Quantity and economic importance of nine selected by-products used in California dairy rations

Use of Cracker Residue in the Diet of Dairy Heifers: Impacts on Animal Health, Ruminal Fatty Acids Profile, Digestibility, Weight Gain, and Economic Viability

This study determined whether the isomeric or isoenergetic/isoproteic substitution of corn in the diet of Jersey heifers in the rearing phase with cracker residue would impair growth and health, as well as reducing production costs. Fourteen Jersey females in the growth phase were used, separated into two treatments with seven animals in each lot in collective pens. The experiment used 7-month-old animals (169.8 ± 2.89 kg) and lasted for four months. In Experiment I, the animals were divided into two groups: treatment, with the partial replacement of 40% corn with cracker residue, and control, in which the animals consumed the same diet with 100% corn (isometric diet kg for kg). In Experiment II, the animals with a body weight of 200.2 ± 3.85 kg were divided into two groups: Treatment, replacing 100% of the corn with cracker residue, and control, in which the animals consumed an isoprotein and isoenergetic diet but with 100% of the corn in the formulation. The diet consisted of concentrate, Tifton 85 hay, and corn silage, supplied twice a day individually, with animals contained in their feeders by kennels. There was water ad libitum in the bay. Biweekly weighing and monthly blood analysis were performed, totaling four collections per part for hematologic evaluation, carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism variables. At the end of each experiment, ruminal fluid was collected to measure the volatile fatty acid profile, and feces were collected to determine the apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC). Experiments I and II showed no effect of treatment on body weight, weight gain, average daily weight gain, feed intake, and feed efficiency. There was no effect of treatment on leukocyte, erythrocyte, lymphocyte, neutrophil, monocyte, and eosinophil counts, hematocrit, and hemoglobin concentration (p > 0.05). Experiment I showed a difference between groups for the variables albumin, globulin, total proteins, cholesterol, glucose, and urea, which did not happen in Experiment II. In both experiments, a higher ADC of nutrients was found in the treatment group which had cracker residue (p > 0.05). The concentration of volatile fatty acids in Experiment I was higher in the control group, unlike in Experiment II, where the highest concentration was in the treatment group (p > 0.05). Because experiment I had an isometric substitution, the diets had different bromatological composition, which is the probable cause of the difference between groups; this did not happen in experiment II, in which the diets consumed by the animals was isoproteic and isoenergetic. Based on these data we conclude that the substitution of cracker residue in an isomeric or isoenergetic/isoproteic form does not negatively affect weight gain and animal health, as well as reduces the cost of the concentrate, consequently reducing the cost of production of these animals.

Agro-industrial by-products as ruminant feed: Nutritive value and in vitro rumen fermentation evaluation

In recent years, agricultural by-products have generated increasing interest as ruminant feed. In a completely randomized design with five experimental treatments, this in vitro study investigated the nutritional value of citrus pulp and onion peel as alternative feed for ruminants and their effects on rumen fermentation, digestibility, and gas production. The first group was the control (50% grass hay/50% concentrate mixture). The other four treatments represented citrus pulp and onion peel at inclusion levels of 10 and 20%, replacing the expensive, high-quality feed ingredients such as the concentrate mixture. The chemical composition showed that citrus pulp is an energy-rich material that could be included up to 20% to replace part of the concentrate in a mixed diet without any adverse impacts on rumen fermentation parameters. The onion peels were rich in fiber and minerals. Their inclusion in the diet of over 10% had detrimental effects on rumen fermentation. The inclusion of either citrus pulp or onion peel in the diet did not have the potential to reduce enteric methane production. In conclusion, citrus pulp showed promising results as a new feed for ruminants. It was effective when included in up to 20% of a ruminant diet, replacing the concentrate mixture.

Integrated biorefinery approach to valorize citrus waste: A sustainable solution for resource recovery and environmental management

Citrus fruits are extensively cultivated, consumed and major processed horticulture crops around the globe. High processing and consumption generate huge quantities of solid organic wastes. Citrus waste represents approximately 40-50% of total fruit weight, which consists of rag (membranes and cores), pulp, seeds, and peel (albedo and flavedo), which are a potential source of value-added products including essential oils, carotenoids, pectin, dietary fibers, and polyphenols biofuel, etc. However, waste produced is discarded as waste in the environment, which causes a serious threat due to the presence of bioactive compounds. Recent research strategies on the integrated biorefinery approach explore various ways to utilize the waste obtained from the citrus wastes for their subsequent recovery of value-added products. Moreover, the citrus waste can be turned into various bio-products, viz., enzymes, biofuels, and biopolymers using the integrated biorefinery approach, which can optimize the development of green waste for sustainability and economic benefits. Given the sustainable solution for resource recovery and environmental management, the article reviews the latest advances in the novel valorization approach and valuation of the existing state-of-the-art green technologies for citrus waste utilization to bring a sustainable solution for increasing demand for food, fuel, and energy security. To achieve the zero-waste approach and industrial viability, more efforts should be given to scale-up green recovery techniques along with diverse product profiling.

Effects of different moist orange pulp inclusions in the corn grain rehydration for silage production on chemical composition, fermentation, aerobic stability, microbiological profile, and losses

This study evaluated the effects of different moist orange pulp (MOP) inclusions in corn grain rehydration for silage production as a strategy to store and use MOP and whether these inclusions result in adequate fermentation and aerobic stability (AE) and acceptable losses. Ground corn grain and MOP were weighed separately and mixed to obtain MOP inclusions of 21%, 34%, or 42%. The control treatment was obtained with corn rehydrated with distilled water and MOP inclusion of 0%, with five laboratory silos (15-L buckets) per treatment. Acid detergent fiber, acid detergent insoluble protein, acid detergent lignin, lactic acid, acetic acid, and ethanol contents increased linearly with increasing MOP inclusion, whereas starch, in vitro dry matter (DM) digestibility and butyric acid contents and pH decreased linearly. NH₃ -N/TN content reduced quadratically and was minimal with 8.34 g/kg DM at 14% MOP inclusion. Total DM losses increased quadratically with maximal losses of 4.26% DM at 25% MOP inclusion. AE reduced by 2.8 h for each 1% increase in MOP inclusion. Rehydration of corn grain with MOP results in an adequate fermentation process. The inclusion of 34% MOP was the best because DM losses were lower and AE was not drastically reduced.

