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Miron RJ, Estrin NE, Sculean A, Zhang Y. Understanding exosomes: Part 2-Emerging leaders in regenerative medicine. Periodontol 2000 2024; 94:257-414. [PMID: 38591622 DOI: 10.1111/prd.12561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2024] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
Exosomes are the smallest subset of extracellular signaling vesicles secreted by most cells with the ability to communicate with other tissues and cell types over long distances. Their use in regenerative medicine has gained tremendous momentum recently due to their ability to be utilized as therapeutic options for a wide array of diseases/conditions. Over 5000 publications are currently being published yearly on this topic, and this number is only expected to dramatically increase as novel therapeutic strategies continue to be developed. Today exosomes have been applied in numerous contexts including neurodegenerative disorders (Alzheimer's disease, central nervous system, depression, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, post-traumatic stress disorders, traumatic brain injury, peripheral nerve injury), damaged organs (heart, kidney, liver, stroke, myocardial infarctions, myocardial infarctions, ovaries), degenerative processes (atherosclerosis, diabetes, hematology disorders, musculoskeletal degeneration, osteoradionecrosis, respiratory disease), infectious diseases (COVID-19, hepatitis), regenerative procedures (antiaging, bone regeneration, cartilage/joint regeneration, osteoarthritis, cutaneous wounds, dental regeneration, dermatology/skin regeneration, erectile dysfunction, hair regrowth, intervertebral disc repair, spinal cord injury, vascular regeneration), and cancer therapy (breast, colorectal, gastric cancer and osteosarcomas), immune function (allergy, autoimmune disorders, immune regulation, inflammatory diseases, lupus, rheumatoid arthritis). This scoping review is a first of its kind aimed at summarizing the extensive regenerative potential of exosomes over a broad range of diseases and disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Miron
- Department of Periodontology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Nathan E Estrin
- Advanced PRF Education, Venice, Florida, USA
- School of Dental Medicine, Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine, Bradenton, Florida, USA
| | - Anton Sculean
- Department of Periodontology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Yufeng Zhang
- Department of Oral Implantology, University of Wuhan, Wuhan, China
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2
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Štepánková K, Chudíčková M, Šimková Z, Martinez-Varea N, Kubinová Š, Urdzíková LM, Jendelová P, Kwok JCF. Low oral dose of 4-methylumbelliferone reduces glial scar but is insufficient to induce functional recovery after spinal cord injury. Sci Rep 2023; 13:19183. [PMID: 37932336 PMCID: PMC10628150 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-46539-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) induces the upregulation of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) at the glial scar and inhibits neuroregeneration. Under normal physiological condition, CSPGs interact with hyaluronan (HA) and other extracellular matrix on the neuronal surface forming a macromolecular structure called perineuronal nets (PNNs) which regulate neuroplasticity. 4-methylumbelliferone (4-MU) is a known inhibitor for HA synthesis but has not been tested in SCI. We first tested the effect of 4-MU in HA reduction in uninjured rats. After 8 weeks of 4-MU administration at a dose of 1.2 g/kg/day, we have not only observed a reduction of HA in the uninjured spinal cords but also a down-regulation of CS glycosaminoglycans (CS-GAGs). In order to assess the effect of 4-MU in chronic SCI, six weeks after Th8 spinal contusion injury, rats were fed with 4-MU or placebo for 8 weeks in combination with daily treadmill rehabilitation for 16 weeks to promote neuroplasticity. 4-MU treatment reduced the HA synthesis by astrocytes around the lesion site and increased sprouting of 5-hydroxytryptamine fibres into ventral horns. However, the current dose was not sufficient to suppress CS-GAG up-regulation induced by SCI. Further adjustment on the dosage will be required to benefit functional recovery after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateřina Štepánková
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083, Prague, Czech Republic.
- Department of Neuroscience, Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine, 15006, Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Milada Chudíčková
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Zuzana Šimková
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Noelia Martinez-Varea
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083, Prague, Czech Republic
- Department of Neuroscience, Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine, 15006, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Šárka Kubinová
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083, Prague, Czech Republic
- Institute of Physics, Czech Academy of Sciences, 182 21, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Lucia Machová Urdzíková
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083, Prague, Czech Republic.
- Department of Neuroscience, Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine, 15006, Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Pavla Jendelová
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083, Prague, Czech Republic.
- Department of Neuroscience, Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine, 15006, Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Jessica C F Kwok
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská, 1083, Prague, Czech Republic.
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
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Garcia E, Buzoianu-Anguiano V, Silva-Garcia R, Esparza-Salazar F, Arriero-Cabañero A, Escandon A, Doncel-Pérez E, Ibarra A. Use of Cells, Supplements, and Peptides as Therapeutic Strategies for Modulating Inflammation after Spinal Cord Injury: An Update. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:13946. [PMID: 37762251 PMCID: PMC10531377 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241813946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 09/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury is a traumatic lesion that causes a catastrophic condition in patients, resulting in neuronal deficit and loss of motor and sensory function. That loss is caused by secondary injury events following mechanical damage, which results in cell death. One of the most important events is inflammation, which activates molecules like proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IFN-γ, and TNF-α) that provoke a toxic environment, inhibiting axonal growth and exacerbating CNS damage. As there is no effective treatment, one of the developed therapies is neuroprotection of the tissue to preserve healthy tissue. Among the strategies that have been developed are the use of cell therapy, the use of peptides, and molecules or supplements that have been shown to favor an anti-inflammatory environment that helps to preserve tissue and cells at the site of injury, thus favoring axonal growth and improved locomotor function. In this review, we will explain some of these strategies used in different animal models of spinal cord injury, their activity as modulators of the immune system, and the benefits they have shown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Garcia
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), FCS, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan 52786, Mexico; (E.G.); (F.E.-S.); (A.E.)
| | - Vinnitsa Buzoianu-Anguiano
- Grupo Regeneración Neural, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, 45071 Toledo, Spain; (V.B.-A.); (A.A.-C.)
| | - Raúl Silva-Garcia
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunología Hospital de Pediatría, CMN-SXXI, IMSS, Mexico City 06720, Mexico;
| | - Felipe Esparza-Salazar
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), FCS, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan 52786, Mexico; (E.G.); (F.E.-S.); (A.E.)
| | - Alejandro Arriero-Cabañero
- Grupo Regeneración Neural, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, 45071 Toledo, Spain; (V.B.-A.); (A.A.-C.)
| | - Adela Escandon
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), FCS, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan 52786, Mexico; (E.G.); (F.E.-S.); (A.E.)
| | - Ernesto Doncel-Pérez
- Grupo Regeneración Neural, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, 45071 Toledo, Spain; (V.B.-A.); (A.A.-C.)
| | - Antonio Ibarra
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), FCS, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan 52786, Mexico; (E.G.); (F.E.-S.); (A.E.)
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Yifan H, Peng G, Tao Q, Bo C, Tao X, Jiang Y, Qian W, Zhenqi Y, Tao J, Jin F, Shujie Z, Wei Z, Jian C, Guoyong Y. Delayed inhibition of collagen deposition by targeting bone morphogenetic protein 1 promotes recovery after spinal cord injury. Matrix Biol 2023; 118:69-91. [PMID: 36918086 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2023.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2023]
Abstract
Fibrotic scars appear after spinal cord injury (SCI) and are mainly composed of fibroblasts and excess extracellular matrix (ECM), including different types of collagen. The temporal and spatial distribution and role of excess collagens and ECM after SCI are not yet fully understood. Here, we identified that the procollagen type I C-terminal propeptide (PICP), a marker of collagen type I deposition, and bone morphogenetic protein 1 (BMP1), a secreted procollagen c-proteinase (PCP) for type I collagen maturation, were significantly elevatedin cerebrospinal fluid of patients with SCI compared with healthy controls, and were associated with spinal cord compression and neurological symptoms. We revealed the deposition of type I collagen in the area damaged by SCI in mice and confirmed that BMP1 was the only expressed PCP and induced collagen deposition. Furthermore, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) can activate the expression of BMP1. However, inhibition of BMP1 at the acute phase eliminated fibrotic scars in the damaged area and inhibited activation and enrichment of astrocytes, which made the damage difficult to repair and increased hematoma. Unexpectedly, knockdown of Bmp1 by adeno-associated virus or the inhibition of BMP1 biological function by specific inhibitors and monoclonal antibodies at different time points after injury led to distinct therapeutic effects. Only delayed inhibition of BMP1 improved axonal regeneration and myelin repair at the subacute stage post-injury, and led to the recovery of motor function, suggesting that scarring had a dual effect. Early inhibition of the scarring was not conducive to limiting inflammation, while excessive scar formation inhibited the growth of axons. After SCI, the collagen deposition indicators increased in both human cerebrospinal fluid and mouse spinal cord. Therefore, suppression of BMP1 during the subacute phase improves nerve function after SCI and is a potential target for scar reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huang Yifan
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China
| | - Gao Peng
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China
| | - Qin Tao
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China
| | - Chu Bo
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China
| | - Xu Tao
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China
| | - Yi Jiang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China
| | - Wang Qian
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China
| | - Yang Zhenqi
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China
| | - Jiang Tao
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China
| | - Fan Jin
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China
| | - Zhao Shujie
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
| | - Zhou Wei
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
| | - Chen Jian
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
| | - Yin Guoyong
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China; Jiangsu Institute of Functional Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210029, China.
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He X, Li Y, Deng B, Lin A, Zhang G, Ma M, Wang Y, Yang Y, Kang X. The PI3K/AKT signalling pathway in inflammation, cell death and glial scar formation after traumatic spinal cord injury: Mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities. Cell Prolif 2022; 55:e13275. [PMID: 35754255 PMCID: PMC9436900 DOI: 10.1111/cpr.13275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Objects Traumatic spinal cord injury (TSCI) causes neurological dysfunction below the injured segment of the spinal cord, which significantly impacts the quality of life in affected patients. The phosphoinositide 3kinase/serine‐threonine kinase (PI3K/AKT) signaling pathway offers a potential therapeutic target for the inhibition of secondary TSCI. This review summarizes updates concerning the role of the PI3K/AKT pathway in TSCI. Materials and Methods By searching articles related to the TSCI field and the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, we summarized the mechanisms of secondary TSCI and the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway; we also discuss current and potential future treatment methods for TSCI based on the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Results Early apoptosis and autophagy after TSCI protect the body against injury; a prolonged inflammatory response leads to the accumulation of pro‐inflammatory factors and excessive apoptosis, as well as excessive autophagy in the surrounding normal nerve cells, thus aggravating TSCI in the subacute stage of secondary injury. Initial glial scar formation in the subacute phase is a protective mechanism for TSCI, which limits the spread of damage and inflammation. However, mature scar tissue in the chronic phase hinders axon regeneration and prevents the recovery of nerve function. Activation of PI3K/AKT signaling pathway can inhibit the inflammatory response and apoptosis in the subacute phase after secondary TSCI; inhibiting this pathway in the chronic phase can reduce the formation of glial scar. Conclusion The PI3K/AKT signaling pathway has an important role in the recovery of spinal cord function after secondary injury. Inducing the activation of PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in the subacute phase of secondary injury and inhibiting this pathway in the chronic phase may be one of the potential strategies for the treatment of TSCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuegang He
- Department of Orthopedics, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China.,The Second Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,The International Cooperation Base of Gansu Province for the Pain Research in Spinal Disorders, Lanzhou, China
| | - Ying Li
- Medical School of Yan'an University, Yan'an University, Yan'an, China
| | - Bo Deng
- Department of Orthopedics, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China.,The Second Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Aixin Lin
- Department of Orthopedics, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China.,The Second Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,The International Cooperation Base of Gansu Province for the Pain Research in Spinal Disorders, Lanzhou, China
| | - Guangzhi Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China.,The Second Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,The International Cooperation Base of Gansu Province for the Pain Research in Spinal Disorders, Lanzhou, China
| | - Miao Ma
- Department of Orthopedics, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China.,The Second Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yonggang Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China.,The Second Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,The International Cooperation Base of Gansu Province for the Pain Research in Spinal Disorders, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yong Yang
- Department of Orthopedics, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China.,The International Cooperation Base of Gansu Province for the Pain Research in Spinal Disorders, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xuewen Kang
- Department of Orthopedics, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China.,The Second Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,The International Cooperation Base of Gansu Province for the Pain Research in Spinal Disorders, Lanzhou, China
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Wang X, Jiang C, Zhang Y, Chen Z, Fan H, Zhang Y, Wang Z, Tian F, Li J, Yang H, Hao D. The promoting effects of activated olfactory ensheathing cells on angiogenesis after spinal cord injury through the PI3K/Akt pathway. Cell Biosci 2022; 12:23. [PMID: 35246244 PMCID: PMC8895872 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-022-00765-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The aim of this study was to investigate the pro-angiogenic potential of olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) activated by curcumin (CCM) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and the possible underlying mechanisms. Methods Vascular endothelial cells or tissues were cultured and treated with conditioned medium (CM) extracted from activated OECs activated through the addition of LPS and CCM or unactivated controls. Concomitantly, the pro-angiogenic potential of OECs was assessed in vitro by aortic ring sprouting assay, endothelial wound healing assay, CCK-8 assay, and tube formation assay. Subsequently, the OECs were co-cultured with endothelial cells to evaluate their promoting effect on endothelial cell proliferation and migration following a mechanical scratch. Moreover, the spinal cord injury (SCI) model in rats was established, and the number of endothelial cells and vascular structure in the injured area after SCI was observed with OEC transplantation. Finally, the underlying mechanism was investigated by western blot analysis of phosphorylated kinase expression with or without the MK-2206 (Akt-inhibitor). Result The present results showed that the activated OECs can effectively promote vascular endothelial cells' proliferation, migration, and vessel-like structure formation. Strikingly, several pro-angiogenic growth factors such as VEGF-A and PDGF-AA, which facilitate vessel formation, were found to be significantly elevated in CM. In addition, the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway was found to be involved in pro-angiogenic events caused by activated OEC CM, displaying higher phosphorylation levels in cells. In contrast, the delivery of MK2206 can effectively abrogate all the positive effects. Conclusions OECs activated by LPS and CCM have a pro-angiogenic effect and can effectively promote angiogenesis and improve the microenvironment at the injury site when transplanted in the injured spinal cord. This potentiated ability of OECs to provide pro-angiogenic effects is likely mediated through the PI3K/Akt pathway. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13578-022-00765-y.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Wang
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China.,Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Chao Jiang
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Yongyuan Zhang
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Zhe Chen
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Hong Fan
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China.,Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710004, China
| | - Yuyang Zhang
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China.,Department of Medicine, Solna, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Zhiyuan Wang
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Fang Tian
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Jing Li
- Department of Orthopaedic, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710004, China
| | - Hao Yang
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China.
| | - Dingjun Hao
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China.
