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Ngoepe CE, Shumba W, Sabeta C. Evidence for a host switching in the maintenance of canid rabies variant in two wild carnivore species in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa. J S Afr Vet Assoc 2024; 95:16-25. [PMID: 38533811 DOI: 10.36303/jsava.527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a zoonotic infectious disease that causes at least 59 000 human deaths worldwide annually, with 95% of the cases occurring in the developing countries of Asia and Africa. There are two Lyssavirus rabies (RABV) variants circulating in South Africa, notably the canid and mongoose RABV biotypes. The canid RABV biotype is maintained in the domestic dog and two wild carnivore species, the black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) and the bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis). The yellow mongoose, a member of the Herpestidae family, is a reservoir and vector species for the mongoose RABV biotype. Rabies trends showed an increase in rabiespositive cases in aardwolves between 2011 and 2016 surpassing the bat-eared fox as the most rabies-affected wild carnivore in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. The aim of the study was to establish the genetic relationships amongst rabies viruses recovered from both the aardwolves and bat-eared foxes. A partial region of the glycoprotein gene and the variable G-L intergenic region of the viral genome were analysed using nucleotide sequences generated from PCR amplicons. The rabies viruses recovered from the aardwolves between the year 2015 and 2017 were 100% nucleotide sequence identical, suggesting a single or common source and possible evidence for a host shift. Furthermore, the phylogenetic reconstruction demonstrated that the rabies viruses obtained from the two wild carnivore species from the Northern Cape Province clustered independently of each o ther with 96% nucleotide sequence identity, suggesting that the aardwolf may be able to maintain the canid RABV variant in this geographical area.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E Ngoepe
- WOAH Rabies Reference Laboratory, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, South Africa
| | - W Shumba
- Epidemiology and Laboratory Services, Northern Cape Department of Agriculture, Environmental Affairs, Rural Development and Land Reform, South Africa
| | - C Sabeta
- WOAH Rabies Reference Laboratory, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, South Africa
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, South Africa
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2
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Gilbertson MLJ, Hart SN, VanderWaal K, Onorato D, Cunningham M, VandeWoude S, Craft ME. Seasonal changes in network connectivity and consequences for pathogen transmission in a solitary carnivore. Sci Rep 2023; 13:17802. [PMID: 37853051 PMCID: PMC10584909 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-44815-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Seasonal variation in habitat use and animal behavior can alter host contact patterns with potential consequences for pathogen transmission dynamics. The endangered Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi) has experienced significant pathogen-induced mortality and continues to be at risk of future epidemics. Prior research has found increased panther movement in Florida's dry versus wet seasons, which may affect panther population connectivity and seasonally increase potential pathogen transmission. Our objective was to determine if Florida panthers are more spatially connected in dry seasons relative to wet seasons, and test if identified connectivity differences resulted in divergent predicted epidemic dynamics. We leveraged extensive panther telemetry data to construct seasonal panther home range overlap networks over an 11 year period. We tested for differences in network connectivity, and used observed network characteristics to simulate transmission of a broad range of pathogens through dry and wet season networks. We found that panthers were more spatially connected in dry seasons than wet seasons. Further, these differences resulted in a trend toward larger and longer pathogen outbreaks when epidemics were initiated in the dry season. Our results demonstrate that seasonal variation in behavioral patterns-even among largely solitary species-can have substantial impacts on epidemic dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie L J Gilbertson
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, 55108, USA.
- Wisconsin Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA.