Comparison of methods to estimate ruminal degradation and intestinal digestibility of protein in hydrolyzed feather meal with or without blood

Hydrolyzed feather meal (HFM) is a feedstuff high in rumen undegraded protein (RUP) that can be used as an effective source of metabolizable protein for dairy cattle. Because the production process may vary, the rumen degradability and intestinal digestibility of HFM may also vary. Additionally, some processes may incorporate additional blood into the final product to result in feather meal with poultry blood. To determine the rumen degradability and intestinal digestibility of these products, several laboratory assays can be used; the common assays are the mobile bag (MOB), modified three-step (MTS), and Ross (ROS) assays. Although all 3 assays determine RUP digestibility, they vary in whether they are performed in situ, in vitro, or both. The objective of this study was to evaluate the ruminal degradability and intestinal digestibility of HFM originating from processes that differ in their inclusion of blood, and to compare the MOB, MTS, and ROS assays. Ten samples of HFM, which were identified by the suppliers as HFM with little blood (n = 5) and with more blood (n = 5), were spot-sampled, collected from 10 production plants across the United States, and subjected to all 3 assays. Assay type had an effect on RUP, total-tract crude protein (CP) digestibility, and the amount of RUP digested. A significant effect was observed on RDP and RUP concentrations for blood inclusion; no effect was detected for total-tract CP digestibility. We found no difference in RUP digestibility for assay or blood inclusion. There was also no interaction of the effect of assay or blood inclusion. Results suggest that even though there are differences in chemical composition in HFM associated with the inclusion of blood, such as ash and crude fat, few if any differences are observed in intestinal digestion of protein. Although the assays varied in their estimates of rumen undegraded protein, MOB and MTS yielded the most similar values. However, all 3 assays resulted in similar estimates of RUP digestibility.

Feeding okara, a soybean by-product, to dairy cows as partial protein source enhances economic indexes and preserves milk quality, intake, and digestibility of nutrients

This study was carried out to evaluate the potential of dietary inclusion of okara (a soybean by-product) on feed intake, apparent in vitro digestibility of dry matter, production and milk quality of dairy cows, and economic indexes. Four lactating Holstein cows were assigned to a 4 × 4 Latin square design. Treatments were control diet with no okara, diet with 35 g/kg okara, diet with 65 g/kg okara, and diet with 95 g/kg okara in dry matter basis. There was no effect of the inclusion of okara in the diet on the intake of dry matter, crude protein, and ether extract. The inclusion of okara did not affect the in vitro digestibility of nutrients either. However, neutral detergent fiber intake differed between levels 0 and 35 g/kg of okara in the diet, with lower (8.15 kg/day) and higher (9.30 kg/day) values for these treatments, respectively, with values intermediates for the other treatments. There was no significant difference for milk production, fat, protein, lactose, milk urea, somatic cell score, and conjugated diene. However, there was an effect of including okara on thiobarbituric acid reactive substance content in milk. Regarding the economic analysis, the inclusion of 95 g/kg of okara in the diet (dry matter) showed the best results for average feed cost, gross margin, breakeven, and profitability index. Okara can be included in diets of lactating dairy cows up to 95 g/kg of total mixed ration on dry matter basis without interfering on milk production, milk solids, nutrient digestibility, and providing beneficial economic indexes, being economically feasible.

Spent marigold flower meal as an alternate feed for goats

This research trial is aimed to study the nutritional qualities and significance of feeding spent marigold flower meal (SMFM) in goats. SMFM and diet containing iso-nitrogenous concentrate mixture with different levels of spent marigold flower meal (0-30%) were studied for in vitro degradation. Depending upon the in vitro results, concentrate mixture containing 15% level of SMFM was selected for in vivo trial. In vivo studies were conducted for a period of 60 days, and 12 local, non-descript, adult male goats (10-14 months age; 31.09 ± 2.91 kg body weight) were randomly assigned to two groups and were fed on ad libitum wheat straw with either conventional (control) or SMFM containing concentrate mixture (treatment). Results of the study showed that there was no variation in body weight of the goats between periods and between groups. DM and OM intake along with their digestibility were similar among the two groups. The digestibility of all other nutrients was comparable between the two groups. Nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus balance were positive in both the groups without any significant disparity. Moreover, experimental goats did not differ in biochemical parameters, without any significant difference between periods and dietary treatments except AST level which was significantly higher (P > 0.05) in treatment group. So, this study successfully demonstrates that SMFM could be incorporated in the concentrate mixture, up to 15% without any discernable difference in the performance of goats.

Ensiled biomass of Solaris tobacco variety used as forage: chemical characteristics and effects on growth, welfare, and follow-up of Holstein heifers