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Riley SE, Feng Y, Hansen CG. Hippo-Yap/Taz signalling in zebrafish regeneration. NPJ Regen Med 2022; 7:9. [PMID: 35087046 PMCID: PMC8795407 DOI: 10.1038/s41536-022-00209-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The extent of tissue regeneration varies widely between species. Mammals have a limited regenerative capacity whilst lower vertebrates such as the zebrafish (Danio rerio), a freshwater teleost, can robustly regenerate a range of tissues, including the spinal cord, heart, and fin. The molecular and cellular basis of this altered response is one of intense investigation. In this review, we summarise the current understanding of the association between zebrafish regeneration and Hippo pathway function, a phosphorylation cascade that regulates cell proliferation, mechanotransduction, stem cell fate, and tumorigenesis, amongst others. We also compare this function to Hippo pathway activity in the regenerative response of other species. We find that the Hippo pathway effectors Yap/Taz facilitate zebrafish regeneration and that this appears to be latent in mammals, suggesting that therapeutically promoting precise and temporal YAP/TAZ signalling in humans may enhance regeneration and hence reduce morbidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna E Riley
- University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh bioQuarter, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Yi Feng
- University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh bioQuarter, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Carsten Gram Hansen
- University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh bioQuarter, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK.
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Kim GU, Sung SE, Kang KK, Choi JH, Lee S, Sung M, Yang SY, Kim SK, Kim YI, Lim JH, Seo MS, Lee GW. Therapeutic Potential of Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) and MSC-Derived Extracellular Vesicles for the Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413672. [PMID: 34948463 PMCID: PMC8703906 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a life-threatening condition that leads to permanent disability with partial or complete loss of motor, sensory, and autonomic functions. SCI is usually caused by initial mechanical insult, followed by a cascade of several neuroinflammation and structural changes. For ameliorating the neuroinflammatory cascades, MSC has been regarded as a therapeutic agent. The animal SCI research has demonstrated that MSC can be a valuable therapeutic agent with several growth factors and cytokines that may induce anti-inflammatory and regenerative effects. However, the therapeutic efficacy of MSCs in animal SCI models is inconsistent, and the optimal method of MSCs remains debatable. Moreover, there are several limitations to developing these therapeutic agents for humans. Therefore, identifying novel agents for regenerative medicine is necessary. Extracellular vesicles are a novel source for regenerative medicine; they possess nucleic acids, functional proteins, and bioactive lipids and perform various functions, including damaged tissue repair, immune response regulation, and reduction of inflammation. MSC-derived exosomes have advantages over MSCs, including small dimensions, low immunogenicity, and no need for additional procedures for culture expansion or delivery. Certain studies have demonstrated that MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, exhibit outstanding chondroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects. Therefore, we reviewed the principles and patho-mechanisms and summarized the research outcomes of MSCs and MSC-derived EVs for SCI, reported to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang-Un Kim
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Hanil General Hospital, 308 Uicheon-ro, Dobong-gu, Seoul 01450, Korea;
| | - Soo-Eun Sung
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea; (S.-E.S.); (K.-K.K.); (J.-H.C.); (S.L.); (M.S.)
| | - Kyung-Ku Kang
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea; (S.-E.S.); (K.-K.K.); (J.-H.C.); (S.L.); (M.S.)
| | - Joo-Hee Choi
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea; (S.-E.S.); (K.-K.K.); (J.-H.C.); (S.L.); (M.S.)
| | - Sijoon Lee
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea; (S.-E.S.); (K.-K.K.); (J.-H.C.); (S.L.); (M.S.)
| | - Minkyoung Sung
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea; (S.-E.S.); (K.-K.K.); (J.-H.C.); (S.L.); (M.S.)
| | - Seung Yun Yang
- Department of Biomaterials Science, Life and Industry Convergence Institute, Pusan National University, Miryang 50463, Korea;
| | - Seul-Ki Kim
- Efficacy Evaluation Team, Food Science R&D Center, KolmarBNH CO., LTD, 61Heolleungro 8-gil, Seocho-gu, Seoul 06800, Korea;
| | | | - Ju-Hyeon Lim
- New Drug Development Center, Osong Medical Innovation Foundation, Chungbuk 28160, Korea;
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Yeungnam University College of Medicine, Yeungnam University Medical Center, 170 Hyonchung-ro, Namgu, Daegu 42415, Korea
| | - Min-Soo Seo
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea; (S.-E.S.); (K.-K.K.); (J.-H.C.); (S.L.); (M.S.)
- Correspondence: (M.-S.S.); (G.W.L.); Tel.: +82-53-7905727 (M.S.S.); +82-53-6203642 (G.W.L.)
| | - Gun Woo Lee
- Cellexobio, Co. Ltd., Daegu 42415, Korea;
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Yeungnam University College of Medicine, Yeungnam University Medical Center, 170 Hyonchung-ro, Namgu, Daegu 42415, Korea
- Correspondence: (M.-S.S.); (G.W.L.); Tel.: +82-53-7905727 (M.S.S.); +82-53-6203642 (G.W.L.)
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9
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Assunção Silva RC, Pinto L, Salgado AJ. Cell transplantation and secretome based approaches in spinal cord injury regenerative medicine. Med Res Rev 2021; 42:850-896. [PMID: 34783046 DOI: 10.1002/med.21865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The axonal growth-restrictive character of traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) makes finding a therapeutic strategy a very demanding task, due to the postinjury events impeditive to spontaneous axonal outgrowth and regeneration. Considering SCI pathophysiology complexity, it has been suggested that an effective therapy should tackle all the SCI-related aspects and provide sensory and motor improvement to SCI patients. Thus, the current aim of any therapeutic approach for SCI relies in providing neuroprotection and support neuroregeneration. Acknowledging the current SCI treatment paradigm, cell transplantation is one of the most explored approaches for SCI with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) being in the forefront of many of these. Studies showing the beneficial effects of MSC transplantation after SCI have been proposing a paracrine action of these cells on the injured tissues, through the secretion of protective and trophic factors, rather than attributing it to the action of cells itself. This manuscript provides detailed information on the most recent data regarding the neuroregenerative effect of the secretome of MSCs as a cell-free based therapy for SCI. The main challenge of any strategy proposed for SCI treatment relies in obtaining robust preclinical evidence from in vitro and in vivo models, before moving to the clinics, so we have specifically focused on the available vertebrate and mammal models of SCI currently used in research and how can SCI field benefit from them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita C Assunção Silva
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's e PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal.,BnML, Behavioral and Molecular Lab, Braga, Portugal
| | - Luísa Pinto
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's e PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal.,BnML, Behavioral and Molecular Lab, Braga, Portugal
| | - António J Salgado
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's e PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
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10
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Martins Â, Gouveia D, Cardoso A, Carvalho C, Silva C, Coelho T, Gamboa Ó, Ferreira A. Functional Neurorehabilitation in Dogs with an Incomplete Recovery 3 Months following Intervertebral Disc Surgery: A Case Series. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11082442. [PMID: 34438900 PMCID: PMC8388785 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary A non-invasive neurorehabilitation multimodal protocol (NRMP) may be applicable to chronic T3-L3 dogs 3 months after undergoing surgery for acute Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD) Hansen type I; this protocol has been shown to be safe, feasible, and potentially effective at improving ambulation in both open field score (OFS) 0 and OFS 1 dogs. The specific sample population criteria limit the number of dogs included, mainly due to owners withdrawing over time. Thus, the present case series study aimed to demonstrate that an NRMP could contribute to a functional treatment possibly based on synaptic and anatomic reorganization of the spinal cord. Abstract This case series study aimed to evaluate the safety, feasibility, and positive outcome of the neurorehabilitation multimodal protocol (NRMP) in 16 chronic post-surgical IVDD Hansen type I dogs, with OFS 0/DPP− (n = 9) and OFS 1/DPP+ (n = 7). All were enrolled in the NRMP for a maximum of 90 days and were clinically discharged after achieving ambulation. The NRMP was based on locomotor training, functional electrical stimulation, transcutaneous electrical spinal cord stimulation, and 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) pharmacological management. In the Deep Pain Perception (DPP)+ dogs, 100% recovered ambulation within a mean period of 47 days, reaching OFS ≥11, which suggests that a longer period of time is needed for recovery. At follow-up, all dogs presented a positive evolution with voluntary micturition. Of the DPP− dogs admitted, all achieved a flexion/extension locomotor pattern within 30 days, and after starting the 4-AP, two dogs were discharged at outcome day 45, with 78% obtaining Spinal Reflex Locomotion (SRL) and automatic micturition within a mean period of 62 days. At follow-up, all dogs maintained their neurological status. After the NRMP, ambulatory status was achieved in 88% (14/16) of dogs, without concurrent events. Thus, an NRMP may be an important therapeutic option to reduce the need for euthanasia in the clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ângela Martins
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lusófona University, Campo Grande, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
- Animal Rehabilitation Center, Arrábida Veterinary Hospital, Azeitão, 2925-583 Setúbal, Portugal; (D.G.); (A.C.); (C.C.); (C.S.); (T.C.)
- CIISA—Centro Interdisciplinar-Investigação em Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Av. Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal;
- Superior School of Health, Protection and Animal Welfare, Polytechnic Institute of Lusophony, Campo Grande, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
- Correspondence:
| | - Débora Gouveia
- Animal Rehabilitation Center, Arrábida Veterinary Hospital, Azeitão, 2925-583 Setúbal, Portugal; (D.G.); (A.C.); (C.C.); (C.S.); (T.C.)
- Superior School of Health, Protection and Animal Welfare, Polytechnic Institute of Lusophony, Campo Grande, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana Cardoso
- Animal Rehabilitation Center, Arrábida Veterinary Hospital, Azeitão, 2925-583 Setúbal, Portugal; (D.G.); (A.C.); (C.C.); (C.S.); (T.C.)
| | - Carla Carvalho
- Animal Rehabilitation Center, Arrábida Veterinary Hospital, Azeitão, 2925-583 Setúbal, Portugal; (D.G.); (A.C.); (C.C.); (C.S.); (T.C.)
| | - Cátia Silva
- Animal Rehabilitation Center, Arrábida Veterinary Hospital, Azeitão, 2925-583 Setúbal, Portugal; (D.G.); (A.C.); (C.C.); (C.S.); (T.C.)
| | - Tiago Coelho
- Animal Rehabilitation Center, Arrábida Veterinary Hospital, Azeitão, 2925-583 Setúbal, Portugal; (D.G.); (A.C.); (C.C.); (C.S.); (T.C.)