| | - S Niamh Hart
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Kimberly VanderWaal
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Dave Onorato
- Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Naples, FL, 34114, USA
| | - Mark Cunningham
- Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Gainesville, FL, 32601, USA
| | - Sue VandeWoude
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Meggan E Craft
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, 55108, USA
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, 55108, USA
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Hopken MW, Gilfillan D, Gilbert AT, Piaggio AJ, Hilton MS, Pierce J, Kimball B, Abdo Z. Biodiversity indices and Random Forests reveal the potential for striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) fecal microbial communities to function as a biomarker for oral rabies vaccination. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0285852. [PMID: 37607164 PMCID: PMC10443867 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0285852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Wildlife disease surveillance and monitoring poses unique challenges when assessing rates of population vaccination, immunity, or infection prevalence. Non-invasively detected biomarkers can help reduce risk to both animal and field personnel during wildlife disease management activities. In this study, we investigated the utility of fecal microbiome data collected from captive striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) in predicting rabies virus vaccination and infection status. We sequenced the hypervariable region 4 (V4) of the bacterial 16S gene and estimated alpha and beta diversity across timepoints in three groups of skunks: vaccination then rabies virus infection, sham vaccination then rabies virus infection, and rabies virus infected without vaccination. Alpha diversity did not differ among treatment groups but beta diversity between treatments was statistically significant. The phyla Firmicutes and Proteobacteria were dominant among all samples. Using Random Forests, we identified operational taxonomic units (OTUs) that greatly influenced classification of fecal samples into treatment groups. Each of these OTUs was correlated with fecal volatile organic compounds detected from the samples for companion treatment groups in another study. This research is the first to highlight striped skunk microbiome biodiversity as a vaccination biomarker which pushes the frontier on alternative methods for surveillance and monitoring of vaccination and disease in wildlife populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew W. Hopken
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Darby Gilfillan
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Amy T. Gilbert
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Antoinette J. Piaggio
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Mikaela Samsel Hilton
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - James Pierce
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Bruce Kimball
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Zaid Abdo
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
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Harding SF, Moretta‐Urdiales MDM, Nordmeyer SC, Wostl E, Rodriguez D. Leveraging preserved specimens of Nerodia to infer the spatiotemporal dynamics of Ophidiomyces ophidiicola via quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e9998. [PMID: 37082316 PMCID: PMC10111236 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (Oo) is a fungal pathogen and the causative agent of ophidiomycosis that has affected multiple snake taxa across the United States, Europe, and Asia. Ophidiomycosis has often been referred to as an emerging infectious disease (EID); however, its status as an EID has recently come under debate. Oo infections have been confirmed in wild snake populations in Texas; however, it is unknown if the pathogen is novel (i.e., invasive) or endemic to the state. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted surveys for Oo among preserved Nerodia deposited at three university museums in Texas. First, we visually assessed snakes for signs of infection (SOI), and if SOI were present, we sampled the affected area. We then used quantitative polymerase chain reaction to diagnose the presence of Oo DNA on areas with SOI and used these data to evaluate spatiotemporal patterns of Oo prevalence. We also tested for significant spatial clusters of Oo infenction using a Bernoulli probability model as implemented in the program SatScan. We found that the proportion of snakes exhibiting SOI was constant over time while the prevalence of Oo DNA among those SOI increased across space and time. Within these data, we detected an incidence pattern consistent with an introduction and then spread. We detected six spatial clusters of Oo infection, although only one was significant. Our results support the hypothesis that Oo is an emerging, novel pathogen to Texas snakes. These data narrow the knowledge gap regarding the history of Oo infections in Texas and establish a historical record of confirmed Oo detections in several counties across the state. Thus, our results will guide future research to those areas with evidence of past Oo infections but lacking confirmation in contemporary hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Stephanie C. Nordmeyer
- Department of Molecular Immunology and MicrobiologyUniversity of Texas at San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
| | - Elijah Wostl
- Department of Biological SciencesSt. Edward's UniversityAustinTexasUSA
| | - David Rodriguez
- Department of BiologyTexas State UniversitySan MarcosTexasUSA
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Chen S. Spatial and temporal dynamic analysis of rabies: A review of current methodologies. GEOSPATIAL HEALTH 2022; 17. [PMID: 36468590 DOI: 10.4081/gh.2022.1139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Rabies continues to be one of the deadliest, high risk diseases worldwide, posing a severe threat to public health. The lack of human-to-human transmission means that the spread of rabies is not significantly affected by the distribution of humans or migra- tion. Thus, the spatiotemporal dynamic of cases in both wild and domestic animals is an important issue that can result in human cases. This paper gives an overview of the methodologies for the spatial and temporal dynamic analysis of this disease. It introduces the most representative research progress of spatial aggregation, dynamic transmission, spatiotemporal distribution, epidemiologi- cal analysis and application of modelling in the study of rabies transmission in recent years. This overview should be useful for investigating the spatial and temporal dynamics of rabies, as it could help understanding the spread of cases as well as contribute to the development of better prevention and control strategies in ecology and epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuaicheng Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University.
