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Gangwar M, Rastogi S, Singh D, Shukla A, Dhameja N, Kumar D, Kumar R, Nath G. Immunological and Safety Profile of Bacteriophages Therapy: A preclinical Study. J Appl Microbiol 2022; 133:1446-1460. [PMID: 35633293 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Numerous pre-clinical and clinical studies have recently demonstrated the significant role of phage therapy in treating multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. However, only a few researchers have focused on monitoring the phage-mediated adverse reactions during phage therapy. The present study aimed to demonstrated the oral acute and sub-acute toxicity of bacteriophages (Klebsiella pneumoniae XDR strain) in Charles Foster rats with special reference to immunological response and adverse effects. METHODS AND RESULTS Bacteriophages were orally administered in dosages of 1010 PFU/mL and a 1015 PFU/mL to Charles Foster rats as a single dose (in acute toxicity study) and daily dosage for 28 days (in sub-acute toxicity study). One milliliter suspension of bacteriophages was administered through the oral gavage feeding tube. No adverse effect was observed in any of the experimental as well as in the control animals. Further, an insignificant change in food and water intake and body weight was observed throughout the study period compared with the control group rats. On the 28th day of phage administration, blood was collected to estimate haematological, biochemical, and cytokines parameters. The data suggested no difference in the haematological, biochemical, and cytokine profile compared to the control group. No significant change in any of the treatment groups could be observed on the gross and histopathological examinations. The cytokines estimated, interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), IL-4, IL-6, and IFN-gamma, were found within the normal range during the experiment. CONCLUSIONS The results concluded that no adverse effect, including the severe detrimental impact on oral administration of high (1010 PFU/mL) and very high dose (1015 PFU/mL) of the bacteriophages cocktail. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY The high and long-term oral administration of bacteriophages did not induce noticeable immunological response as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayank Gangwar
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, 221005, Varanasi, India
| | - Sonam Rastogi
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, 221005, Varanasi, India
| | - Digvijay Singh
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, 221005, Varanasi, India
| | - Alka Shukla
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, 221005, Varanasi, India
| | - Neeraj Dhameja
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, 221005, Varanasi, India
| | - Deepak Kumar
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, 221005, Varanasi, India
| | - Rajesh Kumar
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, 221005, Varanasi, India
| | - Gopal Nath
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, 221005, Varanasi, India
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Gangwar M, Rastogi S, Singh D, Shukla A, Dhameja N, Kumar D, Kumar R, Nath G. Study on the Effect of Oral Administration of Bacteriophages in Charles Foster Rats With Special Reference to Immunological and Adverse Effects. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:615445. [PMID: 33912038 PMCID: PMC8072658 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.615445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous pre-clinical and clinical studies have recently demonstrated the significant role of phage therapy in treating multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. However, only a few researchers have focused on monitoring the phage-mediated adverse reactions during phage therapy. Besides adverse reactions, immunological response after short- and long-term oral administration of bacteriophages is also lacking. In this study, we administered the bacteriophages orally against Klebsiella pneumoniae XDR strain in dosages of 1015 PFU/ml and a 1020 PFU/ml (still higher) to Charles Foster rats as a single dose (in acute toxicity study) and daily dosage for 28 days (in sub-acute toxicity study). One milliliter suspension of bacteriophages was administered through the oral gavage feeding tube. No adverse effect was observed in any of the experimental as well as in the control animals.Further, an insignificant change in food and water intake and body weight was observed throughout the study period compared with the control group rats. On the 28th day of phage administration, blood was collected to estimate hematological, biochemical, and cytokines parameters. The data suggested no difference in the hematological, biochemical, and cytokine profile compared to the control group. No significant change in any of the treatment groups could be observed on the gross and histopathological examinations. The cytokines estimated, interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), IL-4, IL-6, and INF-gamma, were found within the normal range during the experiment. The results suggested no adverse effect, including the severe detrimental impact on oral administration of high (1015 PFU/ml) and very high dose (1020 PFU/ml) of the bacteriophages cocktail. The high and long-term oral administration of bacteriophages did not induce noticeable immunological response as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayank Gangwar