| | - Óscar Gamboa
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - António Ferreira
- CIISA—Centro Interdisciplinar-Investigação em Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Av. Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal;
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal;
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11
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Fessler RG, Liu CY, McKenna S, Fessler RD, Lebkowski JS, Priest CA, Wirth ED. Safety of direct injection of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells into the spinal cord of uninjured Göttingen minipigs. J Neurosurg Spine 2021:1-9. [PMID: 34243160 DOI: 10.3171/2020.12.spine201853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study was conducted as a final proof-of-safety direct injection of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells into the uninjured spinal cord prior to translation to the human clinical trials. METHODS In this study, 107 oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (LCTOPC1, also known as AST-OPC1 and GRNOPC1) in 50-μL suspension were injected directly into the uninjured spinal cords of 8 immunosuppressed Göttingen minipigs using a specially designed stereotactic delivery device. Four additional Göttingen minipigs were given Hanks' Balanced Salt Solution and acted as the control group. RESULTS Cell survival and no evidence of histological damage, abnormal inflammation, microbiological or immunological abnormalities, tumor formation, or unexpected morbidity or mortality were demonstrated. CONCLUSIONS These data strongly support the safety of intraparenchymal injection of LCTOPC1 into the spinal cord using a model anatomically similar to that of the human spinal cord. Furthermore, this research provides guidance for future clinical interventions, including mechanisms for precise positioning and anticipated volumes of biological payloads that can be safely delivered directly into uninjured portions of the spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard G Fessler
- 1Department of Neurosurgery, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
| | | | - Stephen McKenna
- 3Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Palo Alto; and
| | - R David Fessler
- 1Department of Neurosurgery, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Jane S Lebkowski
- 4Asterias Biotherapeutics, a wholly owned subsidiary of Lineage Cell Therapeutics, Carlsbad, California
| | - Catherine A Priest
- 4Asterias Biotherapeutics, a wholly owned subsidiary of Lineage Cell Therapeutics, Carlsbad, California
| | - Edward D Wirth
- 4Asterias Biotherapeutics, a wholly owned subsidiary of Lineage Cell Therapeutics, Carlsbad, California
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12
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Yu S, Lam C, Shinde S, Kuczynski AM, Carlson HL, Dukelow SP, Brooks BL, Kirton A. Perilesional Gliosis Is Associated with Outcome after Perinatal Stroke. JOURNAL OF PEDIATRIC NEUROLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1728687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
AbstractPerinatal ischemic stroke results in focal brain injury and life-long disability. Hemiplegic cerebral palsy and additional sequelae are common. With no prevention strategies, improving outcomes depends on understanding brain development. Reactive astrogliosis is a hallmark of brain injury that has been associated with outcomes but is unstudied in perinatal stroke. In this article, we hypothesized that gliosis was quantifiable and its extent would inversely correlate with clinical motor function. This was a population-based, retrospective, and cross-sectional study. Children with perinatal arterial ischemic stroke (AIS) or periventricular venous infarction (PVI) with magnetic resonance (MR) imaging were included. An image thresholding technique based on image intensity was utilized to quantify the degree of chronic gliosis on T2-weighted sequences. Gliosis scores were corrected for infarct volume and compared with the Assisting Hand and Melbourne Assessments (AHA and MA), neuropsychological profiles, and robotic measures. In total, 42 children were included: 25 with AIS and 17 with PVI (median = 14.0 years, range: 6.3–19 years, 63% males). Gliosis was quantifiable in all scans and scores were highly reliable. Gliosis scores as percentage of brain volume ranged from 0.3 to 3.2% and were comparable between stroke types. Higher gliosis scores were associated with better motor function for all three outcomes in the AIS group, but no association was observed for PVI. Gliosis can be objectively quantified in children with perinatal stroke. Associations with motor outcome in arterial but not venous strokes suggest differing glial responses may play a role in tissue remodeling and developmental plasticity following early focal brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Yu
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Charissa Lam
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Siddharth Shinde
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | | | - Helen L. Carlson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Sean P. Dukelow
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Department of Radiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Brian L. Brooks
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Adam Kirton
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Department of Radiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
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13
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Cheng L, Sami A, Ghosh B, Goudsward HJ, Smith GM, Wright MC, Li S, Lepore AC. Respiratory axon regeneration in the chronically injured spinal cord. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 155:105389. [PMID: 33975016 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Promoting the combination of robust regeneration of damaged axons and synaptic reconnection of these growing axon populations with appropriate neuronal targets represents a major therapeutic goal following spinal cord injury (SCI). A key impediment to achieving this important aim includes an intrinsic inability of neurons to extend axons in adult CNS, particularly in the context of the chronically-injured spinal cord. We tested whether an inhibitory peptide directed against phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN: a central inhibitor of neuron-intrinsic axon growth potential) could restore inspiratory diaphragm function by reconnecting critical respiratory neural circuitry in a rat model of chronic cervical level 2 (C2) hemisection SCI. We found that systemic delivery of PTEN antagonist peptide 4 (PAP4) starting at 8 weeks after C2 hemisection promoted substantial, long-distance regeneration of injured bulbospinal rostral Ventral Respiratory Group (rVRG) axons into and through the lesion and back toward phrenic motor neurons (PhMNs) located in intact caudal C3-C5 spinal cord. Despite this robust rVRG axon regeneration, PAP4 stimulated only minimal recovery of diaphragm function. Furthermore, re-lesion through the hemisection site completely removed PAP4-induced functional improvement, demonstrating that axon regeneration through the lesion was responsible for this partial functional recovery. Interestingly, there was minimal formation of putative excitatory monosynaptic connections between regrowing rVRG axons and PhMN targets, suggesting that (1) limited rVRG-PhMN synaptic reconnectivity was responsible at least in part for the lack of a significant functional effect, (2) chronically-injured spinal cord presents an obstacle to achieving synaptogenesis between regenerating axons and post-synaptic targets, and (3) addressing this challenge is a potentially-powerful strategy to enhance therapeutic efficacy in the chronic SCI setting. In conclusion, our study demonstrates a non-invasive and transient pharmacological approach in chronic SCI to repair the critically-important neural circuitry controlling diaphragmatic respiratory function, but also sheds light on obstacles to circuit plasticity presented by the chronically-injured spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Cheng
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Armin Sami
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Biswarup Ghosh
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Hannah J Goudsward
- Department of Biology, Arcadia University, 450 S. Easton Rd., 220 Boyer Hall, Glenside, PA 19038, USA
| | - George M Smith
- Department of Neuroscience, Shriners Hospitals for Pediatric Research Center, Temple University School of Medicine, 3500 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140-5104, USA
| | - Megan C Wright
- Department of Biology, Arcadia University, 450 S. Easton Rd., 220 Boyer Hall, Glenside, PA 19038, USA
| | - Shuxin Li
- Department of Neuroscience, Shriners Hospitals for Pediatric Research Center, Temple University School of Medicine, 3500 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140-5104, USA
| | - Angelo C Lepore
- Department of Neuroscience, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
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14
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Liu Y, Hammel G, Shi M, Cheng Z, Zivkovic S, Wang X, Xu P, He X, Guo B, Ren Y, Zuo L. Myelin Debris Stimulates NG2/CSPG4 Expression in Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages in the Injured Spinal Cord. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:651827. [PMID: 33815067 PMCID: PMC8017290 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.651827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the increased expression of members of the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan family, such as neuron-glial antigen 2 (NG2), have been well documented after an injury to the spinal cord, a complete picture as to the cellular origins and function of this NG2 expression has yet to be made. Using a spinal cord injury (SCI) mouse model, we describe that some infiltrated bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMΦ) are early contributors to NG2/CSPG4 expression and secretion after SCI. We demonstrate for the first time that a lesion-related form of cellular debris generated from damaged myelin sheaths can increase NG2/CSPG4 expression in BMDMΦ, which then exhibit enhanced proliferation and decreased phagocytic capacity. These results suggest that BMDMΦ may play a much more nuanced role in secondary spinal cord injury than previously thought, including acting as early contributors to the NG2 component of the glial scar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Liu
- Department of Immunology, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, United States.,Department of Anesthesiology, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Grace Hammel
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Minjun Shi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, United States.,Department of Pathology, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Zhijian Cheng
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, United States.,Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xian Jiaotong University, Xian, China
| | - Sandra Zivkovic
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Xiaoqi Wang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Pingyi Xu
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xijing He
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xian Jiaotong University, Xian, China
| | - Bing Guo
- Department of Pathology, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Yi Ren
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Li Zuo
- Department of Immunology, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
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15
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Xue X, Zhang L, Yin X, Chen XX, Chen ZF, Wang CX, Xiang Y, Liu MY, Zhao JH. Transplantation of neural stem cells preconditioned with high‑mobility group box 1 facilitates functional recovery after spinal cord injury in rats. Mol Med Rep 2020; 22:4725-4733. [PMID: 33174002 PMCID: PMC7646886 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2020.11565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating disorder that often results in temporary and/or permanent functional impairment below the injured level. To date, few satisfactory therapeutic strategies are available to treat SCI. Hence, exploring novel strategies for SCI is an essential public health concern. Cell transplantation therapy, which is associated with neuroprotection, immunomodulation, axon regeneration, neuronal relay formation and myelin regeneration, provides a promising therapeutic strategy for SCI. The neuronal stem cell (NSC) preconditioning method is an emerging approach, which facilitates NSC survival and neuronal differentiation after implantation. The aim of the present study was to develop a feasible candidate for cell-based therapy following SCI in rats and to investigate the role of high mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) in NSC activation. The results of the present study showed that transplantation of NSCs, preconditioned with 1 ng/ml HMGB1, facilitated functional improvement of injured spinal cords, as indicated by Basso, Beattie and Bresnahan mean scores, mechanical hypersensitivity and cold stimulation. Meanwhile, the histological examination of hematoxylin and eosin staining indicated that engraftment of HMGB1-preconditioned NSCs resulted in decreased atrophy of the injured spinal cord. Meanwhile, the transplantation of HMGB1-preconditioned NSCs resulted in an increased number of functional Nissl bodies in neurons, as detected by Nissl staining, and an increase in the number of βIII-tubulin+ cells in the epicenter of injured spinal cords in rats with SCI. In addition, the results also demonstrated that 1 ng/ml HMGB1 promoted the differentiation of NSCs into neurons, and that the ERK signaling pathway played an important role in this process. In conclusion, the present data indicated that the preconditioning strategy with 1 ng/ml HMGB1 may present a feasible candidate for cell-based therapy following SCI in rats, which may enlarge the scope of HMGB1 in NSC activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Xue
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400042, P.R. China
| | - Liang Zhang
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400042, P.R. China
| | - Xiang Yin
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400042, P.R. China
| | - Xing-Xing Chen
- Department of Orthopedic, No. 517 Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Xinzhou, Shanxi 030002, P.R. China
| | - Zong-Feng Chen
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400042, P.R. China
| | - Chen-Xu Wang
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400042, P.R. China
| | - Yu Xiang
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400042, P.R. China
| | - Ming-Yong Liu
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400042, P.R. China
| | - Jian-Hua Zhao
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400042, P.R. China
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16
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Cigliola V, Becker CJ, Poss KD. Building bridges, not walls: spinal cord regeneration in zebrafish. Dis Model Mech 2020; 13:13/5/dmm044131. [PMID: 32461216 PMCID: PMC7272344 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.044131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury is a devastating condition in which massive cell death and disruption of neural circuitry lead to long-term chronic functional impairment and paralysis. In mammals, spinal cord tissue has minimal capacity to regenerate after injury. In stark contrast, the regeneration of a completely transected spinal cord and accompanying reversal of paralysis in adult zebrafish is arguably one of the most spectacular biological phenomena in nature. Here, we review reports from the last decade that dissect the mechanisms of spinal cord regeneration in zebrafish. We highlight recent progress as well as areas requiring emphasis in a line of study that has great potential to uncover strategies for human spinal cord repair. Summary: Unlike mammals, teleost fish are capable of efficient, spontaneous recovery after a paralyzing spinal cord injury. Here, we highlight the major events through which laboratory model zebrafish regenerate spinal cord tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Cigliola
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.,Regeneration Next, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Clayton J Becker
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.,Regeneration Next, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Kenneth D Poss
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA .,Regeneration Next, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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17
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Kwiecien JM, Dabrowski W, Dąbrowska-Bouta B, Sulkowski G, Oakden W, Kwiecien-Delaney CJ, Yaron JR, Zhang L, Schutz L, Marzec-Kotarska B, Stanisz GJ, Karis JP, Struzynska L, Lucas AR. Prolonged inflammation leads to ongoing damage after spinal cord injury. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0226584. [PMID: 32191733 PMCID: PMC7081990 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0226584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of spinal cord injury (SCI) remains poorly understood and treatment remains limited. Emerging evidence indicates that post-SCI inflammation is severe but the role of reactive astrogliosis not well understood given its implication in ongoing inflammation as damaging or neuroprotective. We have completed an extensive systematic study with MRI, histopathology, proteomics and ELISA analyses designed to further define the severe protracted and damaging inflammation after SCI in a rat model. We have identified 3 distinct phases of SCI: acute (first 2 days), inflammatory (starting day 3) and resolution (>3 months) in 16 weeks follow up. Actively phagocytizing, CD68+/CD163- macrophages infiltrate myelin-rich necrotic areas converting them into cavities of injury (COI) when deep in the spinal cord. Alternatively, superficial SCI areas are infiltrated by granulomatous tissue, or arachnoiditis where glial cells are obliterated. In the COI, CD68+/CD163- macrophage numbers reach a maximum in the first 4 weeks and then decline. Myelin phagocytosis is present at 16 weeks indicating ongoing inflammatory damage. The COI and arachnoiditis are defined by a wall of progressively hypertrophied astrocytes. MR imaging indicates persistent spinal cord edema that is linked to the severity of inflammation. Microhemorrhages in the spinal cord around the lesion are eliminated, presumably by reactive astrocytes within the first week post-injury. Acutely increased levels of TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, IFN-gamma and other pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and proteases decrease and anti-inflammatory cytokines increase in later phases. In this study we elucidated a number of fundamental mechanisms in pathogenesis of SCI and have demonstrated a close association between progressive astrogliosis and reduction in the severity of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacek M. Kwiecien
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Wojciech Dabrowski
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Therapy, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Beata Dąbrowska-Bouta
- Laboratory of Pathoneurochemistry, Mossakowski Medical Research Center, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Sulkowski
- Laboratory of Pathoneurochemistry, Mossakowski Medical Research Center, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Wendy Oakden
- Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Jordan R. Yaron
- Centers for Personalized Diagnostics and Immunotherapy, Vaccines and Virotherapy, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Liqiang Zhang
- Centers for Personalized Diagnostics and Immunotherapy, Vaccines and Virotherapy, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Lauren Schutz
- Centers for Personalized Diagnostics and Immunotherapy, Vaccines and Virotherapy, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | | | - Greg J. Stanisz
- Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - John P. Karis
- Department of Neuroradiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Dignity Health St. Joseph’s Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Lidia Struzynska
- Laboratory of Pathoneurochemistry, Mossakowski Medical Research Center, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Alexandra R. Lucas
- Centers for Personalized Diagnostics and Immunotherapy, Vaccines and Virotherapy, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
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18
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Resveratrol Downregulates STAT3 Expression and Astrocyte Activation in Primary Astrocyte Cultures of Rat. Neurochem Res 2019; 45:455-464. [PMID: 31853718 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-019-02936-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Astrocytes respond to all forms of central nervous system (CNS) insults by a process referred to as reactive astrogliosis. Inhibition of astrocyte growth and activation is an important strategy for promoting injured CNS repair. STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) is reported to be a critical regulator of astrogliosis, and resveratrol (RES, a dietary polyphenol) is considered to be a natural inhibitor of STAT3 expression and phosphorylation. In this study, we investigated the effects of RES on STAT3 expression and phosphorylation, and then on the proliferation and activation of astrocytes, a critical process in reactive astrogliosis, in rat primary cultured astrocytes and an in vitro scratch-wound model. RES downregulated the expression levels of STAT3, P-STAT3 and GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) in cultured astrocytes. The positive index of Ki67 was apparently reduced in cultured astrocytes after RES treatment. Meanwhile, cultured astrocyte proliferation and activation were attenuated by RES. Moreover, in the established in vitro scratch-wound model the increased expression levels of STAT3, P-STAT3 and GFAP induced by scratching injury were also clearly inhibited by RES. In addition, the inhibitory effect of RES on cell proliferation was similar to that of AG490 (a selective inhibitor of STAT3 phosphorylation) and abrogated by Colivelin (a STAT3 activator) stimuli. Taken together, our data suggest that RES is able to inhibit reactive astrocyte proliferation and activation mainly via deactivating STAT3 pathway. So RES may have a therapeutic benefit for the treatment of the injured CNS.