This study examined the use of an innovative tobacco variety, Nicotiana tabacum L., cv. Solaris, as forage. The whole plant biomass was ensiled, and the composition of SiloSolaris from bunker-silo and mini-silos was investigated. The effects of dietary inclusion of SiloSolaris on the growth, welfare, and nutritional profile of sixteen Holstein heifers, divided into two groups (n = 8), SiloSolaris (SS) and Control (CTR), were investigated. Heifers were group-fed diets with a 70:30 forage to concentrate ratio (on a DM basis). Both groups received 16.24 kg DM of concentrate mixture daily, including corn meal, wheat middlings and soybean meal. The CTR group was fed 39.43 kg DM of hay daily, and the SS group received 23.00 kg DM of the same hay and 12.69 kg DM SiloSolaris blended with the concentrate mixture. The feeding trial lasted eighty-one days with a thirty-six day adaptation phase. Data on forty-five days of diet administration are reported. At the end of the feeding trial, the plasma constituents of the heifers were studied. Moreover, heifers were monitored during a follow-up period, lasting up to 1 year after calving, for age at first insemination, age at first calving and daily milk yield. The SiloSolaris chemical composition showed an average DM content of 24.1 (±0.65) g/100 g. During ensiling, a decrease in CP and an increase in ammonia nitrogen contents were observed. The lactic acid content was variable (9.00 ± 2.66 g/100 g DM), while the acetic acid concentration was stable (4.27 ± 0.21 g/100 g DM). No butyric acid was detected in SiloSolaris, whose ammonia nitrogen content accounted for 15.7 (±1.86)% of the total nitrogen on average, and the mean pH value was 5.02 (±0.08). The SiloSolaris diet did not affect heifer growth performance. No differences were detected for body condition, fecal consistency, or locomotion scores. All the investigated plasma constituents were within or very close to the ranges reported for heifers; however, significant differences between the experimental groups were observed for triglycerides, cholesterol, albumin, and magnesium. The follow-up results did not differ between the experimental groups. These initial findings suggest that Nicotiana tabacum cv. Solaris is a promising ensiled forage for growing heifers that deserve to be further investigated.

Potential use of cassava by-product as ruminant feed

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) bagasse is the by-product from industry (BCI), generated during manufacturing of cassava flour; this material has significant amounts of carbohydrates consisting in a potential energy source for ruminants. We hypothesized that the inclusion of BCI in the diets may lead to fermentation parameters equivalent to those of conventional feedstuff such as tropical grasses or grains; therefore, we aimed to evaluate ruminal fermentation parameters of BCI in in vitro conditions. Three different substrates were prepared: 100% BCI (BCI diet), 100% tifton (Cynodon spp.) hay (CTL diet), and 50% tifton hay +50% BCI (THB diet). Ruminal fermentation parameters of these diets were evaluated in in vitro gas production assays. In a 24-h incubation, increased values for total gas production, organic matter degradability, and methane production were observed for BCId and THB as compared to CTL (p < 0.05), while neutral THB showed the highest value for neutral detergent fiber degradability (p < 0.05). Fermentation profile was evaluated in a 48-h assay: shorter lag time as well as increased gas production potential and fractional fermentation rate were observed for the BCId and THB as compared to CTL (p < 0.05). Our results suggested that by-product from cassava industry is a suitable feed for ruminant production, providing desirable in vitro ruminal fermentation performance and organic matter degradability.

Use of Almond Skins to Improve Nutritional and Functional Properties of Biscuits: An Example of Upcycling

Upcycling food industry by-products has become a topic of interest within the framework of the circular economy, to minimize environmental impact and the waste of resources. This research aimed at verifying the effectiveness of using almond skins, a by-product of the confectionery industry, in the preparation of functional biscuits with improved nutritional properties. Almond skins were added at 10 g/100 g (AS10) and 20 g/100 g (AS20) to a wheat flour basis. The protein content was not influenced, whereas lipids and dietary fiber significantly increased (p < 0.05), the latter meeting the requirements for applying "source of fiber" and "high in fiber" claims to AS10 and AS20 biscuits, respectively. The addition of almond skins altered biscuit color, lowering L* and b* and increasing a*, but improved friability. The biscuits showed sensory differences in color, odor and textural descriptors. The total sum of single phenolic compounds, determined by HPLC, was higher (p < 0.05) in AS10 (97.84 µg/g) and AS20 (132.18 µg/g) than in control (73.97 µg/g). The antioxidant activity showed the same trend as the phenolic. The p-hydroxy benzoic and protocatechuic acids showed the largest increase. The suggested strategy is a practical example of upcycling when preparing a health-oriented food product.

Chemical Composition Analysis, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Activities of Eggplant Leaves

Agricultural by-products represent one of the biggest pollutants for the environment, therefore, investigating new sources for the extraction of bioactive compounds is a topic of great interest for the entire scientific community. This work is aimed at studying the chemical composition (pigments, phenolics, volatile compounds) and biological activities (antioxidant and antimicrobial properties) of young and mature leaves of five eggplant cultivars (Solanum melongena L.) grown in Tunisia (Tizona, A1014, Nawel, A336, and Mirval). Pigment analysis showed no statistical variations between the two types of leaves, whereas higher levels of anthocyanins were recorded in young leaves of three out of five cultivars (24.7-52.8 mg 100 g^-1 ). Total phenolic compounds (966.5-2072.6 mg 100 g^-1 ) and o-diphenols (343.9-741.2 mg 100 g^-1 ) contents varied significantly according to leaf age and cultivar. However, no statistically significant variation between young and mature leaves was found in flavonols and tannins content. As for volatile profiles, 62 constituents were characterized with non-terpene derivatives (52.0-61.6 %) and apocarotenes (19.9-35.6 %) as major chemical classes. Regarding the antioxidant activity, methanol extracts of Tizona cultivar mature leaves displayed important antiradical properties using DPPH, ABTS, and phosphomolybdenum assays (IC₅₀ 0.1, 0.2 and 0.01 mg mL^-1 , respectively). With regards to reducing power determination, the most active extract was obtained from mature A1014 leaves. Further, young Mirval leaves proved to be significantly active from a bactericidal point of view against Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus of 3.1 mg mL^-1 and 0.2 mg mL^-1 MBC, respectively. In conclusion, eggplant leaves are a noteworthy source of antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds with potential use in the pharmaceutical, the cosmetics and the food industries.

Determination of in situ degradation parameters and feeding level of pineapple (Ananas comosus L.) cannery by-product to Hanwoo steers

Objective

The objectives of this study were to determine the in situ degradation parameters and appropriate feeding level of pineapple cannery by-products (PCB) based on the growth performance and blood parameters of growing Hanwoo (Bos taurus coreanae) steers fed various levels of PCB.

