFA, PUFA and SCFA concentrations decreased. Considering the lactation phase, C14:0, C16:0 and SFA concentrations decreased in fresh cows with ketosis comparing to healthy fresh cows and increased in peak, mid and late lactation. C18:0, C18:1 and MUFA follow the opposite trend. The milk fatty acid profile varies significantly through the studied effects. The fact that the fatty acid profile is associated with animal health, organoleptic properties of milk or even methane production highlights the importance of studying factors that affect its variation.

Olive Oil in the Mediterranean Diet and Its Biochemical and Molecular Effects on Cardiovascular Health through an Analysis of Genetics and Epigenetics

Human nutrition is a relatively new science based on biochemistry and the effects of food constituents. Ancient medicine considered many foods as remedies for physical performance or the treatment of diseases and, since ancient times, especially Greek, Asian and pre-Christian cultures similarly thought that they had beneficial effects on health, while others believed some foods were capable of causing illness. Hippocrates described the food as a form of medicine and stated that a balanced diet could help individuals stay healthy. Understanding molecular nutrition, the interaction between nutrients and DNA, and obtaining specific biomarkers could help formulate a diet in which food is not only a food but also a drug. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the role of the Mediterranean diet and olive oil on cardiovascular risk and to identify their influence from the genetic and epigenetic point of view to understand their possible protective effects.

Comparative Analysis of Fatty Acid Profile and Fat-Soluble Vitamin Content in Sheep and Goat Milk of Organic and Conventional Origin

Consumers tend to perceive organic foods as more nutritious and safer in comparison to conventional, due to the perception that organic food is eco- and animal-friendly. Since fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins in dairy produce are important nutrients, this study aims to assess possible differences in the amount of these components included in organic and conventional ewes and goat raw milk in Greece, while identifying the potential determining factors. A total of 48 samples were collected from organic and conventional sheep and goat farms in Greece (Thessaly) during the lactation period. A standardized questionnaire, including information about the farming system, and a sampling protocol were completed. Samples were studied for the fat-soluble vitamins (all-trans-retinol and α-tocopherol) and the fatty acids profile, while the outcomes were statistically analyzed to explore any associations with the questionnaire data for potential factors affecting the results. According to the obtained results there are slight differences in milk fatty acid content, which indicates that organic and conventional sheep and goat milk in Greece do not have any substantial differences in terms of feeding strategies. Regarding the content of fat-soluble vitamins, the organic milk is generally found to contain a higher amount than the conventional one.

Chemical Composition, Fatty Acid Profile, and Lipid Quality Indices in Commercial Ripening of Cow Cheeses from Different Seasons

The aim of the study was to compare and demonstrate whether commercial rennet ripening cheeses available on the market in summer and winter differ in their chemical composition, fatty acid profile, content of cis9trans11 C18:2 (CLA) acid and other trans isomers of C18:1 and C18:2 acid and whether they are characterized by different values of lipid quality assessment indices. The experimental material consisted of rennet ripening of cheeses produced from cow's milk available in the Polish market. The first batch contained cheeses produced in winter and purchased from the market between May and June. The second batch contained cheeses produced in summer and purchased between November and December. Chemical composition was analyzed by FoodScan apparatus. The gas chromatography (GC) method was used to determine the content of fatty acids. Results obtained in the presented study indicate that the chemical composition, content of fatty acids trans isomers, and lipid quality indices varied between summer and winter cheeses. The summer cheeses were richer sources of MUFA and PUFA compared to winter cheeses. Summer cheeses were also characterized by lower content of SFA, higher content n - 3, lower n - 6/n - 3 ratio, and higher content of DFA. Higher contents of CLA and trans C18:1 and C18:2 were found in summer cheeses.

Organic versus Conventional Raw Cow Milk as Material for Processing

Milk, as one of the basic raw materials of animal origin, must be of adequate hygienic and physicochemical quality for processing. The aim of the article was to compare the quality of raw milk from three production systems, intensive, traditional (together referred to as conventional), and organic, as material for processing, as well as the quality of products made from it. Particular attention was focused on hygienic quality (somatic cell count and total bacterial count), physical characteristics (acidity), basic nutritional value (content of dry matter, total protein, casein, fat, and lactose), content of health-promoting substances (whey proteins, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals), and technological parameters (rennet clotting time, heat stability, and protein-to-fat ratio). Research assessing the quality of organic milk and dairy products is significantly less extensive (if available at all) than for milk from conventional production (intensive and traditional). The available reports indicate that raw milk from organic farms is more valuable, especially in terms of the content of health-promoting compounds, including vitamins, fatty acids, whey proteins, and minerals. This applies to organic dairy products as well, mainly cheese and yoghurt. This is explained by the fact that organic farming requires that animals are kept in the pasture. However, the hygienic quality of the raw milk, and often the products as well, raises some concerns; for this reason, organic milk producers should be supported in this regard, e.g., through consultancy and training in Good Hygienic Practices. Importantly, milk production in the traditional and organic systems is in line with the concept of the European Green Deal.