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19
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Smith DR, Dumont CM, Ciciriello AJ, Guo A, Tatineni R, Munsell MK, Cummings BJ, Anderson AJ, Shea LD. PLG Bridge Implantation in Chronic SCI Promotes Axonal Elongation and Myelination. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2019; 5:6679-6690. [PMID: 33423486 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.9b01012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating condition that may cause permanent functional loss below the level of injury, including paralysis and loss of bladder, bowel, and sexual function. Patients are rarely treated immediately, and this delay is associated with tissue loss and scar formation that can make regeneration at chronic time points more challenging. Herein, we investigated regeneration using a poly(lactide-co-glycolide) multichannel bridge implanted into a chronic SCI following surgical resection of necrotic tissue. We characterized the dynamic injury response and noted that scar formation decreased at 4 and 8 weeks postinjury (wpi), yet macrophage infiltration increased between 4 and 8 wpi. Subsequently, the scar tissue was resected and bridges were implanted at 4 and 8 wpi. We observed robust axon growth into the bridge and remyelination at 6 months after initial injury. Axon densities were increased for 8 week bridge implantation relative to 4 week bridge implantation, whereas greater myelination, particularly by Schwann cells, was observed with 4 week bridge implantation. The process of bridge implantation did not significantly decrease the postinjury function. Collectively, this chronic model follows the pathophysiology of human SCI, and bridge implantation allows for clear demarcation of the regenerated tissue. These data demonstrate that bridge implantation into chronic SCI supports regeneration and provides a platform to investigate strategies to buttress and expand regeneration of neural tissue at chronic time points.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique R Smith
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2200 Bonisteel Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Courtney M Dumont
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, 1251 Memorial Drive, Coral Gables, Florida 33156, United States.,Biomedical Nanotechnology Institute at University of Miami (BioNIUM), University of Miami, 1951 NW 7th Avenue Ste 475, Miami, Florida 33136, United States
| | - Andrew J Ciciriello
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2200 Bonisteel Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, 1251 Memorial Drive, Coral Gables, Florida 33156, United States.,Biomedical Nanotechnology Institute at University of Miami (BioNIUM), University of Miami, 1951 NW 7th Avenue Ste 475, Miami, Florida 33136, United States
| | - Amina Guo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2200 Bonisteel Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Ravindra Tatineni
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2200 Bonisteel Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Mary K Munsell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2200 Bonisteel Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Brian J Cummings
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders (iMIND), University of California, Irvine, 1100 Gottschalk Medical Plaza, Irvine, California 92697, United States.,Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Science Road, Irvine, California 92697, United States.,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, 364 Med Surge II, Irvine, California 92697, United States.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California, Irvine, 101 The City Drive South, Building 53, Suite 311A, Orange, California 92868, United States
| | - Aileen J Anderson
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders (iMIND), University of California, Irvine, 1100 Gottschalk Medical Plaza, Irvine, California 92697, United States.,Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Science Road, Irvine, California 92697, United States.,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, 364 Med Surge II, Irvine, California 92697, United States.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California, Irvine, 101 The City Drive South, Building 53, Suite 311A, Orange, California 92868, United States
| | - Lonnie D Shea
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2200 Bonisteel Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2300 Hayward Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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20
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Li G, Fan ZK, Gu GF, Jia ZQ, Zhang QQ, Dai JY, He SS. Epidural Spinal Cord Stimulation Promotes Motor Functional Recovery by Enhancing Oligodendrocyte Survival and Differentiation and by Protecting Myelin after Spinal Cord Injury in Rats. Neurosci Bull 2019; 36:372-384. [PMID: 31732865 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-019-00442-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidural spinal cord stimulation (ESCS) markedly improves motor and sensory function after spinal cord injury (SCI), but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Here, we investigated whether ESCS affects oligodendrocyte differentiation and its cellular and molecular mechanisms in rats with SCI. ESCS improved hindlimb motor function at 7 days, 14 days, 21 days, and 28 days after SCI. ESCS also significantly increased the myelinated area at 28 days, and reduced the number of apoptotic cells in the spinal white matter at 7 days. SCI decreased the expression of 2',3'-cyclic-nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase (CNPase, an oligodendrocyte marker) at 7 days and that of myelin basic protein at 28 days. ESCS significantly upregulated these markers and increased the percentage of Sox2/CNPase/DAPI-positive cells (newly differentiated oligodendrocytes) at 7 days. Recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 4 (rhBMP4) markedly downregulated these factors after ESCS. Furthermore, ESCS significantly decreased BMP4 and p-Smad1/5/9 expression after SCI, and rhBMP4 reduced this effect of ESCS. These findings indicate that ESCS enhances the survival and differentiation of oligodendrocytes, protects myelin, and promotes motor functional recovery by inhibiting the BMP4-Smad1/5/9 signaling pathway after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200072, China
- Spinal Pain Research Institute, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200072, China
| | - Zhong-Kai Fan
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, 121001, China
| | - Guang-Fei Gu
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200072, China
- Spinal Pain Research Institute, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200072, China
| | - Zhi-Qiang Jia
- Department of Spinal Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471003, China
| | - Qiang-Qiang Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, 121001, China
| | - Jun-Yu Dai
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, 121001, China
| | - Shi-Sheng He
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200072, China.
- Spinal Pain Research Institute, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200072, China.
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21
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Anguita-Salinas C, Sánchez M, Morales RA, Ceci ML, Rojas-Benítez D, Allende ML. Cellular Dynamics during Spinal Cord Regeneration in Larval Zebrafish. Dev Neurosci 2019; 41:112-122. [PMID: 31390621 DOI: 10.1159/000500185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of spinal cord regeneration using diverse animal models, which range from null to robust regenerative capabilities, is imperative for understanding how regeneration evolved and, eventually, to treat spinal cord injury and paralysis in humans. In this study, we used electroablation to fully transect the spinal cord of zebrafish larvae (3 days postfertilization) and examined regeneration of the tissue over time. We used transgenic lines to follow immune cells, oligodendrocytes, and neurons in vivo during the entire regenerative process. We observed that immune cells are recruited to the injury site, oligodendrocytes progenitor cells (olig2-expressing cells) invade, and axons cross the gap generated upon damage from anterior to reinnervate caudal structures. Together with the recovery of cell types and structures, a complete reversal of paralysis was observed in the lesioned larvae indicating functional regeneration. Finally, using transplantation to obtain mosaic larvae with single-labeled neurons, we show that severed spinal axons exhibited varying regenerative capabilities and plasticity depending on their original dorsoventral position in the spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Consuelo Anguita-Salinas
- FONDAP Center for Genome Regulation, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mario Sánchez
- FONDAP Center for Genome Regulation, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Rodrigo A Morales
- FONDAP Center for Genome Regulation, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - María Laura Ceci
- FONDAP Center for Genome Regulation, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Diego Rojas-Benítez
- FONDAP Center for Genome Regulation, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Miguel L Allende
- FONDAP Center for Genome Regulation, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile,
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22
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Iranpour M, Torkzadeh-Tabrizi S, Khatoon-Asadi Z, Malekpour-Afshar R. Immunohistochemical Assessment of Inflammation and Regeneration in Morphine-Dependent Rat Brain. ADDICTION & HEALTH 2019; 10:156-161. [PMID: 31105913 PMCID: PMC6511398 DOI: 10.22122/ahj.v10i3.651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Background Opioids are amongst the most common abused drugs. Pathologic studies on opioid abuse are limited since the evaluation of inflammation and regeneration in brain tissue is not as simple as other tissues of the body. Thus, the present study aimed to determine the relationship between the dependence on morphine and inflammatory and regenerative processes. Methods In this experimental study, 48 male wistar rats were divided into 6 groups. The dependent groups (3 groups) received 0.4 mg/ml morphine in drinking water for 7, 28, and 56 days. The control groups (3 groups) received sucrose solution in drinking water for the same period. The histopathological studies of the brain sample were done. The slides were stained by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining method. The areas of brain were evaluated in terms of lymphocytic infiltration and glial scar. Findings A significant difference was observed in the mean number of cells in the glial scar of the dependent group 3 (dependent for 56 days) among the control group (P = 0.040). Further, a significant relationship was reported between the increased duration of morphine use and the number of created scar glial cells. Furthermore, a significant increase in the number of astrocytes was observed in the affected areas. Conclusion After long-term use, opioids can result in increased number of astrocytes and creating glial scar centers in the affected areas in response to the inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Iranpour
- Assistant Professor, Pathology and Stem Cell Research Center AND Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Sadaf Torkzadeh-Tabrizi
- Researcher, Pathology and Stem Cell Research Center AND Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Zeinab Khatoon-Asadi
- Researcher, Pathology and Stem Cell Research Center AND Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Reza Malekpour-Afshar
- Professor, Pathology and Stem Cell Research Center AND Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
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23
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Albayar AA, Roche A, Swiatkowski P, Antar S, Ouda N, Emara E, Smith DH, Ozturk AK, Awad BI. Biomarkers in Spinal Cord Injury: Prognostic Insights and Future Potentials. Front Neurol 2019; 10:27. [PMID: 30761068 PMCID: PMC6361789 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) is a major challenge in Neurotrauma research. Complex pathophysiological processes take place immediately after the injury and later on as the chronic injury develops. Moreover, SCI is usually accompanied by traumatic injuries because the most common modality of injury is road traffic accidents and falls. Patients develop significant permanent neurological deficits that depend on the extent and the location of the injury itself and in time they develop further neurological and body changes that may risk their mere survival. In our review, we explored the recent updates with regards to SCI biomarkers. We observed two methods that may lead to the appearance of biomarkers for SCI. First, during the first few weeks following the injury the Blood Spinal Cord Barrier (BSCB) disruption that releases several neurologic structure components from the injured tissue. These components find their way to Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) and the systemic circulation. Also, as the injury develops several components of the pathological process are expressed or released such as in neuroinflammation, apoptosis, reactive oxygen species, and excitotoxicity sequences. Therefore, there is a growing interest in examining any correlations between these components and the degrees or the outcomes of the injury. Additionally, some of the candidate biomarkers are theorized to track the progressive changes of SCI which offers an insight on the patients' prognoses, potential-treatments-outcomes assessment, and monitoring the progression of the complications of chronic SCI such as Pressure Ulcers and urinary dysfunction. An extensive literature review was performed covering literature, published in English, until February 2018 using the Medline/PubMed database. Experimental and human studies were included and titles, PMID, publication year, authors, biomarkers studies, the method of validation, relationship to SCI pathophysiology, and concluded correlation were reported. Potential SCI biomarkers need further validation using clinical studies. The selection of the appropriate biomarker group should be made based on the stage of the injuries, the accompanying trauma and with regards to any surgical, or medical interference that might have been done. Additionally, we suggest testing multiple biomarkers related to the several pathological changes coinciding to offer a more precise prediction of the outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed A Albayar
- Department of Neurosurgery, Penn Center for Brain Injury and Repair, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Abigail Roche
- Department of Neurosurgery, Penn Center for Brain Injury and Repair, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Przemyslaw Swiatkowski
- Department of Neurosurgery, Penn Center for Brain Injury and Repair, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Sarah Antar
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Nouran Ouda
- Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Eman Emara
- Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Douglas H Smith
- Department of Neurosurgery, Penn Center for Brain Injury and Repair, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Ali K Ozturk
- Department of Neurosurgery, Penn Center for Brain Injury and Repair, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Basem I Awad
- Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
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Li TZ, Deng H, Liu Q, Xia YZ, Darwazeh R, Yan Y. Protease-activated receptor-2 regulates glial scar formation via JNK signaling. Physiol Res 2019; 68:305-316. [PMID: 30628825 DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.933908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The study aimed to determine the effects of protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR-2) on glial scar formation after spinal cord injury (SCI) in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats and the underlying mechanisms. Rivlin and Tator's acute extradural clip compression injury (CCI) model of severe SCI was established in this study. Animals were divided into four groups: 1) sham group (laminectomy only); 2) model group, treated with normal saline; 3) PAR-2 inhibitor group; 4) PAR-2 activator group. Enhanced GFAP and vimentin expression were the markers of glial scar formation. To determine whether JNK was involved in the effects of PAR-2 on GFAP and vimentin expression, we administered anisomycin (a JNK activator) in the presence of PAR-2 inhibitor and SP600125 (a JNK inhibitor) in the presence of PAR-2 activator. At 1, 7, 14 and 28 day after SCI, Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor score test was used to assess the locomotor functional recovery; immunofluorescence and western blot analysis were used to assess the expression level of GFAP, vimentin and p-JNK. Double immunofluorescence staining with GFAP and tubulin beta was used to assess the glial scar formation and the remaining neurons. Results suggested that PAR-2 is involved in glial scar formation and reduces neurons residues which can cause a further worsening in the functional outcomes after SCI via JNK signaling. Therefore, it may be effective to target PAR-2 in the treatment of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Zun Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.