Methods

Two ruminally cannulated Holstein cows were used for in situ disappearance rate measurements. Nylon bags (5×10 cm, 45 μm pore size) filled with 5 g of PCB in triplicate were inserted into the ventral sac of the two cannulated Holsteins cows and incubated for 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24, and 48 h. A total of 16 castrated growing Hanwoo steers (12.5±0.5 months old, 302.9±25.7 kg of initial body weight [BW]) were used for the experiment. Animals were stratified by initial BW and then randomly assigned to one of four experimental diets (0%, 1.5%, 3.0%, or 6.0% of PCB, on the dry matter [DM] basis) fed for 91-d, including 30-d of adaptation.

Results

Soluble fraction a of DM and crude protein (CP) was 61.9% and 86.0%, fraction b of DM and CP was 32.7% and 11.2%, and indigestible fraction c of DM and CP was 5.4% and 2.8%. The 6.0% PCB feeding group showed lower productivity compared to animals in the other treatments. Increasing the dietary level of PCB did not alter DM intake, but it was numerically lowest in the 6.0% feeding group. The gain to feed ratio was linearly decreased by increasing of PCB. The quadratic broken-line test estimated that 2.5% (DM basis) was the maximum feeding level of PCB in growing Hanwoo steers (y = 0.103 − 0.001×[1.245−x]², R² = 0.18).

Conclusion

Diets containing up to 2.5% PCB can be fed to growing Hanwoo steers without adverse effects on growth performance.

Replacing Barley and Soybean Meal With By-products, in a Pasture Based Diet, Alters Daily Methane Output and the Rumen Microbial Community in vitro Using the Rumen Simulation Technique (RUSITEC)

Plant based by-products (BP) produced from food and bioethanol industries are human inedible, but can be recycled into the global food chain by ruminant livestock. However, limited data is available on the methanogenesis potential associated with supplementing a solely BP formulated concentrate to a pastoral based diet. Therefore the objective of this in vitro study was to investigate the effects of BP inclusion rate (in a formulated concentrate) to a pasture based diet on dietary digestibility, rumen fermentation patterns, methane production and the prokaryotic microbial community composition. Diets consisted of perennial ryegrass and one of two supplementary concentrates, formulated to be isonitrogenous (16% CP) and isoenergetic (12.0 MJ/ME/kg), containing either 35% BP, barley and soybean meal (BP35) or 95% BP (BP95) offered on a 50:50 basis, however, starch, NDF and fat content varied. The BPs, included in equal proportions on a DM basis, were soyhulls, palm kernel expeller and maize dried distillers grains. The BP35 diet had greater (P < 0.05) digestibility of the chemical constituents DM, OM, CP, NDF, ADF. Greater total VFA production was seen in the BP35 diet (P < 0.05). Daily methane production (mmol/day; +22.7%) and methane output per unit of total organic matter digested (MPOMD; +20.8%) were greatest in the BP35 diet (P < 0.01). Dietary treatment influenced microbial composition (PERMANOVA; P = 0.023) with a greater relative abundance of Firmicutes (adj P < 0.01) observed in the BP35. The Firmicutes:Bacteroidetes ratio was significantly reduced in the BP95 diet (P < 0.01). The relative proportions of Proteobacteria (adj P < 0.01), Succinivibrionaceae (adj P < 0.03) and Succinivibrio (adj P = 0.053) increased in the BP95 diet. The abundance of Proteobacteria was found to be negatively associated with daily methane production (r_s, −0.71; P < 0.01) and MPOMD (r_s, −0.65; P < 0.01). Within Proteobacteria, the relationship of methane production was maintained with the mean abundance of Succinivibrio (r_s, −0.69; P < 0.01). The abundance of the Firmicutes phyla was found to be positively correlated with both daily methane production (r_s, 0.79; P < 0.001) and MPOMD (r_s, 0.75; P < 0.01). Based on in vitro rumen simulation data, supplementation of an exclusively BP formulated concentrate was shown to reduce daily methane output by promoting a favorable alteration to the rumen prokaryotic community.

Effects of Replacing Extruded Maize by Dried Citrus Pulp in a Mixed Diet on Ruminal Fermentation, Methane Production, and Microbial Populations in Rusitec Fermenters

Citrus pulp is a highly abundant by-product of the citrus industry. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of replacing extruded maize (EM; 20% of total diet) by dried citrus pulp (DCP; 20%) in a mixed diet on rumen fermentation and microbial populations in Rusitec fermenters. The two diets contained 50% alfalfa hay and 50% concentrate, and the same protein level. Four Rusitec fermenters were used in a cross-over design with two 13-d incubation runs. After 7-d of diet adaptation, diet disappearance, fermentation parameters, microbial growth, and microbial populations were assessed. Fermenters receiving the DCP showed greater pH values and fiber disappearance (p < 0.001) and lower methane production (p = 0.03) than those fed EM. Replacing EM by DCP caused an increase in the proportions of propionate and butyrate (p < 0.001) and a decrease in acetate (p = 0.04). Microbial growth, bacterial diversity, and the quantity of bacteria and protozoa DNA were not affected by the diet, but the relative abundances of fungi and archaea were greater (p < 0.03) in solid and liquid phases of DCP fermenters, respectively. Results indicate that DCP can substitute EM, promoting a more efficient ruminal fermentation.