Consequences of herbal mixture supplementation on milk performance, ruminal fermentation, and bacterial diversity in water buffaloes

This study was aimed to evaluate the potential of a herbal mixture (HM) to improve production performance, rumen fermentation, and milk fatty acid profile in water buffaloes. Sixteen Murrah buffaloes (in four groups) were fed for 10 weeks with the same basal diet supplemented with 0 (control); 20 (HM20), 30 (HM30), and 40 (HM40) g/buffalo per day. The herbal mixture contained an equal quantity of black pepper (fruit), ginger (tubers), cinnamon (bark), peppermint (leaves), ajwain (seeds) and garlic (bulbs). After two weeks of adaptation, daily milk yield, and weekly milk composition were recorded. On the last day of the experiment, rumen contents were collected to determine rumen fermentation parameters and bacterial diversity through 16S rRNA sequencing. Results revealed no effect of treatment on dry matter intake (DMI), rumen fermentation parameters, and daily milk yield. However, milk fat (%) showed a tendency to increase (p = 0.07) in HM20 as compared with the control group. A significant increase in mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids (C14:1, C16:1, C18:2n6 and C18:3) whereas a decrease in saturated fatty acids (C18:0) in milk was observed in HM20 as compared with the control group. No significant change in bacterial diversity parameters (alpha and beta diversity) was observed in response to the treatment. Despite the substantial variation observed in the relative abundance of bacteria among treatment groups, no significant effect of treatment was observed when compared with the control group. Correlation analysis revealed several positive and negative correlations of rumen bacteria with rumen volatile fatty acids (VFA) and milk yield traits. Bacterial genera including Succinivibrionaceae, Butyrivibrio, Pseudobutyrivibrio, and Lachnospiraceae showed a positive correlation with VFA and milk yield traits. Overall, we observed 52 positive and 10 negative correlations of rumen bacteria with milk fatty acid contents. Our study revealed the potential of the herbal mixture at a lower supplemental level (20 g/day) to increase milk fat (%) and unsaturated fatty acid content in buffalo.

Effect of Farming System (Organic vs. Conventional) and Season on Composition and Fatty Acid Profile of Bovine, Caprine and Ovine Milk and Retail Halloumi Cheese Produced in Cyprus

The present work aimed to evaluate the effect of farming practices and season on the fat and protein content and fatty acid (FA) profile of milk and Halloumi cheese produced in Cyprus. Over a year, raw bulk-tank milk samples from cow, goat, and sheep farms were collected seasonally from all organic (11) and representative conventional (44) dairy farms, whereas Fresh Halloumi cheese samples were collected monthly from retail outlets (48 organic and 48 conventional samples in total). The different farming practices did not affect the milk fat content of ruminants, while protein levels were decreased in organic bovine and caprine milk. Under organic farming practices, milk and cheese contained increased values of total mono-unsaturated FA (MUFA) and poly-unsaturated FA (PUFA), and specific FA, such as oleic, conjugated linoleic, linoleic, and α-linolenic acids. Total saturated FA (SFA) levels were particularly decreased in organic samples and, consequently, the atherogenic indices of milk and cheese were decreased. Season influenced milk and Halloumi cheese FA profile; spring samples had lower SFA and higher PUFA and MUFA concentrations. Overall, the organic farm practices improved the lipid profile of milk and Halloumi cheese, which is more likely attributed to the different feeding strategies applied in organic dairy farms.

Milk Fatty Acid Profiles in Different Animal Species: Focus on the Potential Effect of Selected PUFAs on Metabolism and Brain Functions

Milk contains several important nutrients that are beneficial for human health. This review considers the nutritional qualities of essential fatty acids (FAs), especially omega-3 (ω-3) and omega-6 (ω-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) present in milk from ruminant and non-ruminant species. In particular, the impact of milk fatty acids on metabolism is discussed, including its effects on the central nervous system. In addition, we presented data indicating how animal feeding—the main way to modify milk fat composition—may have a potential impact on human health, and how rearing and feeding systems strongly affect milk quality within the same animal species. Finally, we have presented the results of in vivo studies aimed at supporting the beneficial effects of milk FA intake in animal models, and the factors limiting their transferability to humans were discussed.