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25
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Guo WL, Qi ZP, Yu L, Sun TW, Qu WR, Liu QQ, Zhu Z, Li R. Melatonin combined with chondroitin sulfate ABC promotes nerve regeneration after root-avulsion brachial plexus injury. Neural Regen Res 2019; 14:328-338. [PMID: 30531017 PMCID: PMC6301163 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.244796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
After nerve-root avulsion injury of the brachial plexus, oxidative damage, inflammatory reaction, and glial scar formation can affect nerve regeneration and functional recovery. Melatonin (MT) has been shown to have good anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects. Chondroitin sulfate ABC (ChABC) has been shown to metabolize chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans and can reduce colloidal scar formation. However, the effect of any of these drugs alone in the recovery of nerve function after injury is not completely satisfactory. Therefore, this experiment aimed to explore the effect and mechanism of combined application of melatonin and chondroitin sulfate ABC on nerve regeneration and functional recovery after nerve-root avulsion of the brachial plexus. Fifty-two Sprague-Dawley rats were selected and their C5-7 nerve roots were avulsed. Then, the C6 nerve roots were replanted to construct the brachial plexus nerve-root avulsion model. After successful modeling, the injured rats were randomly divided into four groups. The first group (injury) did not receive any drug treatment, but was treated with a pure gel-sponge carrier nerve-root implantation and an ethanol-saline solution via intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection. The second group (melatonin) was treated with melatonin via i.p. injection. The third group (chondroitin sulfate ABC) was treated with chondroitin sulfate ABC through local administration. The fourth group (melatonin + chondroitin sulfate ABC) was treated with melatonin through i.p. injection and chondroitin sulfate ABC through local administration. The upper limb Terzis grooming test was used 2-6 weeks after injury to evaluate motor function. Inflammation and oxidative damage within 24 hours of injury were evaluated by spectrophotometry. Immunofluorescence and neuroelectrophysiology were used to evaluate glial scar, neuronal protection, and nerve regeneration. The results showed that the Terzis grooming-test scores of the three groups that received treatment were better than those of the injury only group. Additionally, these three groups showed lower levels of C5-7 intramedullary peroxidase and malondialdehyde. Further, glial scar tissue in the C6 spinal segment was smaller and the number of motor neurons was greater. The endplate area of the biceps muscle was larger and the structure was clear. The latency of the compound potential of the myocutaneous nerve-biceps muscle was shorter. All these indexes were even greater in the melatonin + chondroitin sulfate ABC group than in the melatonin only or chondroitin sulfate ABC only groups. Thus, the results showed that melatonin combined with chondroitin sulfate ABC can promote nerve regeneration after nerve-root avulsion injury of the brachial plexus, which may be achieved by reducing oxidative damage and inflammatory reaction in the injury area and inhibiting glial scar formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Lai Guo
- Department of Hand Surgery, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
| | - Zhi-Ping Qi
- Department of Orthopedics, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
| | - Li Yu
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
| | - Tian-Wen Sun
- Department of Orthopedics, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
| | - Wen-Rui Qu
- Department of Hand Surgery, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
| | - Qian-Qian Liu
- Department of Hand Surgery, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
| | - Zhe Zhu
- Department of Hand Surgery, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
| | - Rui Li
- Department of Hand Surgery, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
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26
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García E, Rodríguez-Barrera R, Buzoianu-Anguiano V, Flores-Romero A, Malagón-Axotla E, Guerrero-Godinez M, De la Cruz-Castillo E, Castillo-Carvajal L, Rivas-Gonzalez M, Santiago-Tovar P, Morales I, Borlongan C, Ibarra A. Use of a combination strategy to improve neuroprotection and neuroregeneration in a rat model of acute spinal cord injury. Neural Regen Res 2019; 14:1060-1068. [PMID: 30762019 PMCID: PMC6404491 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.250627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury is a very common pathological event that has devastating functional consequences in patients. In recent years, several research groups are trying to find an effective therapy that could be applied in clinical practice. In this study, we analyzed the combination of different strategies as a potential therapy for spinal cord injury. Immunization with neural derived peptides (INDP), inhibition of glial scar formation (dipyridyl: DPY), as well as the use of biocompatible matrix (fibrin glue: FG) impregnated with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were combined and then its beneficial effects were evaluated in the induction of neuroprotection and neuroregeneration after acute SCI. Sprague-Dawley female rats were subjected to a moderate spinal cord injury and then randomly allocated into five groups: 1) phosphate buffered saline; 2) DPY; 3) INDP + DPY; 4) DPY+ FG; 5) INDP + DPY + FG + MSCs. In all rats, intervention was performed 72 hours after spinal cord injury. Locomotor and sensibility recovery was assessed in all rats. At 60 days after treatment, histological examinations of the spinal cord (hematoxylin-eosin and Bielschowsky staining) were performed. Our results showed that the combination therapy (DPY+ INDP + FG + MSCs) was the best strategy to promote motor and sensibility recovery. In addition, significant increases in tissue preservation and axonal density were observed in the combination therapy group. Findings from this study suggest that the combination theapy (DPY+ INDP + FG + MSCs) exhibits potential effects on the protection and regeneration of neural tissue after acute spinal cord injury. All procedures were approved by the Animal Bioethics and Welfare Committee (approval No. 178544; CSNBTBIBAJ 090812960) on August 15, 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa García
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan, Edo. de México, México; Centro de Investigación del Proyecto CAMINA A.C.; Ciudad de México, México
| | - Roxana Rodríguez-Barrera
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan, Edo. de México, México; Centro de Investigación del Proyecto CAMINA A.C.; Ciudad de México, México
| | - Vinnitsa Buzoianu-Anguiano
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Enfermedades Neurologicas, Hospital Especialidades CMN Siglo XXI, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Adrian Flores-Romero
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan, Edo. de México, México; Centro de Investigación del Proyecto CAMINA A.C.; Ciudad de México, México
| | - Emanuel Malagón-Axotla
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan, Edo. de México, México
| | - Marco Guerrero-Godinez
- Unidad de Rehabilitación Osteoarticular. Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación. Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Estefanía De la Cruz-Castillo
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan, Edo. de México, México
| | - Laura Castillo-Carvajal
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan, Edo. de México, México
| | - Monserrat Rivas-Gonzalez
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan, Edo. de México, México
| | - Paola Santiago-Tovar
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan, Edo. de México, México
| | - Ivis Morales
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan, Edo. de México, México
| | - Cesar Borlongan
- Center of Excellence for Aging and Brain Repair, Department of Neurosurgery and Brain Repair, University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Antonio Ibarra
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud (CICSA), Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Anáhuac México Campus Norte, Huixquilucan, Edo. de México, México; Centro de Investigación del Proyecto CAMINA A.C.; Ciudad de México, México
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27
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O’Dell DR, Weber KA, Berliner JC, Elliott JM, Connor JR, Cummins DP, Heller KA, Hubert JS, Kates MJ, Mendoza KR, Smith AC. Midsagittal tissue bridges are associated with walking ability in incomplete spinal cord injury: A magnetic resonance imaging case series. J Spinal Cord Med 2018; 43:268-271. [PMID: 30346248 PMCID: PMC7054908 DOI: 10.1080/10790268.2018.1527079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Context: Following spinal cord injury (SCI), early prediction of future walking ability is difficult, due to factors such as spinal shock, sedation, impending surgery, and secondary long bone fracture. Accurate, objective biomarkers used in the acute stage of SCI would inform individualized patient management and enhance both patient/family expectations and treatment outcomes. Using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and specifically a midsagittal T2-weighted image, the amount of tissue bridging (measured as spared spinal cord tissue) shows potential to serve as such a biomarker. Ten participants with incomplete SCI received MRI of the spinal cord. Using the midsagittal T2-weighted image, anterior and posterior tissue bridges were calculated as the distance from cerebrospinal fluid to the damage. Then, the midsagittal tissue bridge ratio was calculated as the sum of anterior and posterior tissue bridges divided by the spinal cord diameter. Each participant also performed a 6-minute walk test, where the total distance walked was measured within six minutes.Findings: The midsagittal tissue bridge ratio measure demonstrated a high level of inter-rater reliability (ICC = 0.90). Midsagittal tissue bridge ratios were significantly related to distance walked in six minutes (R = 0.68, P = 0.03).Conclusion/clinical relevance: We uniquely demonstrated that midsagittal tissue bridge ratios were correlated walking ability. These preliminary findings suggest potential for this measure to be considered a prognostic biomarker of residual walking ability following SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise R. O’Dell
- School of Physical Therapy, Regis University, Denver, Colorado, USA,Craig Hospital, Englewood, Colorado, USA
| | - Kenneth A. Weber
- Department of Anesthesia, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, USA
| | | | - James M. Elliott
- Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia,Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences, Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois, USA,School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Jordan R. Connor
- School of Physical Therapy, Regis University, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - David P. Cummins
- School of Physical Therapy, Regis University, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Joshua S. Hubert
- School of Physical Therapy, Regis University, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - Megan J. Kates
- School of Physical Therapy, Regis University, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Andrew C. Smith
- School of Physical Therapy, Regis University, Denver, Colorado, USA,Correspondence to: Andrew C. Smith, Regis University School of Physical Therapy, 3333 Regis Boulevard, Peter Claver Hall, Suite 423D, Denver, CO 80221, USA; Ph: +1 (303) 458 4985.
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28
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Liu CB, Yang DG, Zhang X, Zhang WH, Li DP, Zhang C, Qin C, Du LJ, Li J, Gao F, Zhang J, Zuo ZT, Yang ML, Li JJ. Degeneration of white matter and gray matter revealed by diffusion tensor imaging and pathological mechanism after spinal cord injury in canine. CNS Neurosci Ther 2018; 25:261-272. [PMID: 30076687 DOI: 10.1111/cns.13044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 07/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Exploration of the mechanism of spinal cord degeneration may be the key to treatment of spinal cord injury (SCI). This study aimed to investigate the degeneration of white matter and gray matter and pathological mechanism in canine after SCI. METHODS Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) was performed on canine models with normal (n = 5) and injured (n = 7) spinal cords using a 3.0T MRI scanner at precontusion and 3 hours, 24 hours, 6 weeks, and 12 weeks postcontusion. The tissue sections were stained using H&E and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS For white matter, fractional anisotropy (FA) values significantly decreased in lesion epicenter, caudal segment 1 cm away from epicenter, and caudal segment 2 cm away from epicenter (P = 0.003, P = 0.004, and P = 0.013, respectively) after SCI. Apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) values were initially decreased and then increased in lesion epicenter and caudal segment 1 cm away from epicenter (P < 0.001 and P = 0.010, respectively). There are no significant changes in FA and ADC values in rostral segments (P > 0.05). For gray matter, ADC values decreased initially and then increased in lesion epicenter (P < 0.001), and overall trend decreased in caudal segment 1 cm away from epicenter (P = 0.039). FA values did not change significantly (P > 0.05). Pathological examination confirmed the dynamic changes of DTI parameters. CONCLUSION Diffusion tensor imaging is more sensitive to degeneration of white matter than gray matter, and the white matter degeneration may be not symmetrical which meant the caudal degradation appeared to be more severe than the rostral one.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Bin Liu
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - De-Gang Yang
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Wen-Hao Zhang
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Da-Peng Li
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Chao Zhang
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Chuan Qin
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Liang-Jie Du
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Li
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Feng Gao
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Zhen-Tao Zuo
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,The Innovation Center of Excellence on Brain Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ming-Liang Yang
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Jian-Jun Li
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China.,Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,China Rehabilitation Science Institute, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
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29
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Yao Y, Xu J, Yu T, Chen Z, Xiao Z, Wang J, Hu Y, Wu Y, Zhu D. Flufenamic acid inhibits secondary hemorrhage and BSCB disruption after spinal cord injury. Am J Cancer Res 2018; 8:4181-4198. [PMID: 30128046 PMCID: PMC6096396 DOI: 10.7150/thno.25707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute spinal cord injury (SCI) induces secondary hemorrhage and initial blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) disruption. The transient receptor potential melastatin 4 (Trpm4) together with sulfonylurea receptor 1 (Sur1) forms the Sur1-Trpm4 channel complex. The up-regulation of Sur1-Trpm4 after injury plays a crucial role in secondary hemorrhage, which is the most destructive mechanism in secondary injuries of the central nervous system (CNS). The matrix metalloprotease (MMP)-mediated disruption of the BSCB leads to an inflammatory response, neurotoxin production and neuronal cell apoptosis. Thus, preventing secondary hemorrhage and BSCB disruption should be an important goal of therapeutic interventions in SCI. Methods: Using a moderate contusion injury model at T10 of the spinal cord, flufenamic acid (FFA) was injected intraperitoneally 1 h after SCI and then continuously once per day for one week. Results: Trpm4 expression is highly up-regulated in capillaries 1 d after SCI. Treatment with flufenamic acid (FFA) inhibited Trpm4 expression, secondary hemorrhage, and capillary fragmentation and promoted angiogenesis. In addition, FFA significantly inhibited the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 at 1 d after SCI and significantly attenuated BSCB disruption at 1 d and 3 d after injury. Furthermore, we found that FFA decreased the hemorrhage- and BSCB disruption-induced activation of microglia/macrophages and was associated with smaller lesions, decreased cavity formation, better myelin preservation and less reactive gliosis. Finally, FFA protected motor neurons and improved locomotor functions after SCI. Conclusion: This study indicates that FFA improves functional recovery, in part, due to the following reasons: (1) it inhibits the expression of Trpm4 to reduce the secondary hemorrhage; and (2) it inhibits the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 to block BSCB disruption. Thus, the results of our study suggest that FFA may represent a potential therapeutic agent for promoting functional recovery.