Effect of replacing conventional feeds with tropical agricultural by-products on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility and ruminal microbiota of water buffaloes

This study investigated the effect of replacing corn grain, soybean meal and wheat bran with tropical agricultural by-products, such as palm kernel cake (PKC), cassava residue and dried distiller's grain with solubles (DDGS), on the dry matter intake (DMI), growth performance, apparent nutrient digestibility, ruminal short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and ruminal microbial communities of water buffaloes. Thirty healthy 15-month-old crossbred water buffaloes with a similar initial body weight of 353.1 ± 23.7 kg were randomly allocated into three dietary experimental groups, and they were fed with same forage but three different concentrates for 50 days fattening. The dietary treatments were as following: typical concentrate (TC, 65% corn + 15% wheat bran + 15% soybean meal), partial replacement concentrate Ⅰ (PRC I, 50% corn + 22.5% corn gluten + 22.5% PKC) and partial replacement concentrate Ⅱ (PRC II, 50% corn + 22.5% cassava residue + 22.5% DDGS). The results showed that the average daily gain of the PRC II group was the highest, and the DMI, acid detergent fibre digestibility and neutral detergent fibre digestibility value of the three groups were different and in the following order: PRC II group > TC group > PRC I group. The crude protein digestibility of PRC II was higher than that of the TC and PRC I groups (p < .05). The ruminal concentrations of total SCFA, acetate, propionate and butyrate of TC group were higher than the other two groups (p < .05). The PRC I group had the highest Bacteroidetes-to-Firmicutes ratio (B/F) and relative abundance of the genus Prevotella, while the PRC II group had the lowest B/F and relative abundance of Prevotella. In conclusion, using PKC and corn gluten to completely replace common feed ingredients in the buffalo concentrate ration decreased, while using cassava residue and DDGS increased animal growth performance, mainly due to the different combination influenced nutrient digestibility and ruminal microbial community composition was shifted.

Polyphenols in Almond Skins after Blanching Modulate Plasma Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress in Healthy Humans

Almond skins are a waste byproduct of blanched almond production. Polyphenols extracted from almond skins possess antioxidant activities in vitro and in vivo. Thus, we examined the pharmacokinetic profile of almond skin polyphenols (ASP) and their effect on measures of oxidative stress. In a randomized crossover trial, seven adults consumed two acute ASP doses (225 mg (low, L) or 450 mg (high, H) total phenols) in skim milk or milk alone. Plasma flavonoids, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione (GSH), oxidized GSH (GSSG), and resistance of low- density lipoprotein (LDL) to oxidation were measured over 10 h. The H dose increased catechin and naringenin in plasma, with maximum concentrations of 44.3 and 19.3 ng/mL, respectively. The GSH/GSSG ratio at 3 h after the H doses was 212% of the baseline value, as compared to 82% after milk (p = 0.003). Both ASP doses upregulated GPx activity by 26-35% from the baseline at 15, 30, 45, and 120 min after consumption. The in vitro addition of α-tocopherol extended the lag time of LDL oxidation at 3 h after L and H consumption by 144.7% and 165.2% of that at 0 h compared to no change after milk (p ≤ 0.05). In conclusion, ASP are bioavailable and modulate GSH status, GPx activity, and the resistance of LDL to oxidation.

The effect of by-product inclusion and concentrate feeding rate on milk production and composition, pasture dry matter intake, and nitrogen excretion of mid-late lactation spring-calving cows grazing a perennial ryegrass-based pasture

Interest is growing in the use of by-products as economical sources of nutrients that complement grazed grass, particularly at times when grass supply is insufficient to meet the nutritional demands of lactating dairy cattle. The objective of this research was to assess the effect of the amount of by-product inclusion and concentrate feeding rate on pasture dry matter intake, milk production and composition, and N excretion from spring-calving cows grazing summer pasture during mid-late lactation. Forty-eight Holstein Friesian dairy cows were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 dietary treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial design. Cows were grazed in one group on a perennial ryegrass-based sward, with pelleted concentrates offered twice daily during milking over a 63-d experimental period. The dietary treatments were 3 kg of concentrate containing 35% by-products; 6 kg of concentrate containing 35% by-products; 3 kg of concentrate containing 95% by-products; and 6 kg of concentrate containing 95% by-products on a fresh matter basis. The by-products used were soybean hulls, palm kernel expeller, and maize dried distillers grains with solubles, included in equal proportions on a dry matter basis. Pasture dry matter intake (14.5 kg/d) was not affected by the amount of by-product inclusion or feeding rate. By-product inclusion had no effect on milk yield (27.1 kg/d) or milk solids (MS) yield (2.0 kg/d). Cows offered 6 kg of concentrate had a greater milk (+1.6 kg/d) and MS (+0.13 kg/d) yield, consumed more N (+0.08 kg/d), and excreted a lower proportion of N in the milk (0.25 vs. 0.27) and feces (0.39 vs. 0.41) and a higher proportion in the urine (0.39 vs. 0.32) compared with cows offered 3 kg of by-product-based concentrate. In conclusion, by-products can be included at up to 95% of the concentrate fed to cows grazing pasture without affecting pasture dry matter intake, milk production or composition, or N excretion. Cows offered 6 kg of concentrates produced more milk and MS than cows offered 3 kg but had higher urinary N excretion. Economics of this yield response will depend on milk and concentrate prices.

Making Virtue Out of Necessity: Managing the Citrus Waste Supply Chain for Bioeconomy Applications

The efficient use of agricultural wastes and by-products, which essentially transforms waste materials into value-added products, is considered as pivotal for an effective bioeconomy strategy for the rural development. Within this scope, citrus waste management represents a major issue for citrus processors. However, it also represents a potentially unexploited resource for rural sustainable development. This study focuses on analyzing the current management of citrus waste in South Italy, and on identifying the determinants and barriers that may affect an entrepreneur’s choice in the destination of citrus waste. This study investigates the preferences of citrus processors regarding the contract characteristics necessary to take part in a co-investment scheme. Both analyses are preliminary steps in designing an innovative and sustainable citrus by-product supply chain. Results show that the distance between the citrus processors and the citrus by-products plant is one of the main criteria for choosing alternative valorization pathways. Moreover, guaranteed capital, a short duration of the contract, and reduced risk are contract scheme characteristics that improve entrepreneurs’ willingness to co-invest in the development of a citrus waste multifunctional plant. The overall applied approach can be extended to other contexts for designing new and innovative by-product supply chains, thereby enhancing the implementation of bioeconomy strategies.