Regional Characterization Study of Fatty Acids and Tocopherol in Organic Milk as a Tool for Potential Geographical Identification

Reliable geographical identification can protect producers of excellent agroproducts, and also provide reliable purchasing information to satisfy consumers. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the regional and monthly variation in fatty acid (FA) and tocopherol (TOC) in organic milk (OM) and develop a geographical discriminant model of OM in Korea. In this study, OM had α-TOC and showed a regional or monthly difference of 3-5%. Moreover, C16:0, C18:1 n9 cis + trans, C18:0, and C14:0 were the predominant FAs in OM, and OM mostly had higher ∑UFA, including nutritionally desirable FAs; but lower ∑SFA among four regions or in April and August (p < 0.001). The model prepared using stepwise discriminant analysis showed a classification accuracy of 100% for original and cross-validated sample sets. Our results have characterized regional and monthly nutritional variations of OM, thereby potentially suggesting the applicability of a reliable Korean geographical identification labeling system using nutrient compositional analysis of OM.

A Mixed Phytogenic Modulates the Rumen Bacteria Composition and Milk Fatty Acid Profile of Water Buffaloes

This study was aimed to evaluate the effect of a mixed phytogenic (MP) on rumen bacteria and their potential association with rumen fermentation and milk yield parameters in water buffaloes. Twenty Murrah buffaloes were fed a basal diet (consisting of maize silage, brewers' grains, and concentrate mixture) for 6 weeks supplemented with 0 (control), 15 (MP15), 25 (MP25), and 35 (MP35) g of mixed phytogenic/buffalo per d. The mixed phytogenic contained fennel (seeds), ajwain (seeds), ginger (tubers), Swertia chirata (leaves), Citrullus colocynthis (fruit), turmeric, fenugreek (seeds), Terminalia chebula (fruit), licorice (roots), and Phyllanthus emblica (fruit) in equal quantities. After 2 weeks of adaptation, daily milk yield, and weekly milk composition were recorded. On the last day of the experiment (d 42), rumen contents were collected to determine rumen fermentation parameters and bacterial diversity through 16S rRNA sequencing. Results revealed no change in dry matter intake, milk yield and rumen fermentation parameters except pH, which increased (P = 0.029) in response to MP supplementation. The mixed phytogenic increased (P < 0.01) milk fatty acids (C4 to C14:0) in MP15 only. The milk C16:1 content and its unsaturation index were higher (P < 0.05) in MP35 as compared to the control and other treatments. Furthermore, C18:3n3 was higher (P < 0.05) in the control, MP15, and MP25, as compared to MP35. Supplementation of MP tended to increase (P = 0.095) the Shannon index of bacterial alpha diversity and a difference (P < 0.05) among treatment groups was observed in beta diversity. Feeding MP increased the Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Spirochaetes but decreased Bacteroidetes numerically. In addition, the dominant genus Prevotella decreased in all treatment groups while Pseudobutyrivibrio, Butyrivibrio, and Succinivibrioanceae increased numerically in MP25 and MP35. The mixed phytogenic promoted groups of rumen bacteria positively associated with milk and fat yield. Overall, our study revealed 14 positive correlations of rumen bacteria with milk yield and eight with rumen fermentation parameters. Our findings reveal substantial changes in the rumen bacteriome composition and milk fatty acid content in response to MP but these results should be interpreted carefully, as the sample size of our study was relatively small.

Comparison of Fatty Acid Proportions Determined by Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy and Gas Chromatography in Bulk and Individual Milk Samples

Simple Summary

Information about fatty acid proportions in milk fat is important for many purposes, such as animal breeding, animal health control, as well as human nutrition. The routine methods for determining fatty acid proportions (e.g., mid-infrared spectroscopy) are rapid and relatively cheap, but there is a need to compare them with the reference analytical method (gas chromatography) to ensure their validity and suitability for various milk samples. The aim of this study is to compare the proportions of single fatty acids and their sums determined by utilizing both of these analytical methods and the resulting correlation coefficients. Our results show that the mid-infrared spectroscopy method is more appropriate (both for bulk and individual milk samples) for fatty acids present in high proportions of the total fat and for the sum of fatty acids (such as saturated and unsaturated) than for fatty acids with low proportions.