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30
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Silva C, Oliveira K, Lavor M, Silva J, Rosado I, Taguchi T, Fukushima F, Caldeira F, Torres B, Milani P, Azevedo S, Motta G, Siano G, Goes A, Serakides R, Melo E. Benefícios da condroitinase abc associada a células-tronco mesenquimais na lesão espinhal aguda em ratos. ARQ BRAS MED VET ZOO 2018. [DOI: 10.1590/1678-4162-9523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
RESUMO Com o objetivo de estudar o efeito da condroitinase associada às células-tronco mesenquimais na lesão aguda da medula espinhal, utilizaram-se 50 ratos Lewis, distribuídos igualmente nos grupos: controle negativo (CN), tratamento com placebo (PLA), condroitinase (CDN), células-tronco mesenquimais (CTM) e condroitinase mais células-tronco mesenquimais (CDN+CTM). Todos os animais tiveram a medula espinhal exposta por laminectomia, e os grupos PLA, CDT, CTM e CDT+CTM sofreram também trauma medular compressivo. Após sete dias, procedeu-se à reexposição da medula espinhal, quando os grupos PLA e CTM receberam 4µL de líquido cefalorraquidiano artificial via intralesional, e os grupos CDT e CDT+CTM receberam o mesmo líquido contendo 2,2U de condroitinase. Após 14 dias da cirurgia inicial, todos os animais receberam 0,2mL de PBS via endovenosa, contudo, nos grupos CTM e CDT+CTM, esse líquido continha 1x106 CTM. Avaliou-se a capacidade motora até o 28o dia pós-trauma e, posteriormente, as medulas espinhais foram analisadas por RT-PCR, para quantificação da expressão gênica para BDNF, NT-3, VEGF, KDR e PECAM-1, e por imunoistoquímica, para detecção das células-tronco GFP injetadas (anti-GFP), quantificação dos neurônios (anti-NeuN) e da GFAP e vimentina, para avaliação da cicatriz glial. As análises estatísticas foram realizadas com o auxílio do Prism 5 for Windows, com o nível de significância de 5%. Não houve diferença entre os grupos quanto à capacidade motora. O grupo CDT+CTM apresentou maior imunoexpressão de neurônios viáveis do que o placebo. No CTM, houve maior expressão dos fatores neurotróficos BDNF e VEGF. E no CDT, houve menor imunoexpressão de vimentina. Concluiu-se que a associação CDT+CTM favorece a viabilidade neuronal após o trauma, que o tratamento com CTM promove aumento na expressão dos fatores tróficos BDNF e VEGF e que o tratamento com condroitinase é efetivo na redução da cicatriz glial.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - J.F. Silva
- Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | - P.F. Milani
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - G.R. Motta
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - G.F. Siano
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - A.M. Goes
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - E.G. Melo
- Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
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31
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Raspa A, Bolla E, Cuscona C, Gelain F. Feasible stabilization of chondroitinase abc enables reduced astrogliosis in a chronic model of spinal cord injury. CNS Neurosci Ther 2018; 25:86-100. [PMID: 29855151 DOI: 10.1111/cns.12984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Usually, spinal cord injury (SCI) develops into a glial scar containing extracellular matrix molecules including chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs). Chondroitinase ABC (ChABC), from Proteus vulgaris degrading the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) side chains of CSPGs, offers the opportunity to improve the final outcome of SCI. However, ChABC usage is limited by its thermal instability, requiring protein structure modifications, consecutive injections at the lesion site, or implantation of infusion pumps. METHODS Aiming at more feasible strategy to preserve ChABC catalytic activity, we assessed various stabilizing agents in different solutions and demonstrated, via a spectrophotometric protocol, that the 2.5 mol/L Sucrose solution best stabilized ChABC as far as 14 days in vitro. RESULTS ChABC activity was improved in both stabilizing and diluted solutions at +37°C, that is, mimicking their usage in vivo. We also verified the safety of the proposed aqueous sucrose solution in terms of viability/cytotoxicity of mouse neural stem cells (NSCs) in both proliferating and differentiating conditions in vitro. Furthermore, we showed that a single intraspinal treatment with ChABC and sucrose reduced reactive gliosis at the injury site in chronic contusive SCI in rats and slightly enhanced their locomotor recovery. CONCLUSION Usage of aqueous sucrose solutions may be a feasible strategy, in combination with rehabilitation, to ameliorate ChABC-based treatments to promote the regeneration of central nervous system injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Raspa
- Opera di San Pio da Pietrelcina, IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni Rotondo (FG), Italy
| | - Edoardo Bolla
- Center for Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering (CNTE), A.O. Ospedale Niguarda Cà Granda, Piazza dell'Ospedale Maggiore, Milan, Italy
| | - Claudia Cuscona
- Center for Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering (CNTE), A.O. Ospedale Niguarda Cà Granda, Piazza dell'Ospedale Maggiore, Milan, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Gelain
- Opera di San Pio da Pietrelcina, IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni Rotondo (FG), Italy.,Center for Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering (CNTE), A.O. Ospedale Niguarda Cà Granda, Piazza dell'Ospedale Maggiore, Milan, Italy
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32
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Siedenburg JS, Wang-Leandro A, Amendt HL, Rohn K, Tipold A, Stein VM. Transcranial magnetic motor evoked potentials and magnetic resonance imaging findings in paraplegic dogs with recovery of motor function. J Vet Intern Med 2018; 32:1116-1125. [PMID: 29566440 PMCID: PMC5980462 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.15058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2017] [Revised: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Transcranial magnetic motor evoked potentials (TMMEP) are associated with severity of clinical signs and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings in dogs with spinal cord disease. Hypothesis That in initially paraplegic dogs with thoracolumbar intervertebral disc herniation (IVDH), MRI findings before surgery and TMMEPs obtained after decompressive surgery are associated with long‐term neurological status and correlate with each other. Animals Seventeen client‐owned paraplegic dogs with acute thoracolumbar IVDH. Methods Prospective observational study. TMMEPs were obtained from pelvic limbs and MRI (3T) of the spinal cord was performed at initial clinical presentation. Follow‐up studies were performed ≤ 2 days after reappearance of motor function and 3 months later. Ratios of compression length, intramedullary hyperintensities' length (T2‐weighted hyperintensity length ratio [T2WLR]), and lesion extension (T2‐weighted‐lesion extension ratio) in relation to the length of the 2nd lumbar vertebral body were calculated. Results TMMEPs could be elicited in 10/17 (59%) dogs at 1st and in 16/17 (94%) dogs at 2nd follow‐up. Comparison of TMMEPs of 1st and 2nd follow‐up showed significantly increased amplitudes (median from 0.19 to 0.45 mV) and decreased latencies (from 69.38 to 40.26 ms; P = .01 and .001, respectively). At 2nd follow‐up latencies were significantly associated with ambulatory status (P = .024). T2WLR obtained before surgery correlated with latencies at 2nd follow‐up (P = .04). Conclusions TMMEP reflect motor function recovery after severe spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes S Siedenburg
- Division of Neurology, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Adriano Wang-Leandro
- Division of Neurology, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Institute of Biometry, Epidemiology, and Information Processing, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Hanna-Luise Amendt
- Division of Neurology, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Karl Rohn
- Institute of Biometry, Epidemiology, and Information Processing, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Andrea Tipold
- Division of Neurology, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Centre of Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Veronika M Stein
- Division of Neurology, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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33
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Fan WL, Liu P, Wang G, Pu JG, Xue X, Zhao JH. Transplantation of hypoxic preconditioned neural stem cells benefits functional recovery via enhancing neurotrophic secretion after spinal cord injury in rats. J Cell Biochem 2018; 119:4339-4351. [PMID: 28884834 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.26397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a debilitating, costly, and common pathological condition that affects the function of central nervous system (CNS). To date, there are few promising therapeutic strategies available for SCI. To look for a suitable therapeutic strategy, we have developed a sublethal hypoxic preconditioning procedure using Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis, LDH releasing, and cell viability assays in vitro. Meanwhile, we have examined the benefits of neural stem cells (NSCs) transplantation prior to hypoxic preconditioning on functional recovery and potential mechanism via MRI screening, H&E, and Nissl staining, immunofluorescence staining and Elisa assays. Our data showed that transplantation of hypoxic prconditioned NSCs could enhance neuronal survival, especially 5-TH+ and ChAT+ neurons, in the injured spinal cord to reinforce functional benefits. The hypoxia exposure upregulated HIF-1α, neurotrophic and growth factors including neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, functional recovery, including locomotor and hypersensitivities to mechanical and thermal stimulation assessed via behavioral and sensory tests, improved significantly in rats with engraftment of NSCs after hypoxia exposure from day 14 post-SCI, compared with the control and N-NSCs groups. In short, the approach employed in this study could result in functional recovery via upregulating neurotrophic and growth factors, which implies that hypoxic preconditioning strategy could serve as an effective and feasible strategy for cell-based therapy in the treatment of SCI in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Li Fan
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Peng Liu
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Guan Wang
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jun-Gang Pu
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xin Xue
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jian-Hua Zhao
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Daping Hospital, Research Institute of Surgery, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
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Wu Y, Zhao Y, Lin L, Lu Z, Guo Z, Li X, Chen R, Ma H. Fifty top-cited spine articles from mainland China: A citation analysis. J Int Med Res 2018; 46:773-784. [PMID: 29239253 PMCID: PMC5971490 DOI: 10.1177/0300060517713804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective To identify the 50 top-cited spine articles from mainland China and to analyze their main characteristics. Methods Web of Science was used to identify the 50 top-cited spine articles from mainland China in 27 spine-related journals. The title, year of publication, number of citations, journal, anatomic focus, subspecialty, evidence level, city, institution and author were recorded. Results The top 50 articles had 29-122 citations and were published in 11 English-language journals; most (32) were published in the 2000s. The journal Spine had the largest number of articles and The Lancet had the highest impact factor. The lumber spine was the most discussed anatomic area (18). Degenerative spine disease was the most common subspecialty topic (22). Most articles were clinical studies (29); the others were basic research (21). Level IV was the most common evidence level (17). Conclusions This list indicates the most influential articles from mainland China in the global spine research community. Identification of these articles provides insights into the trends in spine care in mainland China and the historical contributions of researchers from mainland China to the international spine research field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaohong Wu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Ganzhou People’s
Hospital, Ganzhou, China
| | - Yachao Zhao
- The Third Clinical College, Southern Medical
University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Linghan Lin
- The Third Clinical College, Southern Medical
University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhijun Lu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Ganzhou People’s
Hospital, Ganzhou, China
| | - Zhaoyang Guo
- Department of Orthopaedics, Ganzhou People’s
Hospital, Ganzhou, China
| | - Xiaoming Li
- Department of Orthopaedics, Ganzhou People’s
Hospital, Ganzhou, China
| | - Rongchun Chen
- Department of Orthopaedics, Ganzhou People’s
Hospital, Ganzhou, China
| | - Huasong Ma
- Department of Orthopaedics, The 306th Hospital
of People’s Liberation Army, Beijing, China
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35
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Lewis MJ, Cohen EB, Olby NJ. Magnetic resonance imaging features of dogs with incomplete recovery after acute, severe spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2018; 56:133-141. [PMID: 29057987 PMCID: PMC5809200 DOI: 10.1038/s41393-017-0004-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2017] [Revised: 08/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN Retrospective case series. OBJECTIVES Describe the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) features of dogs chronically impaired after severe spinal cord injury (SCI) and investigate associations between imaging variables and residual motor function. SETTING United States of America. METHODS Thoracolumbar MRI from dogs with incomplete recovery months to years after clinically complete (paralysis with loss of pain perception) thoracolumbar SCI were reviewed. Lesion features were described and quantified. Gait was quantified using an ordinal, open field scale (OFS). Associations between imaging features and gait scores, duration of injury (DOI), or SCI treatment were determined. RESULTS Thirty-five dogs were included. Median OFS was 2 (0-6), median DOI was 13 months (3-83), and intervertebral disk herniation was the most common diagnosis (n = 27). Myelomalacia was the most common qualitative feature followed by cystic change; syringomyelia and fibrosis were uncommon. Lesion length corrected to L2 length (LL:L2) was variable (median LL:L2 = 3.5 (1.34-11.54)). Twenty-nine dogs had 100% maximum cross-sectional spinal cord compromise (MSCC) at the lesion epicenter and the length of 100% compromised area varied widely (median length 100% MSCC:L2 = 1.29 (0.39-7.64)). Length 100% MSCC:L2 was associated with OFS (p = 0.012). OFS was not associated with any qualitative features. DOI or treatment type were not associated with imaging features or lesion quantification. CONCLUSIONS Lesion characteristics on MRI in dogs with incomplete recovery after severe SCI were established. Length of 100% MSCC was associated with hind limb motor function. Findings demonstrate a spectrum of injury severity on MRI among severely affected dogs, which is related to functional status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa J Lewis
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
- Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Eli B Cohen
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Natasha J Olby
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.
- Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.