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Chung DH, Helal Z, Desiato J, McGinnis H, Sims M, Hunt A, Kim J, Risatti GR, Lee DH. Genome sequencing and analysis of the raccoon variant rabies lyssaviruses directly from clinical samples, Connecticut, 2017-2019. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:1001204. [PMID: 36213416 PMCID: PMC9539882 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1001204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- David H. Chung
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - Zeinab Helal
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
- Connecticut Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - Julia Desiato
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - Holly McGinnis
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
- Connecticut Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - Maureen Sims
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
- Connecticut Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - Amelia Hunt
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
- Connecticut Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - Junwon Kim
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - Guillermo R. Risatti
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
- Connecticut Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - Dong-Hun Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
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Miao F, Zhao J, Li N, Liu Y, Chen T, Mi L, Yang J, Chen Q, Zhang F, Feng J, Li S, Zhang S, Hu R. Genetic Diversity, Evolutionary Dynamics, and Pathogenicity of Ferret Badger Rabies Virus Variants in Mainland China, 2008–2018. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:929202. [PMID: 35910614 PMCID: PMC9330412 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.929202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In contrast to dog-associated human rabies cases decline year by year due to the rabies vaccination coverage rates increase in China, ferret badger (FB, Melogale moschata)-associated human rabies cases emerged in the 1990s, and are now an increasingly recognized problem in southeast China. To investigate epidemiology, temporal evolution dynamics, transmission characterization, and pathogenicity of FB-associated rabies viruses (RABVs), from 2008 to 2018, we collected 3,622 FB brain samples in Jiangxi and Zhejiang Province, and detected 112 RABV isolates. Four FB-related lineages were identified by phylogenetic analysis (lineages A–D), the estimated Times to Most Recent Common Ancestor were 1941, 1990, 1937, and 1997 for lineages A–D, respectively. Furthermore, although no FB-associated human rabies case has been reported there apart from Wuyuan area, FB-RABV isolates are mainly distributed in Jiangxi Province. Pathogenicity of FB-RABVs was assessed using peripheral inoculation in mice and in beagles with masseter muscles, mortality-rates ranging from 20 to 100% in mice and 0 to 20% in beagles in the groups infected with the various isolates. Screening of sera from humans with FB bites and no post-exposure prophylaxis to rabies revealed that five of nine were positive for neutralizing antibodies of RABV. All the results above indicated that FB-RABV variants caused a lesser pathogenicity in mice, beagles, and even humans. Vaccination in mice suggests that inactivated vaccine or recombinant subunit vaccine products can be used to control FB-associated rabies, however, oral vaccines for stray dogs and wildlife need to be developed and licensed in China urgently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faming Miao
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Jinghui Zhao
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Nan Li
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Ye Liu
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Teng Chen
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Lijuan Mi
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Jinjin Yang
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Qi Chen
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Fei Zhang
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Jie Feng
- Suzhou Shangfangshan Forest Zoo, Suzhou, China
| | - Shunfei Li
- Department of Innovative Medical Research, Chinese People’s Liberation Army General Hospital, Institute of Hospital Management, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Shunfei Li,
| | - Shoufeng Zhang
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
- Shoufeng Zhang,
| | - Rongliang Hu
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
- Rongliang Hu,
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ORAL RABIES VACCINATION STRATEGIES TOWARD RACCOON (PROCYON LOTOR) RABIES ELIMINATION ON SUBURBAN LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK, USA. J Wildl Dis 2021; 57:132-144. [PMID: 33635968 DOI: 10.7589/2018-02-033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Approximately 1.86 million baits containing a vaccinia-rabies glycoprotein recombinant vaccine were distributed with helicopters, vehicles, and bait stations during 2006-10. A bait density of 250 baits/km2 effectively controlled rabies cases in enzootic and preepizootic areas. However, a cluster of 11 rabid raccoons at the eastern edge of infection resulted in the initiation of semiannual, high-density (500 baits/km2) vaccination campaigns in approximately 20% of the oral rabies vaccination zone during July and September (2007-09). Bait success (i.e., chewed sachets or removed baits) at bait stations was negatively associated with station distances from water. Conversely, bait success improved with increasing distances from roads. Bait stations deployed significantly more baits in developed open space when compared to low- and medium- to high-intensity developed areas. However, a difference was not detected between developed open space and forest habitats. Rabies was confined to 86 raccoons within 317 km2 (10%) of a 3,133 km2 suburban landscape, with a disproportionate number of rabid raccoons (n=74) in developed areas, when compared to 10 cases in forest-wetland habitats. Two rabid raccoons did not fall within either general land-use classification. Rabies advanced 15.1 km eastward at a rate of 6.4 km/yr during a 28-mo interval (2004-06).