Abstract

Rapid analytical methods can contribute to the expansion of milk fatty acid determination for various important practical purposes. The reliability of data resulting from these routine methods plays a crucial role. Bulk and individual milk samples (60 and 345, respectively) were obtained from Czech Fleckvieh and Holstein dairy cows in the Czech Republic. The correlation between milk fatty acid (FA) proportions determined by the routine method (infrared spectroscopy in the mid-region in connection with Fourier transformation; FT-MIR) and the reference method (gas chromatography; GC) was evaluated. To validate the calibration of the FT-MIR method, a linear regression model was used. For bulk milk samples, the correlation coefficients between these methods were higher for the saturated (SFAs) and unsaturated FAs (UFAs) (r = 0.7169 and 0.9232; p < 0.001) than for the trans isomers of UFAs (TFAs) and polyunsaturated FAs (PUFAs) (r = 0.5706 and 0.6278; p < 0.001). Similar results were found for individual milk samples: r = 0.8592 and 0.8666 (p < 0.001) for SFAs and UFAs, 0.1690 (p < 0.01) for TFAs, and 0.3314 (p < 0.001) for PUFAs. The correlation coefficients for TFAs and PUFAs were statistically significant but too low for practical analytical application. The results indicate that the FT-MIR method can be used for routine determination mainly for SFAs and UFAs.

Fatty Acid and Stable Carbon Isotope Composition of Slovenian Milk: Year, Season, and Regional Variability

This study examined the percentage and stable isotope ratios of fatty acids in milk to study seasonal, year, and regional variability. A total of 231 raw cow milk samples were analyzed. Samples were taken twice per year in 2012, 2013, and 2014, in winter and summer, covering four distinct geographical regions in Slovenia: Mediterranean, Alpine, Dinaric, and Pannonian. A discriminant analysis model based on fatty acid composition was effective in discriminating milk according to the year/season of production (86.9%), while geographical origin discrimination was less successful (64.1%). The stable isotope composition of fatty acids also proved to be a better biomarker of metabolic transformation processes in ruminants than discriminating against the origin of milk. Further, it was observed that milk from Alpine and Mediterranean regions was healthier due to its higher percentage of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid and conjugated linoleic acid.

Evidence That Forage-Fed Cows Can Enhance Milk Quality

Researching the distinguishing factors of nutritional milk quality is key to sustainable production and addresses increasing media and scientific scrutiny regarding human health effects and ecological impacts of dairy products. Modern Western diets have high omega-6 relative to omega-3 fatty acid (FA) consumption. This ratio in milk can be manipulated by management practices; increasing forage in dairy diets raises omega-3 in milk. Whilst studies identify higher concentrations of nutritionally beneficial FAs in organic dairy, milk from 100% forage-fed cows in the UK has not been investigated. This study explores differences in FA composition between supermarket conventional and organic and Pasture for Life Association (PFLA) milk, collected in April, July and October, 2017. PFLA milk had higher concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid (+94%) and omega-3 (+92%) than conventional milk. Additionally, concentrations of palmitic acid (+11%), omega-6 (+69%) and the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 (+201%) were higher in conventional than PFLA milk. PFLA milk had higher concentrations of alpha-linolenic acid (+39%), conjugated linoleic acid (+30%) and omega-3 (+21%) and lower concentrations of omega-6 (−36%) and a lower ratio of omega-6/omega-3 (−44%) than organic milk. This supports previous studies and demonstrates the scope to improve milk FA profiles further for potential health benefits through pasture-based management.

Comparative exploration of free fatty acids in donkey colostrum and mature milk based on a metabolomics approach

Donkey milk is an ideal substitute for human milk owing to its similar composition. Nevertheless, changes in the composition and related metabolic pathways of free fatty acids (FFA) in donkey milk between colostrum and mature milk have not been studied well. In this study, metabolomic methods based on gas chromatography tandem time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS) were used to explore and compare FFA in donkey colostrum (DC) and mature milk (DMM). A total of 24 FFA were characterized and quantified in DC and in DMM. Of these, 11 FFA differed significantly between DC and DMM, and there were 6 key differential metabolic pathways. These results demonstrated that the composition of FFA in donkey milk changed with lactation stage. The interactions and metabolic pathways were further analyzed to explore the mechanisms that altered the milk composition during lactation. Our results provide insights into the changes in milk of the nonruminant mammals during lactation. The results provide practical information for the development of donkey milk products and a foundation for future research on specific milk nutrients.

Fatty Acid Content of Retail Cow's Milk in the Northeastern United States-What's in It for the Consumer?