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Sonam Rastogi
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Digvijay Singh
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Alka Shukla
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Neeraj Dhameja
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Deepak Kumar
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Rajesh Kumar
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Gopal Nath
- Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Upper Gastrointestinal Perforations: A Possible Danger of Antibiotic Overuse. J Gastrointest Surg 2020; 24:2730-2736. [PMID: 31845145 PMCID: PMC8133306 DOI: 10.1007/s11605-019-04473-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The role of changes in gut microflora on upper gastrointestinal (UGI) perforations is not known. We conducted a retrospective case-control study to examine the relationship between antibiotic exposure-a proxy for microbiome modulation-and UGI perforations in a national sample. METHODS We queried a 5% random sample of Medicare (2009-2013) to identify patients ≥ 65 years old hospitalized with UGI (stomach or small intestine) perforations using International Classification of Diseases diagnosis codes. Cases with UGI perforations were matched with 4 controls, each based on age and sex. Exposure to outpatient antibiotics (0-30, 31-60, 61-90 days) prior to case patients' index hospitalization admission data was determined with Part D claims. Univariate and multivariable regression analyses were performed to evaluate the effect of antibiotic exposure on UGI perforation. RESULTS Overall, 504 cases and 2016 matched controls were identified. Compared to controls, more cases had antibiotic exposure 0-30 days (19% vs. 3%, p < 0.001) and 31-60 days (5% vs. 2%, p < 0.001) prior to admission. In adjusted analyses, antibiotic exposure 0-30 days prior to admission was associated with 6.8 increased odds of an UGI perforation (95% CI 4.8, 9.8); 31-60 days was associated with 1.9 increased odds (95% CI 1.1, 3.3); and 61-90 days was associated with 3.7 increased odds (95% CI 2.0, 6.9). CONCLUSIONS Recent outpatient antibiotic use, in particular in the preceding 30 days, is associated with UGI perforation among Medicare beneficiaries. Exposure to antibiotics, one of the most modifiable determinants of the microbiome, should be minimized in the outpatient setting.
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Almanea A, El-Aziz GSA, Ahmed MMM. The Potential Gastrointestinal Health Benefits of Thymus Vulgaris Essential Oil: A Review. BIOMEDICAL AND PHARMACOLOGY JOURNAL 2019; 12:1793-1799. [DOI: 10.13005/bpj/1810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
In recent times, medicinal plants have received great attention worldwide due to their effective pharmacological properties and therapeutic benefits. Numerous chemical compounds extracted from various medicinal plants have manifold biological activities. Thymus vulgaris (TV) is a flowering plant with an aromatic odor that has been broadly applied in conventional medicine, food additives, and phyto-pharmaceutical preparations. It is recognized to have promising therapeutic potential for curing various types of diseases. The essential oil extracted from TV, which contains a high quantity of flavonoids, possess antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Consequently, it could be utilized as a good source in developing novel natural antioxidants and antibiotics. This review explores some of the potential health benefits of TV essential oil (TVEO) on the gastrointestinal tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdulaziz Almanea
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Gamal S. Abd El-Aziz
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed Morsi M. Ahmed
- Nucleic Acids Research Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute (GEBRI), City for Scientific Research and Technological Applications, Alexandria, Egypt
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Divya Ganeshan S, Hosseinidoust Z. Phage Therapy with a Focus on the Human Microbiota. Antibiotics (Basel) 2019; 8:E131. [PMID: 31461990 PMCID: PMC6783874 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics8030131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria. After their discovery in the early 1900s, bacteriophages were a primary cure against infectious disease for almost 25 years, before being completely overshadowed by antibiotics. With the rise of antibiotic resistance, bacteriophages are being explored again for their antibacterial activity. One of the critical apprehensions regarding bacteriophage therapy, however, is the possibility of genome evolution, development of phage resistance, and subsequent perturbations to our microbiota. Through this review, we set out to explore the principles supporting the use of bacteriophages as a therapeutic agent, discuss the human gut microbiome in relation to the utilization of phage therapy, and the co-evolutionary arms race between host bacteria and phage in the context of the human microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zeinab Hosseinidoust
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada.