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Baecklund TM, Morrison J, Donaldson ME, Hueffer K, Kyle CJ. The role of a mechanistic host in maintaining arctic rabies variant distributions: Assessment of functional genetic diversity in Alaskan red fox (Vulpes vulpes). PLoS One 2021; 16:e0249176. [PMID: 33831031 PMCID: PMC8031376 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Populations are exposed to different types and strains of pathogens across heterogeneous landscapes, where local interactions between host and pathogen may present reciprocal selective forces leading to correlated patterns of spatial genetic structure. Understanding these coevolutionary patterns provides insight into mechanisms of disease spread and maintenance. Arctic rabies (AR) is a lethal disease with viral variants that occupy distinct geographic distributions across North America and Europe. Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) are a highly susceptible AR host, whose range overlaps both geographically distinct AR strains and regions where AR is absent. It is unclear if genetic structure exists among red fox populations relative to the presence/absence of AR or the spatial distribution of AR variants. Acquiring these data may enhance our understanding of the role of red fox in AR maintenance/spread and inform disease control strategies. Using a genotyping-by-sequencing assay targeting 116 genomic regions of immunogenetic relevance, we screened for sequence variation among red fox populations from Alaska and an outgroup from Ontario, including areas with different AR variants, and regions where the disease was absent. Presumed neutral SNP data from the assay found negligible levels of neutral genetic structure among Alaskan populations. The immunogenetically-associated data identified 30 outlier SNPs supporting weak to moderate genetic structure between regions with and without AR in Alaska. The outliers included SNPs with the potential to cause missense mutations within several toll-like receptor genes that have been associated with AR outcome. In contrast, there was a lack of genetic structure between regions with different AR variants. Combined, we interpret these data to suggest red fox populations respond differently to the presence of AR, but not AR variants. This research increases our understanding of AR dynamics in the Arctic, where host/disease patterns are undergoing flux in a rapidly changing Arctic landscape, including the continued northward expansion of red fox into regions previously predominated by the arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tristan M. Baecklund
- Environmental and Life Sciences Graduate Program, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Jaycee Morrison
- Forensic Science Undergraduate Program, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michael E. Donaldson
- Environmental and Life Sciences Graduate Program, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Karsten Hueffer
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, United States of America
| | - Christopher J. Kyle
- Environmental and Life Sciences Graduate Program, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
- Forensic Science Department, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
- Natural Resources DNA Profiling & Forensic Centre, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
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Johnson SR, Slate D, Nelson KM, Davis AJ, Mills SA, Forbes JT, VerCauteren KC, Gilbert AT, Chipman RB. Serological Responses of Raccoons and Striped Skunks to Ontario Rabies Vaccine Bait in West Virginia during 2012-2016. Viruses 2021; 13:v13020157. [PMID: 33499059 PMCID: PMC7912576 DOI: 10.3390/v13020157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the 1990s, oral rabies vaccination (ORV) has been used successfully to halt the westward spread of the raccoon rabies virus (RV) variant from the eastern continental USA. Elimination of raccoon RV from the eastern USA has proven challenging across targeted raccoon (Procyon lotor) and striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) populations impacted by raccoon RV. Field trial evaluations of the Ontario Rabies Vaccine Bait (ONRAB) were initiated to expand ORV products available to meet the rabies management goal of raccoon RV elimination. This study describes the continuation of a 2011 trial in West Virginia. Our objective was to evaluate raccoon and skunk response to ORV occurring in West Virginia for an additional two years (2012–2013) at 75 baits/km2 followed by three years (2014–2016) of evaluation at 300 baits/km2. We measured the change in rabies virus-neutralizing antibody (RVNA) seroprevalence in targeted wildlife populations by comparing levels pre- and post-ORV during each year of study. The increase in bait density from 75/km2 to 300/km2 corresponded to an increase in average post-ORV seroprevalence for raccoon and skunk populations. Raccoon population RVNA levels increased from 53% (300/565, 95% CI: 50–57%) to 82.0% (596/727, 95% CI: 79–85%) during this study, and skunk population RVNA levels increased from 11% (8/72, 95% CI: 6–20%) to 39% (51/130, 95% CI: 31–48%). The RVNA seroprevalence pre-ORV demonstrated an increasing trend across study years for both bait densities and species, indicating that multiple years of ORV may be necessary to achieve and maintain RVNA seroprevalence in target wildlife populations for the control and elimination of raccoon RV in the eastern USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shylo R. Johnson
- USDA/APHIS/WS/National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 LaPorte Ave., Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA; (A.J.D.); (K.C.V.); (A.T.G.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Dennis Slate
- USDA/APHIS/WS/National Rabies Management Program, 59 Chenell Dr., Concord, NH 03301, USA; (D.S.); (K.M.N.); (R.B.C.)