A 100-Year Review: Total mixed ration feeding of dairy cows

Total mixed rations (TMR) as we know them today did not exist in 1917. In fact, TMR are an invention of primarily the last half of the past 100 yr. Prior to that time many dairy herds were fed only forages, but dairy producers started moving toward TMR feeding as milk production per cow increased, herds became larger, freestall and large-group handling of cows became more common, and milking parlors became more prevalent. The earliest known reports in the Journal of Dairy Science of feeding "complete rations" or TMR may have appeared in the 1950s, but those studies were often reported only as abstracts at annual meetings of the American Dairy Science Association or in extension-type publications. The earliest full-length article on TMR in the journal was published in 1966. An advantage of feeding TMR as opposed to feeding forages supplemented with concentrates is the opportunity to make every bite of feed essentially a complete, nutritionally balanced diet for all cows. Nutritionally related off-feed (e.g., ingredient separation due to poor mixing, feed sorting by the animal, and so on), milk fat depression, and other digestive upsets were less likely to occur with TMR feeding. Feed mixer wagons, feed particle sizes, moisture content of diets, and other factors were not concerns before TMR feeding but are concerns today. Today, most dairy herds, especially larger herds in the United States and elsewhere, feed TMR.

Mass balance analyses of nutrients on California dairies to evaluate data quality for regulatory review

Effective regulations may help reduce nitrate contamination of groundwater from agriculture. Dairy farmers in California must maintain a ratio below 1.4 of total nitrogen (N) applied to total N-removed (N-Ratio) on cropland receiving manure application. In annual reports to the regulatory agency, farmers detail nutrients applied to cropland, removed in harvests, and exported off farm. Data were extracted from all available annual reports for 62 dairies from 2011, 2012, and 2013. Excretions of N, phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) were calculated using reported herd demographics and standard excretion equations from the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. Calculated nutrient excretion values were compared to the reported values of manure nutrients applied to cropland and exported off farm. Reported N-Ratios were compared to mass balance simulations exploring variable crop yields and alfalfa management. In the nutrient excretion balance, the distribution of the percent of N and P recovered in manures applied or exported peaked at 24% (median=31%) and 26% (median=53%) of excreted, respectively. The distribution of recovered K was fairly uniform from 0% to 300% (median=146%) of excreted K. In N-ratio simulations, 62% and 66% of all reported N-ratios were lower than their respective simulated N-ratio, assuming alfalfa crops received no N fertilization and minimal fertilization (26% of N-removed in harvest) respectively. When simulated crop yields were normally (sd=0.25) or Student's t distributed (df=154) around expected crop yields, 28% and 57% of all reported ratios fell within the 95% confidence interval of the simulations, respectively. Low and erratic recovery rates of excreted P and K existed. Additionally, reported N-Ratios were generally lower and more varied than necessary for farmers to maintain crop yields while complying with regulations. Greater understanding of low recovery rates is needed before data are used to assess the impact of regulations.

Ruminal fermentation, nutrient digestibility and microbial protein synthesis in sheep fed diets with different levels of date pulp

Four ruminally cannulated mature Kermani sheep (50 ± 2.3 kg and 40 ± 2.1 months old) were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design to determine the effects of diets with different levels of date pulp (DP) on ruminal fermentation, nutrient digestibility and microbial protein synthesis. DP was replaced for wheat bran in diets at no DP (0 DP), 7 (7 DP), 14 (14 DP) and 21% (21 DP) of diet dry matter (DM) and were fed twice daily (0800 hours and 1800 hours). In this study, increasing the amount of DP in diets of sheep did not affect DM intake and apparent digestibility of nutrient (P > 0.05). Inclusion of DP in diets increased ruminal pH linearly (P < 0.05), but did not influence total volatile fatty acids and molar proportion of individual volatile fatty acids (P > 0.05). Ruminal ammonia nitrogen concentration (6.04 vs 10.13 mmol/L), and blood urea nitrogen (8.59 vs 13.10 mg/dL) were affected by diets (P < 0.05). Moreover, urinary nitrogen excretion was higher (P < 0.05) for Control diet (no DP) than the 21 DP diet. In this study, urinary excretion of purine derivatives and microbial protein synthesis were affected by experimental diets (P < 0.05). In conclusion, this study showed that DP at 14% can be used as an alternative feed resource in sheep nutrition especially in semiarid areas.

Murciano-Granadina Goat Performance and Methane Emission after Replacing Barley Grain with Fibrous By-Products

The aim of this experiment was to study the effects of substituting dietary barley grain with orange pulp or soybean hulls on energy, nitrogen and carbon balance, methane emission and milk performance in dairy goats. Twelve Murciano-Granadina dairy goats in midlactation were selected and divided into three groups based on similar body weight (42.1 ± 1.2 kg) and milk yield (2.16 ± 0.060 kg/goat/day). The experiment was conducted in an incomplete crossover design where one group of four goats was fed a mixed ration of barley grain (BRL), another group of four goats replaced barley grain with orange pulp (OP) and the last group of four goats with soybean hulls (SH). After adaptation to diets, the goats were allocated to individual metabolism cages and intake, faeces, urine and milk were recorded and analysed. Then, gas exchange measurements were recorded by a mobile open-circuit indirect calorimetry system using a head box. Dry matter intake was similar for all three groups (2.03 kg/d, on average). No influence of the diet was observed for energy balance and the efficiency of use of metabolizable energy for milk production was 0.61. The OP and SH diets showed greater (P < 0.05) fat mobilization (-42.8 kJ/kg of BW0.75, on average) than BRL (19.2 kJ/kg of BW0.75). Pentadecanoic acid (15:0) and heptadecanoic acid (17:0) were potential biomarkers of rumen function because the higher contents found in the milk of OP and SH goats than BRL suggest a negative impact of these diets on rumen bacterial metabolism; probably linked to the lower nitrogen supply of diet OP to synthesize microbial protein and greater content of fat in diet SH. Replacement of cereal grain with fibrous by-products did not increased enteric methane emissions (54.7 L/goat per day, on average). Therefore, lactating goats could utilize dry orange pulp and soybean hulls diets with no detrimental effect on milk performance.