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada.
- Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada.
- Michael DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada.
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Radisavljevic N, Cirstea M, Brett Finlay B. Bottoms up: the role of gut microbiota in brain health. Environ Microbiol 2018; 21:3197-3211. [PMID: 30556271 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The gut microbiota affects many aspects of human health, and research, especially over the past decade, is demonstrating that the brain is no exception. This review summarizes existing human observational studies of the microbiota in brain health and neurological conditions at all ages, as well as animal studies that are advancing the field beyond correlation and into causality. Potential mechanisms by which the brain and the gut microbiota are connected are explored, including inflammation, bacterially-produced metabolites and neurotransmitters and specific roles for individual microbes. Finally, important challenges and potential mitigation strategies are discussed, as well as ways in which some of these same challenges can be harnessed to advance our understanding of this complex, exciting and rapidly evolving field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Radisavljevic
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Mihai Cirstea
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Barton Brett Finlay
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Huang R, Li T, Ni J, Bai X, Gao Y, Li Y, Zhang P, Gong Y. Different Sex-Based Responses of Gut Microbiota During the Development of Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Liver-Specific Tsc1-Knockout Mice. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1008. [PMID: 29867896 PMCID: PMC5964185 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Gut microbial dysbiosis is correlated with the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Therefore, analyzing the changing patterns in gut microbiota during HCC development, especially before HCC occurrence, is essential for the diagnosis and prevention of HCC based on gut microbial composition. However, these changing patterns in HCC are poorly understood, especially considering the sex differences in HCC incidence and mortality. Here, with an aim to determine the relationship between gut microbiota and HCC development in both sexes, and to screen potential microbial biomarkers for HCC diagnosis, we studied the changing patterns in the gut microbiota from mice of both sexes with liver-specific knockout of Tsc1 (LTsc1KO) that spontaneously developed HCC by 9–10 months of age and compared them to the patterns observed in their wide-type Tsc1fl/fl cohorts using high-throughput sequencing. Using the LTsc1KO model, we were able to successfully exclude the continuing influence of diet on the gut microbiota. Based on gut microbial composition, the female LTsc1KO mice exhibited gut microbial disorder earlier than male LTsc1KO mice during the development of HCC. Our findings also indicated that the decrease in the relative abundance of anaerobic bacteria and the increase in the relative abundance of facultative anaerobic bacteria can be used as risk indexes of female HCC, but would be invalid for male HCC. Most of the changes in the gut bacteria were different between female and male LTsc1KO mice. In particular, the increased abundances of Allobaculum, Erysipelotrichaceae, Neisseriaceae, Sutterella, Burkholderiales, and Prevotella species have potential for use as risk indicators of female HCC, and the increased abundances of Paraprevotella, Paraprevotellaceae, and Prevotella can probably be applied as risk indicators of male HCC. These relationships between the gut microbiota and HCC discovered in the present study may serve as a platform for the identification of potential targets for the diagnosis and prevention of HCC in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Huang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery II, Guangdong Provincial Research Center of Artificial Organ and Tissue Engineering, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Organ Failure Research, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ting Li
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery II, Guangdong Provincial Research Center of Artificial Organ and Tissue Engineering, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Organ Failure Research, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiajia Ni
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery II, Guangdong Provincial Research Center of Artificial Organ and Tissue Engineering, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Organ Failure Research, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaochun Bai
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yi Gao
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery II, Guangdong Provincial Research Center of Artificial Organ and Tissue Engineering, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Organ Failure Research, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yang Li
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery II, Guangdong Provincial Research Center of Artificial Organ and Tissue Engineering, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Organ Failure Research, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Peng Zhang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery II, Guangdong Provincial Research Center of Artificial Organ and Tissue Engineering, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Organ Failure Research, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yan Gong
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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Distinctly altered gut microbiota in the progression of liver disease. Oncotarget 2017; 7:19355-66. [PMID: 27036035 PMCID: PMC4991388 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.8466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies underscore important roles of intestinal microbiota and the bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) production in the pathogenesis of liver disease. However, how gut microbiota alters in response to the development of steatosis and subsequent progression to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unclear. We aimed to study the gut microbial changes over liver disease progression using a streptozotocin-high fat diet (STZ-HFD) induced NASH-HCC C57BL/6J mouse model that is highly relevant to human liver disease. The fecal microbiota at various liver pathological stages was analyzed by 16S rDNA gene pyrosequencing. Both UniFrac analysis and partial least squares-discriminant analysis showed significant structural alterations in gut microbiota during the development of liver disease. Co-abundance network analysis highlighted relationships between genera. Spearman correlation analysis revealed that the bacterial species, Atopobium spp., Bacteroides spp., Bacteroides vulgatus, Bacteroides acidifaciens, Bacteroides uniformis, Clostridium cocleatum, Clostridium xylanolyticum and Desulfovibrio spp., markedly increased in model mice, were positively correlated with LPS levels and pathophysiological features. Taken together, the results showed that the gut microbiota was altered significantly in the progression of liver disease. The connection between the gut microbial ecology and the liver pathology may represent potential targets for the prevention and treatment of chronic liver disease and HCC.