The fatty acid (FA) composition and content of whole milk (3.25% fat) from organic, omega-3 (n-3) FA fortified, and conventional retail brands available in the northeastern U.S. were assessed monthly via gas chromatography. Among the retail labels, organic milk stood out as it contained a distinct and more healthful FA profile, consistently comprising a higher content of unique bioactive FAs (short-chain FAs, odd- and branched-chain FAs, vaccenic acid, and conjugated linoleic acids) per serving, particularly during the warm season. The total content of saturated FAs did not differ by retail label. While organic and n-3 fortified milk contained a similar content of total n-3 FAs, the proportion of individual n-3 FAs differed significantly (organic milk: 18:3 n-3; n-3 fortified milk: 20:6 n-3) as a result of the production system and process, respectively. Overall, per serving, the FA profile of organic milk may provide added nutritional and health benefits.

Discrimination of bovine milk from non-dairy milk by lipids fingerprinting using routine matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry

An important sustainable development goal for any country is to ensure food security by producing a sufficient and safe food supply. This is the case for bovine milk where addition of non-dairy milks such as vegetables (e.g., soya or coconut) has become a common source of adulteration and fraud. Conventionally, gas chromatography techniques are used to detect key lipids (e.g., triacylglycerols) has an effective read-out of assessing milks origins and to detect foreign milks in bovine milks. However, such approach requires several sample preparation steps and a dedicated laboratory environment, precluding a high throughput process. To cope with this need, here, we aimed to develop a novel and simple method without organic solvent extractions for the detection of bovine and non-dairy milks based on lipids fingerprint by routine MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry (MS). The optimized method relies on the simple dilution of milks in water followed by MALDI-TOF MS analyses in the positive linear ion mode and using a matrix consisting of a 9:1 mixture of 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid and 2-hydroxy-5-methoxybenzoic acid (super-DHB) solubilized at 10 mg/mL in 70% ethanol. This sensitive, inexpensive, and rapid method has potential for use in food authenticity applications.

The effect of herbs added to the summer diet sheep on the lipid fraction profile of raw milk for cheese making and rennet cheese produced from it

A study was conducted on samples of raw sheep milk and bundz rennet cheese produced from it. The milk was obtained from ewes of the Koluda prolific dairy breed, from June to August. The sheep were housed indoors and fed alfalfa green forage, hay, and a mixture of concentrate feeds. Three feeding groups were established: group I ‒ control, fed without the addition of herbs to the concentrate feed, and groups II and III, in which a herb mixture was added to the concentrate feed in the amount of 10 and 20 g/sheep/day, respectively. Six experimental batches of bundz rennet cheese were made from the milk, and the effect of the addition of herbs to the diet on the lipid profile of the milk and cheese was analysed. The results indicate that the experimental factor had no statistically confirmed effect on the lipid profile of the raw milk used to make cheese. However, the milk fat from sheep fed a diet with herbs at 20 g/sheep/day showed a tendency towards reduced content of SFA (by 3.6%) and increased content of UFA (by 6.8%) and DFA (by 7.2%) relative to the control group. The experimental factor had essentially no statistically confirmed effect on the fatty acid profile of the cheese, apart from an 11.3% increase in the content of n-6 PUFA (P≤0.05) in the fat of bundz produced from the milk of sheep fed a diet with herbs at 20 g/sheep/day with respect to the control group. The cheese fat also showed a tendency towards lower content of SFA (by 3.4%) and OFA (by 4.8%) and higher content of UFA (by 7.4%), MUFA (by 7.1%), PUFA (by 9.4%), n-3 PUFA (by 11.5%) and DFA (by 7.6%) compared to the control group. The experimental factor had no statistically confirmed effect on cholesterol content in the raw milk or the bundz cheese produced from it.

The effect of herbs added to the winter diet sheep on the lipid fraction profile of raw milk for cheese making and rennet cheese produced from it

A study was conducted on samples of raw sheep milk and rennet cheese produced from it. The milk was obtained from ewes of the coloured variety of Polish Merino, from February to April. The sheep were housed indoors and fed preserved roughage and a mixture of concentrate feeds. Three feeding groups were established: group I ‒ control, fed without the addition of herbs to the concentrate feed, and groups II and III, in which a herb mixture was added to the concentrate feed in the amount of 10 and 20 g/sheep/day, respectively. Six experimental batches of bundz rennet cheese were made from the milk, and the effect of the addition of herbs to the diet on the lipid profile of the milk and cheese was analysed. The results indicated that the addition of herbs to the winter diet of sheep in the amount of 10 and 20 g/sheep/day significantly increased the content of the acid C4:0 in the raw milk used for cheese making, by 11.5% and 20.0%, respectively (P≤0.01), relative to the control group. C4:0 content in the raw milk was also increased in group III by 7.6% compared to group II (P≤0.05). The herbs had no statistically confirmed effect on other parameters of the health-promoting quality of the milk fat and the rennet cheese. In the cheese fat from group I produced from sheep milk obtained in the period from 69 to 137 days of lactation, there was an increase in the content of SFA and a decrease in UFA during the course of the experiment. The addition of herbs to the concentrate feed of the sheep improved the fatty acid profile of the fat of bundz cheese made from milk obtained from the 97th day of lactation. The experimental factor also reduced the cholesterol content in the raw milk in group II by 26.8% and in group III by 21.2% (P≤0.01) compared to group I. It did not affect the content of this lipid in rennet cheese.