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Liu CB, Yang DG, Meng QR, Li DP, Yang ML, Sun W, Zhang WH, Cai C, Du LJ, Li J, Gao F, Yu Y, Zhang X, Zuo ZT, Li JJ. Dynamic correlation of diffusion tensor imaging and neurological function scores in beagles with spinal cord injury. Neural Regen Res 2018; 13:877-886. [PMID: 29863019 PMCID: PMC5998642 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.232485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Exploring the relationship between different structure of the spinal cord and functional assessment after spinal cord injury is important. Quantitative diffusion tensor imaging can provide information about the microstructure of nerve tissue and can quantify the pathological damage of spinal cord white matter and gray matter. In this study, a custom-designed spinal cord contusion-impactor was used to damage the T10 spinal cord of beagles. Diffusion tensor imaging was used to observe changes in the whole spinal cord, white matter, and gray matter, and the Texas Spinal Cord Injury Score was used to assess changes in neurological function at 3 hours, 24 hours, 6 weeks, and 12 weeks after injury. With time, fractional anisotropy values after spinal cord injury showed a downward trend, and the apparent diffusion coefficient, mean diffusivity, and radial diffusivity first decreased and then increased. The apparent diffusion-coefficient value was highly associated with the Texas Spinal Cord Injury Score for the whole spinal cord (R = 0.919, P = 0.027), white matter (R = 0.932, P = 0.021), and gray matter (R = 0.882, P = 0.048). Additionally, the other parameters had almost no correlation with the score (P > 0.05). In conclusion, the highest and most significant correlation between diffusion parameters and neurological function was the apparent diffusion-coefficient value for white matter, indicating that it could be used to predict the recovery of neurological function accurately after spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Bin Liu
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - De-Gang Yang
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Qian-Ru Meng
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Da-Peng Li
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Ming-Liang Yang
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Sun
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Wen-Hao Zhang
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Chang Cai
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Liang-Jie Du
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Li
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Feng Gao
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Yu
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
| | - Zhen-Tao Zuo
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences; The Innovation Center of Excellence on Brain Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jian-Jun Li
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders; China Rehabilitation Science Institute; Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Rehabilitation, Beijing, China
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Yin H, Jiang T, Deng X, Yu M, Xing H, Ren X. A cellular spinal cord scaffold seeded with rat adipose‑derived stem cells facilitates functional recovery via enhancing axon regeneration in spinal cord injured rats. Mol Med Rep 2017; 17:2998-3004. [PMID: 29257299 PMCID: PMC5783519 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.8238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI), usually resulting in severe sensory and motor deficits, is a major public health concern. Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs), one type of adult stem cell, are free from ethical restriction, easily isolated and enriched. Therefore, ADSCs may provide a feasible cell source for cell-based therapies in treatment of SCI. The present study successfully isolated rat ADSCs (rADSCs) from Sprague-Dawley male rats and co-cultured them with acellular spinal cord scaffolds (ASCs). Then, a rat spinal cord hemisection model was built and rats were randomly divided into 3 groups: SCI only, ASC only, and ASC + ADSCs. Furthermore, behavioral tests were conducted to evaluate functional recovery. Hematoxylin & Eosin staining and immunofluorence were carried out to assess histopathological remodeling. In addition, biotinylated dextran amines anterograde tracing was employed to visualize axon regeneration. The data demonstrated that harvested cells, which were positive for cell surface antigen cluster of differentiation (CD) 29, CD44 and CD90 and negative for CD4, detected by flow cytometry analysis, held the potential to differentiate into osteocytes and adipocytes. Rats that received transplantation of ASCs seeded with rADSCs benefited greatly in functional recovery through facilitation of histopathological rehabilitation, axon regeneration and reduction of reactive gliosis. rADSCs co-cultured with ASCs may survive and integrate into the host spinal cord on day 14 post-SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Yin
- Department of Orthopedics, Xinqiao Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400037, P.R. China
| | - Tao Jiang
- Department of Orthopedics, Xinqiao Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400037, P.R. China
| | - Xi Deng
- Department of Ultrasound, Xinqiao Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400037, P.R. China
| | - Miao Yu
- Department of Orthopedics, Xinqiao Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400037, P.R. China
| | - Hui Xing
- Department of Orthopedics, Xinqiao Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400037, P.R. China
| | - Xianjun Ren
- Department of Orthopedics, Xinqiao Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400037, P.R. China
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38
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Cheng I, Park DY, Mayle RE, Githens M, Smith RL, Park HY, Hu SS, Alamin TF, Wood KB, Kharazi AI. Does timing of transplantation of neural stem cells following spinal cord injury affect outcomes in an animal model? JOURNAL OF SPINE SURGERY 2017; 3:567-571. [PMID: 29354733 DOI: 10.21037/jss.2017.10.06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Background We previously reported that functional recovery of rats with spinal cord contusions can occur after acute transplantation of neural stem cells distal to the site of injury. To investigate the effects of timing of administration of human neural stem cell (hNSC) distal to the site of spinal cord injury on functional outcomes in an animal model. Methods Thirty-six adult female Long-Evans hooded rats were randomized into three experimental and three control groups with six animals in each group. The T10 level was exposed via posterior laminectomy, and a moderate spinal cord contusion was induced by the Multicenter Animal Spinal Cord Injury Study Impactor (MASCIS, W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Piscataway, NJ, USA). The animals received either an intrathecal injection of hNSCs or control media through a separate distal laminotomy immediately, one week or four weeks after the induced spinal cord injury. Observers were blinded to the interventions. Functional assessment was measured immediately after injury and weekly using the Basso, Beattie, Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor rating score. Results A statistically significant functional improvement was seen in all three time groups when compared to their controls (acute, mean 9.2 vs. 4.5, P=0.016; subacute, mean 11.1 vs. 6.8, P=0.042; chronic, mean 11.3 vs. 5.8, P=0.035). Although there was no significant difference in the final BBB scores comparing the groups that received hNSCs, the group which achieved the greatest improvement from the time of cell injection was the subacute group (+10.3) and was significantly greater than the chronic group (+5.1, P=0.02). Conclusions The distal intrathecal transplantation of hNSCs into the contused spinal cord of a rat led to significant functional recovery of the spinal cord when injected in the acute, subacute and chronic phases of spinal cord injury (SCI), although the greatest gains appeared to be in the subacute timing group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Cheng
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Redwood City, CA, USA
| | - Don Y Park
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of California Los Angeles, Santa Monica, CA, USA
| | - Robert E Mayle
- California Pacific Orthopaedics and Sports Medicine, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Michael Githens
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Robert L Smith
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Redwood City, CA, USA
| | - Howard Y Park
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Serena S Hu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Todd F Alamin
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Kirkham B Wood
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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Cheng Q, Sun GJ, Liu SB, Yang Q, Li XM, Li XB, Liu G, Zhao JN, Zhao MG. A novel translocator protein 18 kDa ligand, ZBD-2, exerts neuroprotective effects against acute spinal cord injury. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2017; 43:930-8. [PMID: 27292096 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.12606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) happens accidently and often leads to motor dysfunction due to a series of biochemical and pathological events and damage, either temporarily or permanently. Translocator protein 18 (TSPO) has been found to be involved in the synthesis of endogenous neurosteroids which have multiple effects on neurons, but the internal mechanisms are not clear. N-benzyl-N-ethyl-2-(7,8-oxo-2-phenyl-9H-purin-9-yl) acetamide (ZBD-2), a newly reported ligand of TSPO, shows some neuroprotective effect against focal cerebral ischemia in vivo and NMDA-induced neurotoxicity in vitro. The present study aims to examine the role of ZBD-2 in SCI mice and elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms. The SCI model was established by crushing spinal cord. ZBD-2 (10 mg/kg) significantly enhanced the hindlimb locomotor functions after SCI and decreased the tissue damage and conserved the white matter of the spinal cord. High-dose ZBD-2 alleviated the oxidative stress induced by SCI and regulated the imbalance between NR2B-containing NMDA and GABA receptors by increasing the levels of GAD67 in the spinal cord of SCI mice. Additionally, ZBD-2 (10 mg/kg) increased phosphorylated Akt (p-Akt) and decreased the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2. These results demonstrate that ZBD-2 performs neuroprotection against SCI through regulating the synaptic transmission and the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Cheng
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Guo-Jing Sun
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shui-Bing Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Qi Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xiao-Ming Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xu-Bo Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Gang Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jian-Ning Zhao
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ming-Gao Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
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40
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Manley NC, Priest CA, Denham J, Wirth ED, Lebkowski JS. Human Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Oligodendrocyte Progenitor Cells: Preclinical Efficacy and Safety in Cervical Spinal Cord Injury. Stem Cells Transl Med 2017; 6:1917-1929. [PMID: 28834391 PMCID: PMC6430160 DOI: 10.1002/sctm.17-0065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cervical spinal cord injury (SCI) remains an important research focus for regenerative medicine given the potential for severe functional deficits and the current lack of treatment options to augment neurological recovery. We recently reported the preclinical safety data of a human embryonic cell‐derived oligodendrocyte progenitor cell (OPC) therapy that supported initiation of a phase I clinical trial for patients with sensorimotor complete thoracic SCI. To support the clinical use of this OPC therapy for cervical injuries, we conducted preclinical efficacy and safety testing of the OPCs in a nude rat model of cervical SCI. Using the automated TreadScan system to track motor behavioral recovery, we found that OPCs significantly improved locomotor performance when administered directly into the cervical spinal cord 1 week after injury, and that this functional improvement was associated with reduced parenchymal cavitation and increased sparing of myelinated axons within the injury site. Based on large scale biodistribution and toxicology studies, we show that OPC migration is limited to the spinal cord and brainstem and did not cause any adverse clinical observations, toxicities, allodynia, or tumors. In combination with previously published efficacy and safety data, the results presented here supported initiation of a phase I/IIa clinical trial in the U.S. for patients with sensorimotor complete cervical SCI. Stem Cells Translational Medicine2017;6:1917–1929
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan C Manley
- Asterias Biotherapeutics Inc., Dumbarton Circle, Fremont, California, USA
| | | | | | - Edward D Wirth
- Asterias Biotherapeutics Inc., Dumbarton Circle, Fremont, California, USA.,Geron Corporation, Menlo Park, California, USA
| | - Jane S Lebkowski
- Asterias Biotherapeutics Inc., Dumbarton Circle, Fremont, California, USA.,Geron Corporation, Menlo Park, California, USA
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41
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Wang-Leandro A, Hobert MK, Alisauskaite N, Dziallas P, Rohn K, Stein VM, Tipold A. Spontaneous acute and chronic spinal cord injuries in paraplegic dogs: a comparative study of in vivo diffusion tensor imaging. Spinal Cord 2017; 55:1108-1116. [DOI: 10.1038/sc.2017.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Revised: 06/12/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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42
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Wang-Leandro A, Siedenburg JS, Hobert MK, Dziallas P, Rohn K, Stein VM, Tipold A. Comparison of Preoperative Quantitative Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Clinical Assessment of Deep Pain Perception as Prognostic Tools for Early Recovery of Motor Function in Paraplegic Dogs with Intervertebral Disk Herniations. J Vet Intern Med 2017; 31:842-848. [PMID: 28440586 PMCID: PMC5435037 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.14715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Revised: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Prognostic tools to predict early postoperative motor function recovery (MFR) after thoracolumbar intervertebral disk herniation (IVDH) in paraplegic dogs represent an opportunity to timely implement novel therapies that could shorten recovery times and diminish permanent neurological dysfunctions. Hypothesis Fractional anisotropy (FA) values obtained using diffusion tensor imaging have a higher prognostic value than a lesion extension ratio in T2‐weighted images (T2W‐LER) and clinical assessment of deep pain perception (DPP) for MFR. Animals Thirty‐five paraplegic dogs with diagnosis of acute or subacute thoracolumbar IVDH. Methods Prospective, descriptive observational study. At admission, absence or presence of DPP, T2W‐LER, and FA values was evaluated. MFR was assessed within 4 weeks after decompressive surgery. Values of T2W‐LER and FA of dogs with and without MFR were compared using t‐tests. All 3 methods were evaluated for their sensitivity and specificity as a prognostic factor. Results No differences were found between groups regarding T2W‐LER. FA values differed statistically when measured caudally of lesion epicenter being higher in dogs without MFR compared to dogs with MFR (P = .023). Logistic regression analysis revealed significance in FA values measured caudally of the lesion epicenter (P = .033, area under the curve = 0.72). Using a cutoff value of FA = 0.660, the technique had a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity of 55%. Evaluation of DPP had a sensitivity of 73.3% and specificity of 75% (P = .007). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Evaluation of DPP showed a similar sensitivity and a better specificity predicting early MFR than quantitative magnetic resonance imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Wang-Leandro
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Centre of Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - J S Siedenburg
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - M K Hobert
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - P Dziallas
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - K Rohn
- Institute of Biometry, Epidemiology, and Information Processing, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - V M Stein
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - A Tipold
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Centre of Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
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Smith AC, Weber KA, Parrish TB, Hornby TG, Tysseling VM, McPherson JG, Wasielewski M, Elliott JM. Ambulatory function in motor incomplete spinal cord injury: a magnetic resonance imaging study of spinal cord edema and lower extremity muscle morphometry. Spinal Cord 2017; 55:672-678. [PMID: 28244504 PMCID: PMC5501756 DOI: 10.1038/sc.2017.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Revised: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Study Design This research utilized a cross-sectional design. Objectives Spinal cord edema length has been measured with T2-weighted sagittal MRI to predict motor recovery following spinal cord injury. The purpose of our study was to establish the correlational value of axial spinal cord edema using T2-weighted MRI. We hypothesized a direct relationship between the size of damage on axial MRI and walking ability, motor function, and distal muscle changes seen in motor incomplete spinal cord injury (iSCI). Setting University based laboratory in Chicago, IL USA. Methods Fourteen participants with iSCI took part in the study. Spinal cord axial damage ratios were assessed using axial T2-weighted MRI. Walking ability was investigated using the 6-minute walk test and daily stride counts. Maximum plantarflexion torque was quantified using isometric dynomometry. Muscle fat infiltration (MFI) and relative muscle cross sectional area (rmCSA) were quantified using fat/water separation magnetic resonance imaging. Results Damage ratios were negatively correlated with distance walked in 6 minutes, average daily strides, and maximum plantarflexion torque, and a negative linear trend was found between damage ratios and lower leg rmCSA. While damage ratios were not significantly correlated with MFI, we found significantly higher MFI in the wheelchair user participant group compared to community walkers. Conclusions Damage ratios may be useful in prognosis of motor recovery in spinal cord injury. The results warrant a large multi-site research study to investigate the value of high-resolution axial T2-weighted imaging to predict walking recovery following motor incomplete spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Smith