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Abstract
Obesity influences and is influenced by the human gut microbiome. Here, we present the genome of Christensenella minuta, a highly heritable bacterial species which has been found to be strongly associated with obesity through an unknown biological mechanism. This novel genome provides a valuable resource for future obesity therapeutic studies.
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Park SE, Park CY, Sweeney G. Biomarkers of insulin sensitivity and insulin resistance: Past, present and future. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2015; 52:180-90. [PMID: 26042993 DOI: 10.3109/10408363.2015.1023429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Insulin resistance in insulin target tissues including liver, skeletal muscle and adipose tissue is an early step in the progression towards type 2 diabetes. Accurate diagnostic parameters reflective of insulin resistance are essential. Longstanding tests for fasting blood glucose and HbA1c are useful and although the hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp remains a "gold standard" for accurately determining insulin resistance, it cannot be implemented on a routine basis. The study of adipokines, and more recently myokines and hepatokines, as potential biomarkers for insulin sensitivity is now an attractive and relatively straightforward approach. This review discusses potential biomarkers including adiponectin, RBP4, chemerin, A-FABP, FGF21, fetuin-A, myostatin, IL-6, and irisin, all of which may play significant roles in determining insulin sensitivity. We also review potential future directions of new biological markers for measuring insulin resistance, including metabolomics and gut microbiome. Collectively, these approaches will provide clinicians with the tools for more accurate, and perhaps personalized, diagnosis of insulin resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Se Eun Park
- a Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine , Kangbuk Samsung Hospital, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine , Seoul , South Korea and
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Dietert RR. The microbiome in early life: self-completion and microbiota protection as health priorities. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 101:333-40. [PMID: 25044451 DOI: 10.1002/bdrb.21116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
This minireview considers the benefits of refocusing attention away from treating the patient as a mammalian human to managing the complete patient: a majority microbial superorganism. Under the "completed self" model for formation of the human-microbial superorganism, the single, most pivotal sign in distinguishing a life course of health versus that filled with disease is self-completion (i.e., seeding of the minority mammalian human by the majority microbial portion of the symbiont). From a disease prevention perspective, microbial seeding at birth and subsequent nurturing of the microbiota are significant steps to reduce the risk of both noncommunicable diseases (e.g., type 1 diabetes) and certain infectious diseases. Management of the microbiome during pregnancy, birth, and shortly thereafter appears to be the most significant critical window for healthy superorganism formation. However, the bolus for microbiota seeding at birth and the nurturing process are subject to environmental influences and disruption, such as exposure to toxic chemicals and drugs, infections, and other physical and psychological stressors. Additionally, childhood and adult corrective measures, such as fecal transplantation and administration of prebiotics and probiotics, while potentially useful, may have limitations that are yet to be fully defined. This minireview considers (1) basic features of management of the microbiome to facilitate self-completion, (2) protection of the microbiota from environmental hazards, and (3) the benefits of using a superorganism focus for health management beginning with pregnancy and extending throughout childhood and adult life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney R Dietert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
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