NMR-Based Μetabolomics of the Lipid Fraction of Organic and Conventional Bovine Milk

Origin and quality identification in dairy products is an important issue and also an extremely challenging and complex experimental procedure. The objective of the present work was to compare the metabolite profile of the lipid fraction of organic and conventional bovine milk using NMR metabolomics analysis. ¹H-NMR and 1D TOCSY NMR methods of analysis were performed on extracted lipid fraction of lyophilized milk. For this purpose, 14 organic and 16 conventional retail milk samples were collected monthly, and 64 bulk-tank (58 conventional and 6 organics) milk samples were collected over a 14-month longitudinal study in Cyprus. Data were treated with multivariate methods (PCA, PLS-DA). Minor components were identified and quantified, and modification of the currently used equations is proposed. A significantly increased % content of conjugated (9-cis, 11-trans)18:2 linoleic acid (CLA), α-linolenic acid, linoleic acid, allylic protons and total unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) and decreased % content for caproleic acid were observed in the organic samples compared to the conventional ones. The present work confirms that lipid profile is affected by contrasting management system (organic vs. conventional), and supports the potential of NMR-based metabolomics for the rapid analysis and authentication of the milk from its lipid profile.

An update to the fatty acid profiles of bovine retail milk in the United Kingdom: Implications for nutrition in different age and gender groups

This study investigated the effect of UK dairy production system, month, and their interaction, on retail milk fatty acid (FA) profile throughout the year. Milk samples (n = 120) from four conventional (CON), four organic (ORG) and two free-range (FR) brands were collected monthly. ORG milk had more nutritionally-desirable polyunsaturated FA, including rumenic acid and the omega-3 PUFA α-linolenic, eicosapentaenoic and docosapentaenoic acids, and less of the nutritionally-undesirable palmitic acid. Milk FA profile was similar between FR and CON systems, but FR milk had less saturated FA (SFA) and/or palmitic acid, and/or greater α-linolenic and rumenic acids in certain months within the peak-grazing season. According to the measured milk FA profiles and UK milk fat intakes, milk and dairy products contribute around one-third of the maximum recommended SFA intake. A small increased intake of beneficial PUFA may be expected by consuming ORG milk but human health implications from such differences are unknown.

Role of Fatty Acids in Milk Fat and the Influence of Selected Factors on Their Variability-A Review

Fatty acids (FAs) of milk fat are considered to be important nutritional components of the diets of a significant portion of the human population and substantially affect human health. With regard to dairy farming, the FA profile is also seen as an important factor in the technological quality of raw milk. In this sense, making targeted modifications to the FA profile has the potential to significantly contribute to the production of dairy products with higher added value. Thus, FAs also have economic importance. Current developments in analytical methods and their increasing efficiency enable the study of FA profiles not only for scientific purposes but also in terms of practical technological applications. It is important to study the sources of variability of FAs in milk, which include population genetics, type of farming, and targeted animal nutrition. It is equally important to study the health and technological impacts of FAs. This review summarizes current knowledge in the field regarding sources of FA variability, including the impact of factors such as: animal nutrition, seasonal feed changes, type of animal farming (conventional and organic), genetic parameters (influence of breed), animal individuality, lactation, and milk yield. Potential practical applications (to improve food technology and consumer health) of FA profile information are also reviewed.

Discrimination of organic milk by stable isotope ratio, vitamin E, and fatty acid profiling combined with multivariate analysis: A case study of monthly and seasonal variation in Korea for 2016-2017

This study examined the monthly and seasonal variations of δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, fatty acids (FAs), and vitamin E in organic milk (OM) and conventional milk (CM) collected in Korea during 2016-2017, discriminating OM authenticity with chemometric approaches. Compared to CM, the mean δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values were lower in OM, whereas the mean α-tocopherol and nutritionally desirable FA contents were higher in OM. Furthermore, δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, and FA contents vary significantly with the season in OM, whereas α-tocopherol does not show a specific seasonal trend in either OM or CM. Chemometric approaches provided reliable chemical markers, notably C18:3n-3, C18:2n-6, and δ¹³C_bulk-milk, for accurate OM discrimination according to sampling season. Our findings elucidate milk nutritional quality issues and also provide valuable insight into the control of fraudulent OM labeling in Korea, with potential application in other countries.