- Regis University School of Physical Therapy, Denver, CO, USA.,Northwestern University Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - K A Weber
- Stanford University Department of Anesthesia, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - T B Parrish
- Northwestern University Department of Radiology, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - T G Hornby
- Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - V M Tysseling
- Northwestern University Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - J G McPherson
- Florida International University Department of Biomedical Engineering, Miami, FL, USA
| | - M Wasielewski
- Northwestern University Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - J M Elliott
- Northwestern University Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA
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Mao Y, Tonkin RS, Nguyen T, O'Carroll SJ, Nicholson LFB, Green CR, Moalem-Taylor G, Gorrie CA. Systemic Administration of Connexin43 Mimetic Peptide Improves Functional Recovery after Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury in Adult Rats. J Neurotrauma 2017; 34:707-719. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2016.4625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yilin Mao
- Neural Injury Research Unit, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ryan S. Tonkin
- Neuropathic Pain Research Group, Translational Neuroscience Facility, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tara Nguyen
- Neural Injury Research Unit, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Simon J. O'Carroll
- Department of Anatomy and Medical Imaging and the Centre for Brain Research, University of Auckland, Grafton, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Louise F. B. Nicholson
- Department of Anatomy and Medical Imaging and the Centre for Brain Research, University of Auckland, Grafton, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Colin R. Green
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Grafton, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Gila Moalem-Taylor
- Neuropathic Pain Research Group, Translational Neuroscience Facility, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Catherine A. Gorrie
- Neural Injury Research Unit, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Ferbert T, Child C, Graeser V, Swing T, Akbar M, Heller R, Biglari B, Moghaddam A. Tracking Spinal Cord Injury: Differences in Cytokine Expression of IGF-1, TGF- B1, and sCD95l Can Be Measured in Blood Samples and Correspond to Neurological Remission in a 12-Week Follow-Up. J Neurotrauma 2017; 34:607-614. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2015.4294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Ferbert
- HTRG-Heidelberg Trauma Research Group, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christopher Child
- HTRG-Heidelberg Trauma Research Group, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Viola Graeser
- HTRG-Heidelberg Trauma Research Group, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tyler Swing
- HTRG-Heidelberg Trauma Research Group, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Michael Akbar
- HTRG-Heidelberg Trauma Research Group, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Raban Heller
- HTRG-Heidelberg Trauma Research Group, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Bahram Biglari
- Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallklinik Ludwigshafen, Department of Paraplegiology, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | - Arash Moghaddam
- HTRG-Heidelberg Trauma Research Group, Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, Center for Orthopedics, Trauma Surgery and Spinal Cord Injury, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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Sutherland TC, Mathews KJ, Mao Y, Nguyen T, Gorrie CA. Differences in the Cellular Response to Acute Spinal Cord Injury between Developing and Mature Rats Highlights the Potential Significance of the Inflammatory Response. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 10:310. [PMID: 28133446 PMCID: PMC5233684 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
There exists a trend for a better functional recovery from spinal cord injury (SCI) in younger patients compared to adults, which is also reported for animal studies; however, the reasons for this are yet to be elucidated. The post injury tissue microenvironment is a complex milieu of cells and signals that interact on multiple levels. Inflammation has been shown to play a significant role in this post injury microenvironment. Endogenous neural progenitor cells (NPC), in the ependymal layer of the central canal, have also been shown to respond and migrate to the lesion site. This study used a mild contusion injury model to compare adult (9 week), juvenile (5 week) and infant (P7) Sprague-Dawley rats at 24 h, 1, 2, and 6 weeks post-injury (n = 108). The innate cells of the inflammatory response were examined using counts of ED1/IBA1 labeled cells. This found a decreased inflammatory response in the infants, compared to the adult and juvenile animals, demonstrated by a decreased neutrophil infiltration and macrophage and microglial activation at all 4 time points. Two other prominent cellular contributors to the post-injury microenvironment, the reactive astrocytes, which eventually form the glial scar, and the NPC were quantitated using GFAP and Nestin immunohistochemistry. After SCI in all 3 ages there was an obvious increase in Nestin staining in the ependymal layer, with long basal processes extending into the parenchyma. This was consistent between age groups early post injury then deviated at 2 weeks. The GFAP results also showed stark differences between the mature and infant animals. These results point to significant differences in the inflammatory response between infants and adults that may contribute to the better recovery indicated by other researchers, as well as differences in the overall injury progression and cellular responses. This may have important consequences if we are able to mirror and manipulate this response in patients of all ages; however much greater exploration in this area is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa C Sutherland
- Neural Injury Research Unit, School of Medical and Molecular Bioscience, University of Technology Sydney Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Kathryn J Mathews
- Discipline of Biomedical Sciences and Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Yilin Mao
- Neural Injury Research Unit, School of Medical and Molecular Bioscience, University of Technology Sydney Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Tara Nguyen
- Neural Injury Research Unit, School of Medical and Molecular Bioscience, University of Technology Sydney Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Catherine A Gorrie
- Neural Injury Research Unit, School of Medical and Molecular Bioscience, University of Technology Sydney Ultimo, NSW, Australia
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Ban DX, Liu Y, Cao TW, Gao SJ, Feng SQ. The preparation of rat's acellular spinal cord scaffold and co-culture with rat's spinal cord neuron in vitro. Spinal Cord 2016; 55:411-418. [PMID: 27779250 DOI: 10.1038/sc.2016.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Revised: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN The rat's acellular spinal cord scaffold (ASCS) and spinal cord neurons were prepared in vitro to explore their biocompatibility. OBJECTIVES The preparation of ASCS and co-culture with neuron may lay a foundation for clinical treatment of spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, ChinaMethods:ASCS was prepared by chemical extraction method. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), myelin staining and scanning electron microscope were used to observe the surface structure of ASCS. Spinal cord neurons of rat were separated in vitro, and then co-cultured with prepared ASCS in virto. RESULTS The prepared ASCS showed mesh structure with small holes of different sizes. H&E staining showed that cell components were all removed. The ASCS possessed fine three-dimensional network porous structure. DNA components were not found in the ASCS by DNA agarose gel electrophoresis. The cultured cells express neuron-specific enolase (NSE) antigen with long axons. H&E staining showed that the neurons adhered to the pore structures of ASCS, and the cell growth was fine. The survival rate of co-cultured cells was (97.53±1.52%) by MTT detection. Immunohistochemical staining showed that neurons on the scaffold expressed NSE and NeuN antigen. Cells were arranged closely, and the channel structures of ASCS were fully filled with neurons. The cells accumulated in the channel and grew well in good state. CONCLUSION The structure of ASCS remained intact, and the neurons were closely arranged in the scaffolds. These results may lay a solid foundation for clinical treatment of SCI when considering glial scar replacement by biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- D-X Ban
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Y Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - T-W Cao
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - S-J Gao
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - S-Q Feng
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
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Li G, Cao Y, Shen F, Wang Y, Bai L, Guo W, Bi Y, Lv G, Fan Z. Mdivi-1 Inhibits Astrocyte Activation and Astroglial Scar Formation and Enhances Axonal Regeneration after Spinal Cord Injury in Rats. Front Cell Neurosci 2016; 10:241. [PMID: 27807407 PMCID: PMC5069437 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
After spinal cord injury (SCI), astrocytes become hypertrophic, and proliferative, forming a dense network of astroglial processes at the site of the lesion. This constitutes a physical and biochemical barrier to axonal regeneration. Mitochondrial fission regulates cell cycle progression; inhibiting the cell cycle of astrocytes can reduce expression levels of axon growth-inhibitory molecules as well as astroglial scar formation after SCI. We therefore investigated how an inhibitor of mitochondrial fission, Mdivi-1, would affect astrocyte proliferation, astroglial scar formation, and axonal regeneration following SCI in rats. Western blot and immunofluorescent double-labeling showed that Mdivi-1 markedly reduced the expression of the astrocyte marker glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and a cell proliferation marker, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, in astrocytes 3 days after SCI. Moreover, Mdivi-1 decreased the expression of GFAP and neurocan, a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan. Notably, immunofluorescent labeling and Nissl staining showed that Mdivi-1 elevated the production of growth-associated protein-43 and increased neuronal survival at 4 weeks after SCI. Finally, hematoxylin-eosin staining, and behavioral evaluation of motor function indicated that Mdivi-1 also reduced cavity formation and improved motor function 4 weeks after SCI. Our results confirm that Mdivi-1 promotes motor function after SCI, and indicate that inhibiting mitochondrial fission using Mdivi-1 can inhibit astrocyte activation and astroglial scar formation and contribute to axonal regeneration after SCI in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Li
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University Jinzhou, China
| | - Yang Cao
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University Jinzhou, China
| | - Feifei Shen
- Department of Pathology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University Shenyang, China
| | - Yangsong Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University Jinzhou, China
| | - Liangjie Bai
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University Shenyang, China
| | - Weidong Guo
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University Jinzhou, China
| | - Yunlong Bi
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University Jinzhou, China
| | - Gang Lv
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University Jinzhou, China
| | - Zhongkai Fan
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University Jinzhou, China
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Liu CJ, Xie L, Cui C, Chu M, Zhao HD, Yao L, Li YH, Schachner M, Shen YQ. Beneficial roles of melanoma cell adhesion molecule in spinal cord transection recovery in adult zebrafish. J Neurochem 2016; 139:187-196. [PMID: 27318029 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Revised: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/12/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Melanoma cell adhesion molecule (MCAM) is a multifunctional protein involved in miscellaneous processes, including development and tumor angiogenesis. Here, spinal cord transection in adult zebrafish was used to investigate the effects of MCAM on spinal cord injury (SCI) and subsequent recovery. Expression of MCAM mRNA increased and co-localized with motoneurons in the spinal cord after SCI. With MCAM morpholino treatment, inhibition of MCAM retarded both axon regrowth and locomotor recovery in the spinal cord injured zebrafish. Furthermore, MCAM mRNA expression was also observed in fli1a:EGFP transgenic zebrafish, which specifically show labeled blood vessels. Inhibition of MCAM down-regulated the expression of angiogenesis-related factors, such as VEGFR-2, p-p38 and p-AKT, and the inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-8. Taken together, these data suggest that MCAM may have a beneficial role in the recovery from SCI, via the promotion of neurogenesis and angiogenesis. In the context of adult zebrafish spinal cord injury, we proved that Melanoma cell adhesion molecule (MCAM) is beneficial to the recovery, possibly via mechanisms of angiogenensis and inflammation. MCAM promotes angiogenesis by adjusting VEGFR-2, p-p38 and p-AKT. MCAM affects inflammatory factors such as TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-8. Our results extend the beneficial role of MCAM in the regeneration of central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Jie Liu
- Jiangnan University Medical School, Wuxi, China
- Center for Neuroscience, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Lin Xie
- Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Chun Cui
- Jiangnan University Medical School, Wuxi, China
| | - Min Chu
- Jiangnan University Medical School, Wuxi, China
| | - Hou-De Zhao
- Jiangnan University Medical School, Wuxi, China
- Center for Neuroscience, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Li Yao
- Jiangnan University Medical School, Wuxi, China
| | - Yu-Hong Li
- Jiangnan University Medical School, Wuxi, China
| | - Melitta Schachner
- Center for Neuroscience, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Yan-Qin Shen
- Jiangnan University Medical School, Wuxi, China.
- Center for Neuroscience, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China.
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Khankan RR, Griffis KG, Haggerty-Skeans JR, Zhong H, Roy RR, Edgerton VR, Phelps PE. Olfactory Ensheathing Cell Transplantation after a Complete Spinal Cord Transection Mediates Neuroprotective and Immunomodulatory Mechanisms to Facilitate Regeneration. J Neurosci 2016; 36:6269-86. [PMID: 27277804 PMCID: PMC4899528 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0085-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Revised: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Multiple neural and peripheral cell types rapidly respond to tissue damage after spinal cord injury to form a structurally and chemically inhibitory scar that limits axon regeneration. Astrocytes form an astroglial scar and produce chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), activate microglia, and recruit blood-derived immune cells to the lesion for debris removal. One beneficial therapy, olfactory ensheathing cell (OEC) transplantation, results in functional improvements and promotes axon regeneration after spinal cord injury. The lack of an OEC-specific marker, however, has limited the investigation of mechanisms underlying their proregenerative effects. We compared the effects of enhanced green fluorescent protein-labeled fibroblast (FB) and OEC transplants acutely after a complete low-thoracic spinal cord transection in adult rats. We assessed the preservation of neurons and serotonergic axons, the levels of inhibitory CSPGs and myelin debris, and the extent of immune cell activation between 1 and 8 weeks postinjury. Our findings indicate that OECs survive longer than FBs post-transplantation, preserve axons and neurons, and reduce inhibitory molecules in the lesion core. Additionally, we show that OECs limit immune-cell activation and infiltration, whereas FBs alter astroglial scar formation and increase immune-cell infiltration and concomitant secondary tissue damage. Administration of cyclosporine-A to enhance graft survival demonstrated that immune suppression can augment OEC contact-mediated protection of axons and neurons during the first 2 weeks postinjury. Collectively, these data suggest that OECs have neuroprotective and immunomodulatory mechanisms that create a supportive environment for neuronal survival and axon regeneration after spinal cord injury. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Spinal cord injury creates physical and chemical barriers to axon regeneration. We used a complete spinal cord transection model and olfactory ensheathing cell (OEC) or fibroblast (FB; control) transplantation as a repair strategy. OECs, but not FBs, intermingled with astrocytes, facilitated astroglial scar border formation and sequestered invading peripheral cells. OECs attenuated immune cell infiltration, reduced secondary tissue damage, protected neurons and axons in the lesion core, and helped clear myelin debris. Immunosuppression enhanced survival of OECs and FBs, but only OEC transplantation promoted scaffold formation in the lesion site that facilitated axon regeneration and neuron preservation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hui Zhong
- Brain Research Institute, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Roland R Roy
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, and Brain Research Institute, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - V Reggie Edgerton
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, and Brain Research Institute, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Patricia E Phelps
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, and Brain Research Institute, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
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