| | - Kathleen M. Nelson
- USDA/APHIS/WS/National Rabies Management Program, 59 Chenell Dr., Concord, NH 03301, USA; (D.S.); (K.M.N.); (R.B.C.)
| | - Amy J. Davis
- USDA/APHIS/WS/National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 LaPorte Ave., Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA; (A.J.D.); (K.C.V.); (A.T.G.)
| | - Samual A. Mills
- USDA/APHIS/Wildlife Services, 730 Yokum St., Elkins, WV 26241, USA; (S.A.M.); (J.T.F.)
| | - John T. Forbes
- USDA/APHIS/Wildlife Services, 730 Yokum St., Elkins, WV 26241, USA; (S.A.M.); (J.T.F.)
| | - Kurt C. VerCauteren
- USDA/APHIS/WS/National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 LaPorte Ave., Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA; (A.J.D.); (K.C.V.); (A.T.G.)
| | - Amy T. Gilbert
- USDA/APHIS/WS/National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 LaPorte Ave., Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA; (A.J.D.); (K.C.V.); (A.T.G.)
| | - Richard B. Chipman
- USDA/APHIS/WS/National Rabies Management Program, 59 Chenell Dr., Concord, NH 03301, USA; (D.S.); (K.M.N.); (R.B.C.)
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Slate D, Saidy BD, Simmons A, Nelson KM, Davis A, Algeo TP, Elmore SA, Chipman RB. Rabies Management Implications Based on Raccoon Population Density Indexes. J Wildl Manage 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Slate
- USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, National Rabies Management Program 59 Chenell Drive, Suite 2 Concord NH 03301 USA
| | - Brandi D. Saidy
- USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services 2803 Jolly Road, Suite 100 Okemos MI 48864 USA
| | - Ashlee Simmons
- USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, National Rabies Management Program 59 Chenell Drive, Suite 2 Concord NH 03301 USA
| | - Kathleen M. Nelson
- USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, National Rabies Management Program 59 Chenell Drive, Suite 2 Concord NH 03301 USA
| | - Amy Davis
- USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center 4101 LaPorte Avenue Fort Collins CO 80521 USA
| | - Timothy P. Algeo
- USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, National Rabies Management Program 59 Chenell Drive, Suite 2 Concord NH 03301 USA
| | - Stacey A. Elmore
- USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center 4101 LaPorte Avenue Fort Collins CO 80521 USA
| | - Richard B. Chipman
- USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, National Rabies Management Program 59 Chenell Drive, Suite 2 Concord NH 03301 USA
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Newton EJ, Pond BA, Tinline RR, Middel K, Bélanger D, Rees EE. Differential impacts of vaccination on wildlife disease spread during epizootic and enzootic phases. J Appl Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Erica J. Newton
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring SectionOntario Ministry of Natural Resources and ForestryTrent University Peterborough ON Canada
| | - Bruce A. Pond
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring SectionOntario Ministry of Natural Resources and ForestryTrent University Peterborough ON Canada
| | | | - Kevin Middel
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring SectionOntario Ministry of Natural Resources and ForestryTrent University Peterborough ON Canada
| | - Denise Bélanger
- Département de pathologie et microbiologieGroupe de recherche en épidémiologie des zoonoses et santé publiqueUniversité de Montréal Saint‐Hyacinthe QC Canada
| | - Erin E. Rees
- Département de pathologie et microbiologieGroupe de recherche en épidémiologie des zoonoses et santé publiqueUniversité de Montréal Saint‐Hyacinthe QC Canada
- Public Health Risk Sciences DivisionNational Microbiology LaboratoryPublic Health Agency of Canada Saint‐Hyacinthe Québec Canada
- Land and Sea Systems Analysis Inc. Granby QC Canada
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RACCOON ( PROCYON LOTOR) RESPONSE TO ONTARIO RABIES VACCINE BAITS (ONRAB) IN ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY, NEW YORK, USA. J Wildl Dis 2019; 55:645-653. [PMID: 30620627 DOI: 10.7589/2018-09-216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Oral rabies vaccination (ORV) campaigns have been conducted annually in the US over the past two decades to prevent raccoon (Procyon lotor) rabies, which is enzootic along the eastern region of the country from southeastern Canada to Alabama. Because raccoon rabies has been eliminated from neighboring Canadian provinces, continued detection of the variant in the US is of concern due to the potential for infected raccoons to cross the border via the St. Lawrence River. Ontario Rabies Vaccine Baits (ONRAB) containing a live, recombinant human adenovirus expressing the rabies virus glycoprotein have been under experimental use in the US since 2011. We distributed ONRAB in St. Lawrence County, New York, from 2013 to 