The effect of adding herbs to the summer diet on the fatty acid profile of the lipid fraction of sheep milk

The study was carried out on bulk milk samples collected at two-week intervals during the summer (June-August) and individually from ewes at the end of the experiment. The milk was obtained from ewes of the Koluda prolific dairy breed, housed indoors and fed green alfalfa forage and hay with a mixture of concentrate feeds. Three diet groups were established: group I – control (without the addition of herbs to the concentrate feed) and groups II and III, in which an herbal mixture was added to the concentrate feed in the amount of 10 and 20 g/sheep/day, respectively. The effect of the herb supplement in the sheep diet on the fatty acid profile of the milk fat was analysed. The results showed that the fat composition changed in all groups during the three-month milking period. In the first two months, an improvement was noted in the health-promoting properties of the milk fat (a decrease in SFA and an increase in MUFA and PUFA), but in the final period of the experiment they deteriorated. The unfavourable changes were smaller where the proportion of herbs in the diet was higher. As a consequence, in the final stage of research, lower SFA content was noted in the fat of the group III sheep than in the control group and II, by 6.0% (P≤0.01) and 4.1% (P≤0.05), respectively, lower content of OFA by 9.1% (P≤0.01) and 5.6% (P≤0.05), and higher content of UFA by 17.7% (P≤0.01) and 11.8%. (P≤0.05), including MUFA by 20.1% (P≤0.01) and 11.3% and PUFA by 11.7% (NS) and 15.0% (P≤0.05), as well as CLA, by 26.0% (P≤0.01) and 17.9% (ns) and DFA by 23.8% (P≤0.01) and 13.0% (P≤0.05). This also meant favourable changes in the UFA/SFA, PUFA/SFA and DFA/OFA ratios. The milk fat of group III also had higher content of n-3 PUFA (by 25.3%) than in group II, and thus a lower n-6/n-3 ratio.

The effect of adding herbs to the winter diet on the fatty acid profile of the lipid fraction of sheep milk

The study was carried out on bulk milk samples collected at two-week intervals during the winter (February-April) and individually from ewes at the end of the experiment. The milk was obtained from ewes of the coloured variety of Polish Merino, housed indoors and fed conserved bulky feeds and a mixture of concentrate feeds. Three diet groups were established: group I – control (without the addition of herbs to the concentrate feed) and groups II and III, in which an herbal mixture was added to the concentrate feed in the amount of 10 and 20 g/sheep/day, respectively. The effect of the herb supplement in the sheep diet on the fatty acid profile of the milk fat was analysed. The results showed that in the period from 69 to 137 days of lactation the content of SFA increased in the milk fat of sheep fed without the addition of herbs, while the content of UFA decreased. The addition of the herbal supplement to the concentrate feed in the amount of 10 or 20 g/sheep/day improved the fatty acid profile from the 97th day of lactation. As a result, at the end of the experiment, the milk fat of sheep in groups II and III contained more MUFA acids than that of group I (6.7%; P≤0.05 and 10.6%; P≤0.01, respectively), more PUFA (by 11.1% and 12.5%; P≤0.01), and more DFA (by 6.3%; P≤0.05 and 11.8%; P≤0.01). The addition of herbs in the amount of 10 or 20 g/sheep/day (groups II and III) increased the content of n-3 PUFAs in the milk fat (by 17.5%; P≤0.01 and 7.9%; P≤ 0.05, respectively,), n-6 PUFA (by 9.7% and 11.4%; P≤0.01) and CLA (by 11.9% and 28.6%; P≤0.01), and decreased the content SFA (by 1.75% and 2.8%, respectively; P≤0.01) and OFA (by 2.9%; P≤0.05 and 5.2%; P≤0.01). In both experimental groups, beneficial changes were also noted in the health quality indicators of the milk, calculated on the basis of the UFA/SFA, DFA/OFA and PUFA/SFA ratios.