Gossypol was not detected in the longissimus muscle of lambs fed several forms of cottonseed

The aim of this work was to evaluate the growth performance, carcass characteristics, 12th rib tissue composition, haematological and serum biochemical parameters, as well as the presence of gossypol residues in the meat of Santa Inês lambs fed cotton crop by-products. For an experimental period of 90 days, 24 intact male Santa Inês lambs (bodyweight (BW): 20.6 ± 1.9 kg; 4 months old) were fed a 50 : 50 forage : concentrate diets fed ad libitum. Chopped Coast cross (Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers) hay was used as forage. The animals were then allocated into four treatments, according to the cotton crop by-product included in the concentrate formulation: Control (CON) – No cotton crop by-product used in formulation; Whole cottonseed (WCS); Cottonseed cake (CSC); and Cottonseed meal (CSM). The animals were weighed and blood collected every 15 days. At the end of the experimental period, the lambs were slaughtered and the evaluations of carcass characteristics, 12th rib tissue composition and presence of gossypol residues in the meat were carried out. Dry matter intake was higher (P < 0.05) for the diets containing cotton crop by-products, but BW gains were not different (P > 0.05). Despite these results the animals fed the highest level of gossypol (WCS) had lower (P < 0.05) carcass yield resulting in lower (P < 0.05) carcass weight, suggesting a possible negative effect of gossypol on carcass development. Serum urea was elevated on all treatments including CON, otherwise haematological and biochemical parameters were within reference ranges. No gossypol residues in meat were detected by the method used here, which had a minimum detection limit of 20 ppb. It is concluded that the cotton crop by-products may have impaired carcass production but did not leave gossypol residues in lamb meat.

Use of dry citrus pulp or soybean hulls as a replacement for corn grain in energy and nitrogen partitioning, methane emissions, and milk performance in lactating Murciano-Granadina goats

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of substitution of dietary corn grain by dry citrus pulp or soybean hulls on energy and nitrogen partitioning, substrate oxidation, methane emission, and milk performance in dairy goats during midlactation. Twelve multiparous Murciano-Granadina goats of similar body weight (41.7 ± 2.8 kg) were split in 3 groups in an incomplete crossover design. One group of 4 goats was fed a mixed ration with 605 g/kg of dry matter of corn grain (CRG), another group replaced corn grain with dry citrus pulp (CTP), and the last with soybean hulls (SYH). The goats were allocated to individual metabolism cages. After 14 d of adaptation, feed intake, total fecal and urine output, and milk yield were recorded daily over a 5-d period. Then, gas exchange measurements were recorded by a mobile open-circuit indirect calorimetry system using a head box. Dry matter intake was similar for all 3 groups (1.53 kg/d, on average). Total replacement of the concentrate with fibrous by-products increased fiber apparent digestibility. The metabolizable energy intake was significantly greater for diet CRG than SYH (1,193 vs. 1,079 kJ/kg of BW⁰·⁷⁵, respectively), CTP showed an intermediate value. The heat production was higher for the fiber diet than starchy diet (908 vs. 843 kJ/kg of BW⁰·⁷⁵ for SYH and CRG, respectively). The efficiency of use of metabolizable energy for milk production obtained by regression was 0.59. Goats fed CTP and SYH diets produced similar CH₄ emissions (34.8 g/d, on average), significantly higher compared with goats fed the CRG diet (24.7 g/d). Goats of the 3 treatments were in negative energy balance, so the oxidation of fat was greater than for carbohydrates. No significant differences were observed for milk production (1.72 kg/d), and milk fat was significantly greater for a more fibrous diet compared with a starchy diet (6.57 vs. 4.95% in SYH and CRG, respectively).

Dietary citrus pulp improves protein stability in lamb meat stored under aerobic conditions

The antioxidant effects of dried citrus pulp on proteins in lamb meat, when used as a replacement of concentrate in the feed, was studied using meat from 26 male Comisana lambs. The lambs of age 90 days had been grouped randomly to receive one of the three dietary treatments: (1) commercial concentrate with 60% barley (Control, n=8), (2) concentrate with 35% barley and 24% citrus pulp (Cp24, n=9), or (3) concentrate with 23% barley and 35% citrus pulp (Cp35, n=9). Slices from the longissimus thoracis et lomborum muscle were packed aerobically and stored for up to 6days at 4°C in the dark. The citrus pulp groups, Cp24 and Cp35, significantly decreased protein radicals and carbonyls, and preserved more thiols within six days of storage compared to the Control group. The citrus pulp groups significantly slowed down the rate of protein oxidation, indicating that dietary citrus pulp reduced oxidative changes in meat proteins.