2015 as part of field trials to evaluate serologic responses in raccoons. Prior to ONRAB distribution, rabies virus neutralizing antibody (RVNA) seroprevalence in raccoons was 45.2% (183 of 405) and increased to 57.7% (165 of 286) after 3 yr of ONRAB baiting. Postbait RVNA seroprevalence increased each year, with a lower response observed in juvenile compared with adult raccoons. The pre-ONRAB seroprevalence detected in 2013 was relatively high and was likely impacted both by elevated rabies activity in the county and the use of ORV with a different vaccine bait for 14 consecutive years prior to our study. Tetracycline biomarker prevalence increased from 1.4% prior to ONRAB baiting to 51.3% from 2013 to 2015, demonstrating bait palatability to raccoons. These data complemented related field trials conducted in West Virginia and the northeastern US.
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EFFECT OF HIGH-DENSITY ORAL RABIES VACCINE BAITING ON RABIES VIRUS NEUTRALIZING ANTIBODY RESPONSE IN RACCOONS ( PROCYON LOTOR). J Wildl Dis 2018; 55:399-409. [PMID: 30507337 DOI: 10.7589/2018-05-138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
From 2014 to 2016, we examined the effect of distributing oral rabies vaccine baits at high density (150 baits/km2) in an area of Virginia, US that was naïve to oral rabies vaccination prior to the study. We also compared the effect of baiting at high density in a naïve area to baiting at standard density (75 baits/km2) in an area that had been baited annually for 12 yr. Our results suggested that rabies virus seroconversion in raccoons ( Procyon lotor) gradually increased each year under the highdensity bait treatment. However, we did not detect a difference in seroconversion between bait density treatments. Virginia opossums ( Didelphis virginiana) were abundant in the study area and were a potentially important nontarget species that competed for oral rabies vaccine baits, but the ratio of opossums to raccoons in this study did not affect rabies virus neutralizing antibody response of the raccoon populations.
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Guo D, Yin W, Yu H, Thill JC, Yang W, Chen F, Wang D. The role of socioeconomic and climatic factors in the spatio-temporal variation of human rabies in China. BMC Infect Dis 2018; 18:526. [PMID: 30348094 PMCID: PMC6198482 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-018-3427-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rabies is a significant public health problem in China. Previous spatial epidemiological studies have helped understand the epidemiology of animal and human rabies in China. However, quantification of effects derived from relevant factors was insufficient and complex spatial interactions were not well articulated, which may lead to non-negligible bias. In this study, we aimed to quantify the role of socio-economic and climate factors in the spatial distribution of human rabies to support decision making pertaining to rabies control in China. METHODS We conducted a multivariate analysis of human rabies in China with explicit consideration for spatial heterogeneity and spatial dependence effects. The panel of 20,368 cases reported between 2005 and 2013 and their socio-economic and climate factors was implemented in regression models. Several significant covariates were extracted, including the longitude, the average temperature, the distance to county center, the distance to the road network and the distance to the nearest rabies case. The GMM was adopted to provide unbiased estimation with respect to heterogeneity and spatial autocorrelation. RESULTS The analysis explained the inferred relationships between the counts of cases aggregated to 271 spatially-defined cells and the explanatory variables. The results suggested that temperature, longitude, the distance to county centers and the distance to the road network are positively associated with the local incidence of human rabies while the distance to newly occurred rabies cases has a negative correlation. With heterogeneity and spatial autocorrelation taken into consideration, the estimation of regression models performed better. CONCLUSIONS It was found that climatic and socioeconomic factors have significant influence on the spread of human rabies in China as they continuously affect the living environments of humans and animals, which critically impacts on how timely local citizens can gain access to post-exposure prophylactic services. Moreover, through comparisons between traditional regression models and the aggregation model that allows for heterogeneity and spatial effects, we demonstrated the validity and advantage of the aggregation model. It outperformed the existing models and decreased the estimation bias brought by omission of the spatial heterogeneity and spatial dependence effects. Statistical results are readily translated into public health policy takeaways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danhuai Guo