Effect of pasture versus indoor feeding systems on quality characteristics, nutritional composition, and sensory and volatile properties of full-fat Cheddar cheese

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of pasture-based versus indoor total mixed ration (TMR) feeding systems on the chemical composition, quality characteristics, and sensory properties of full-fat Cheddar cheeses. Fifty-four multiparous and primiparous Friesian cows were divided into 3 groups (n = 18) for an entire lactation. Group 1 was housed indoors and fed a TMR diet of grass silage, maize silage, and concentrates; group 2 was maintained outdoors on perennial ryegrass only pasture (GRS); and group 3 was maintained outdoors on perennial ryegrass/white clover pasture (CLV). Full-fat Cheddar cheeses were manufactured in triplicate at pilot scale from each feeding system in September 2015 and were examined over a 270-d ripening period at 8°C. Pasture-derived feeding systems were shown to produce Cheddar cheeses yellower in color than that of TMR, which was positively correlated with increased cheese β-carotene content. Feeding system had a significant effect on the fatty acid composition of the cheeses. The nutritional composition of Cheddar cheese was improved through pasture-based feeding systems, with significantly lower thrombogenicity index scores and a greater than 2-fold increase in the concentration of vaccenic acid and the bioactive conjugated linoleic acid C18:2 cis-9,trans-11, whereas TMR-derived cheeses had significantly higher palmitic acid content. Fatty acid profiling of cheeses coupled with multivariate analysis showed clear separation of Cheddar cheeses derived from pasture-based diets (GRS or CLV) from that of a TMR system. Such alterations in the fatty acid profile resulted in pasture-derived cheeses having reduced hardness scores at room temperature. Feeding system and ripening time had a significant effect on the volatile profile of the Cheddar cheeses. Pasture-derived Cheddar cheeses had significantly higher concentrations of the hydrocarbon toluene, whereas TMR-derived cheese had significantly higher concentration of 2,3-butanediol. Ripening period resulted in significant alterations to cheese volatile profiles, with increases in acid-, alcohol-, aldehyde-, ester-, and terpene-based volatile compounds. This study has demonstrated the benefits of pasture-derived feeding systems for production of Cheddar cheeses with enhanced nutritional and rheological quality compared with a TMR feeding system.

Organic food consumption during pregnancy is associated with different consumer profiles, food patterns and intake: the KOALA Birth Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

To find out how the consumption of organic food during pregnancy is associated with consumer characteristics, dietary patterns and macro- and micronutrient intakes.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional description of consumer characteristics, dietary patterns and macro- and micronutrient intakes associated with consumption of organic food during pregnancy.

SETTING

Healthy, pregnant women recruited to a prospective cohort study at midwives' practices in the southern part of the Netherlands; to enrich the study with participants adhering to alternative lifestyles, pregnant women were recruited through various specific channels.

SUBJECTS

Participants who filled in questionnaires on food frequency in gestational week 34 (n 2786). Participant groups were defined based on the share of organic products within various food types.

RESULTS

Consumers of organic food more often adhere to specific lifestyle rules, such as vegetarianism or anthroposophy, than do participants who consume conventional food only (reference group). Consumption of organic food is associated with food patterns comprising more products of vegetable origin (soya/vegetarian products, vegetables, cereal products, bread, fruits, and legumes) and fewer animal products (milk and meat), sugar and potatoes than consumed in conventional diets. These differences translate into distinct intakes of macro- and micronutrients, including higher retinol, carotene, tocopherol and folate intakes, lower intakes of vitamin D and B12 and specific types of trans-fatty acids in the organic groups. These differences are seen even in groups with low consumption of organic food.

CONCLUSIONS

Various consumer characteristics, specific dietary patterns and types of food intake are associated with the consumption of organic food during pregnancy.

Economic characteristics and produced milk quality in Holstein lactating cows in organic and conventional systems

In the past decade, a global demand for products from organic agriculture has increased rapidly. Milk quality is of major interest for all parties. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compare cow performance and product quality in conventional and organic system. Holstein dairy cows (16) were allotted to one of 3 diet groups, including a conventional diet (CON), an organic system with moderate forage (OMF) and an organic system with high forage (OHF). Multiparous cows (3rd and 4th parity) were randomly assigned to the treatments. Range forages were used as part of diets, and cows were offered concentrate and silage two times a day. Daily dry matter intake (DMI) and milk yield were measured across 200 d. Furthermore, somatic cell count, feed cost and feed efficiency were determined at 20-day intervals. MY was different for cows that treated the OHF (22.5 kg/d), OMF (24.9 kg/d), and CON (28.9 kg/d) systems, respectively. Body weights were not affected by treatments; however, differences in body condition scores were observed. Although energy corrected milk and milk urea nitrogen were higher in cows fed CON system; milk fat, phytanic acid, hippuric acid and profit to cost ratio were higher in cows fed organic systems. Additionally, lower feed efficiency, feed cost and blood urea nitrogen were observed in cows fed organic diets.