Peripartal calcium homoeostasis of multiparous dairy cows fed rumen-protected rice bran or a lowered dietary cation/anion balance diet before calving

Milk fever is one of the most important metabolic diseases in dairy cattle. Reducing the dietary cation/anion balance (DCAD) with anionic salts is a common prevention strategy. However, many small European farms cannot use total mixed rations (TMR) in the close-up period. Including anionic salts in compound feeds can result in feed refusals and moderate inclusions to preserve feed palatability results in insufficient DCAD reduction. Rumen-protected rice bran induces the adaptation of Ca metabolism in dairy cows by a reduction of Ca intake and by a reduction of the availability of dietary Ca. In the presence of a negative control, rumen-protected rice bran (2.8 kg/day) was compared with a lowered DCAD diet (from 269 to 4 meq/kg DM) in their effect to prevent milk fever. In a randomized block design, 45 multiparous Holstein cows joined the trial sequentially from 21 days before the expected calving date and were observed until the 8th week of lactation. Feed and nutrient intakes were recorded, and Ca, P, Mg in serum and urine, urine pH, serum NEFA and milk production in early lactation were compared. Feeding rumen-protected rice bran before calving improved the recovery of calcaemia after calving and had a positive effect on DMI after calving. The moderately low DCAD diet did not positively influence serum Ca at calving. Calcaemia recovered even later than in control, and cows showed reduced DMI post-calving and higher NEFA levels in the first 36 h after calving. This moderate reduction of DCAD did not provide an intermediate prevention level indicating that DCAD needs to be reduced to the recommended levels to prevent milk fever. Rumen-protected rice bran may be a suitable feed to reduce hypocalcaemia post-partum and can be included in pre-calving compound feeds representing a palatable alternative to anionic salts.

Antioxidant and photoprotective effects of blanch water, a byproduct of the almond processing industry

The aim of the present work was to evaluate the antioxidant and photoprotective effect of blanch water (BW), a byproduct of the almond processing industry. The polyphenolic content of a BW extract, the level of proanthocyanidins and the vanillin index determination were determined. The antioxidant activity and the radical scavenging activity of the BW were evaluated by a range of in vitro tests. The in vivo photoprotective effect was investigated using a formulation containing 2% of the BW extract on skin erythema induced by acute UV-B exposure in twelve volunteers. Results confirmed the presence of added-value antioxidant compounds in the industrial BW extract, and the most representative compounds were naringenin-7-O-glucoside and kaempferol-7-O-rutinoside. The proanthocyanidin content was 71.84 ± 5.21 cyanidin equivalents/g of BW extract. The good antiradical activity of the BW extract was demonstrated in both the DPPH^• test and in the Reducing Power test. The percentage inhibition of erythema obtained using a formulation of BW was 50.48, value clearly demonstrating an effect against photooxidative damage in vivo.

The effects of replacement of antibiotics with by-products of oriental medicinal plants on growth performance and meat qualities in fattening pigs

The effect of by-products of oriental medicinal plants (OMP; T1) containing 0.03% herb extracts (T2) or 0.1% aminolevulinic acid (T3) on the production performance of swine during the finishing period and on its meat quality were investigated. No significant differences were found in the weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion rate among the tested groups (P > 0.05). But the treated group showed higher (P < 0.05) moisture and ash and lower protein than the control group. The T3 group showed a lower meat cholesterol content (38.42 mg/100 g) compared to the other groups (P < 0.05). The vitamin E content of the muscle in the treated groups was higher compared to the control group. No antibiotic content was detected in all treated and control samples. The values of the volatile basic nitrogen (VBN) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) of the treated groups were significantly lower (P < 0.01) than the control group. The treated groups had significantly better (P < 0.05) sensory-test scores for color, flavor, off-flavor and total acceptability compared to the control group.

Antimicrobial potential of polyphenols extracted from almond skins

AIMS

To evaluate the antimicrobial properties of flavonoid-rich fractions derived from natural and blanched almond skins, the latter being a by-product from the almond processing industry.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Almond skin extracts were tested against Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica, Serratia marcescens), Gram-positive bacteria (Listeria monocytogenes, Enterococcus hirae, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus durans) and the yeast Candida albicans. Almond skin fractions were found to have antimicrobial activity against L. monocytogenes and Staph. aureus in the range 250-500 microg ml(-1), natural skins showing antimicrobial potential against the Gram-negative Salm. enterica. The interactions between three almond skin flavonoids were also evaluated with isobolograms.

CONCLUSIONS

Pairwise combinations of protocatechuic acid, naringenin and epicatechin showed both synergistic and indifferent interactions against Salm. enterica and Staph. aureus. Antagonism was observed against L. monocytogenes with all combinations tested. Further studies need to be performed to understand the mechanisms responsible for these interactions.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Almond skins are a potential source of natural antimicrobials.

Effects of feeding fresh citrus pulp to Merino wethers on wool growth and animal performance

Two studies were conducted to determine the effects of replacing lupins with fresh citrus pulp in Merino wethers diets: (i) an in vitro study, which measured ruminal fermentation; and (ii) an in vivo study in which 18 mature Merino wethers were fed dietary treatments (n = 3) over 56 days to evaluate effects on performance [i.e. DM intake, average daily gain and wool growth]. In both the in vitro and in vivo studies, the control treatment consisted (in diet DM) of lucerne chaff (69.9%), lupins (30.1%) and phosphate (0.3%), whereas the citrus pulp treatments (n = 2; replacing lupins on 20 and 30% DM basis, respectively) consisted of lucerne chaff (61.7 and 63.3%), lupins (18.5 and 6.3%), phosphate (0.34 and 0.33%) and fresh citrus pulp (19.5 and 30.1%). Data were analysed using the MIXED model of SAS and orthogonal polynomial contrasts were used to determine linear (L) and quadratic responses to the level of citrus pulp. In the in vitro study, gas production, net total volatile fatty acid production as well as in vitro DM digestibility were similar (P > 0.05) among the dietary treatments. Ammonia production in citrus pulp treatments were twofold lower compared with the control (L, P < 0.01). The addition of citrus pulp to the diet increased the molar proportions of acetic acid and decreased that of butyric, branched-chain volatile fatty acids, and valeric acids (all L, P < 0.01) compared with the control diet. In the in vivo study, DM intake, average daily gain and feed conversion were similar among treatments (P > 0.52). Wool production parameters including clean fleece weight, yield and staple length were not different between diets (P > 0.30). Hence, fresh citrus pulp can be included up to 30% on a DM basis replacing lupins without detrimental effects on wool production and animal performance.