- Computer Network Information Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 4th South Fourth Road Zhongguancun, Beijing, 100190, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19th Yuquan Road, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Wenwu Yin
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 155 Changbai Road Changping District, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Hongjie Yu
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 155 Changbai Road Changping District, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Jean-Claude Thill
- Department of Geography & Earth Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA
| | - Weishi Yang
- School of Geography and Planning, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China.,Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Feng Chen
- Department of East Asian Studies, The University of Arizona, 1512 E. First Street, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
| | - Deqiang Wang
- Computer Network Information Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 4th South Fourth Road Zhongguancun, Beijing, 100190, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19th Yuquan Road, Beijing, 100049, China
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Plants KB, Wen S, Wimsatt J, Knox S. Longitudinal analysis of raccoon rabies in West Virginia, 2000-2015: a preliminary investigation. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4574. [PMID: 29637022 PMCID: PMC5889701 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal borne rabies virus is a source of infection in humans, and raccoons (Procyon lotor) are the primary terrestrial reservoir in West Virginia (WV). To assess the behavior and status of raccoon variant rabies virus (RRV) cases in WV, a longitudinal analysis for the period 2000–2015 was performed, using data provided by the state Bureau of Public Health. The analytic approach used was negative binomial regression, with exclusion of those counties that had not experienced RRV cases in the study period, and with further examination of those counties where oral rabies vaccine (ORV) baits had been distributed as compared with non-ORV counties. These analyses indicated that there had been a reduction in numbers of RRV positive animals over the study period, predominantly due to a decrease in raccoon infections. Non-raccoon hosts did not appear to have a similar decline, however. The rates of decline for the ORV zone were found to be significantly greater as compared to the non-ORV area. The study was limited by the lack of data for season or point location of animal collection, and by lack of surveillance effort data. Even so, this study has implications for the preventive measures currently being implemented, including expanded vaccination effort in domestic animals. Spatial analyses of RRV and further examination of the virus in non-raccoon hosts are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Bert Plants
- School of Public Health, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States of America
| | - Sijin Wen
- School of Public Health, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States of America
| | | | - Sarah Knox
- School of Public Health, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States of America
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FLAVOR PREFERENCE AND EFFICACY OF VARIABLE DOSE ONTARIO RABIES VACCINE BAIT (ONRAB) DELIVERY IN STRIPED SKUNKS (MEPHITIS MEPHITIS). J Wildl Dis 2018; 54:122-132. [DOI: 10.7589/2017-04-073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Maki J, Guiot AL, Aubert M, Brochier B, Cliquet F, Hanlon CA, King R, Oertli EH, Rupprecht CE, Schumacher C, Slate D, Yakobson B, Wohlers A, Lankau EW. Oral vaccination of wildlife using a vaccinia-rabies-glycoprotein recombinant virus vaccine (RABORAL V-RG ®): a global review. Vet Res 2017; 48:57. [PMID: 28938920 PMCID: PMC5610451 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-017-0459-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
RABORAL V-RG® is an oral rabies vaccine bait that contains an attenuated ("modified-live") recombinant vaccinia virus vector vaccine expressing the rabies virus glycoprotein gene (V-RG). Approximately 250 million doses have been distributed globally since 1987 without any reports of adverse reactions in wildlife or domestic animals since the first licensed recombinant oral rabies vaccine (ORV) was released into the environment to immunize wildlife populations against rabies. V-RG is genetically stable, is not detected in the oral cavity beyond 48 h after ingestion, is not shed by vaccinates into the environment, and has been tested for thermostability under a range of laboratory and field conditions. Safety of V-RG has been evaluated in over 50 vertebrate species, including non-human primates, with no adverse effects observed regardless of route or dose. Immunogenicity and efficacy have been demonstrated under laboratory and field conditions in multiple target species (including fox, raccoon, coyote, skunk, raccoon dog, and jackal). The liquid vaccine is packaged inside edible baits (i.e., RABORAL V-RG, the vaccine-bait product) which are distributed into wildlife habitats for consumption by target species. Field application of RABORAL V-RG has contributed to the elimination of wildlife rabies from three European countries (Belgium, France and Luxembourg) and of the dog/coyote rabies virus variant from the United States of America (USA). An oral rabies vaccination program in west-central Texas has essentially eliminated the gray fox rabies virus variant from Texas with the last case reported in a cow during 2009. A long-term ORV barrier program in the USA using RABORAL V-RG is preventing substantial geographic expansion of the raccoon rabies virus variant. RABORAL V-RG has also been used to control wildlife rabies in Israel for more than a decade. This paper: (1) reviews the development and historical use of RABORAL V-RG; (2) highlights wildlife rabies control programs using the vaccine in multiple species and countries; and (3) discusses current and future challenges faced by programs seeking to control or eliminate wildlife rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Maki
- Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health, 1730 Olympic Drive, Athens, GA 30601 USA
| | | | | | - Bernard Brochier
- Institut Scientifique de Santé Publique, Service Maladies Virales, Laboratoire National de la rage, Direction Opérationnelle Maladies Transmissibles et Infectieuses, rue Engeland 642, 1180 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Florence Cliquet
- ANSES-Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, Technopôle agricole et vétérinaire de Pixérécourt, B.P. 40009, 54220 Malzéville, France
| | - Cathleen A. Hanlon
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Rabies Team Lead, Atlanta, GA 30333 USA
| | - Roni King
- Israel Nature and Parks Authority, 3 Am Ve’Olamo Street, Jerusalem, 95463 Israel
| | | | | | - Caroline Schumacher
- Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health, 29 Avenue Tony Garnier, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - Dennis Slate
- USDA-Wildlife Services, 59 Chenell Dr, Concord, NH 03301 USA
| | - Boris Yakobson
- Rabies Department, Kimron Veterinary Institute, 20250 Bet Dagan, Israel
| | - Anne Wohlers
- Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health, 1730 Olympic Drive, Athens, GA 30601 USA
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Pepin KM, Davis AJ, Streicker DG, Fischer JW, VerCauteren KC, Gilbert AT. Predicting spatial spread of rabies in skunk populations using surveillance data reported by the public. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005822. [PMID: 28759576 PMCID: PMC5552346 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Prevention and control of wildlife disease invasions relies on the ability to predict spatio-temporal dynamics and understand the role of factors driving spread rates, such as seasonality and transmission distance. Passive disease surveillance (i.e., case reports by public) is a common method of monitoring emergence of wildlife diseases, but can be challenging to interpret due to spatial biases and limitations in data quantity and quality. Methodology/Principal findings We obtained passive rabies surveillance data from dead striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) in an epizootic in northern Colorado, USA. We developed a dynamic patch-occupancy model which predicts spatio-temporal spreading while accounting for heterogeneous sampling. We estimated the distance travelled per transmission event, direction of invasion, rate of spatial spread, and effects of infection density and season. We also estimated mean transmission distance and rates of spatial spread using a phylogeographic approach on a subsample of viral sequences from the same epizootic. Both the occupancy and phylogeographic approaches predicted similar rates of spatio-temporal spread. Estimated mean transmission distances were 2.3 km (95% Highest Posterior Density (HPD95): 0.02, 11.9; phylogeographic) and 3.9 km (95% credible intervals (CI95): 1.4, 11.3; occupancy). Estimated rates of spatial spread in km/year were: 29.8 (HPD95: 20.8, 39.8; phylogeographic, branch velocity, homogenous model), 22.6 (HPD95: 15.3, 29.7; phylogeographic, diffusion rate, homogenous model) and 21.1 (CI95: 16.7, 25.5; occupancy). Initial colonization probability was twice as high in spring relative to fall. Conclusions/Significance Skunk-to-skunk transmission was primarily local (< 4 km) suggesting that if interventions were needed, they could be applied at the wave front. Slower viral invasions of skunk rabies in western USA compared to a similar epizootic in raccoons in the eastern USA implies host species or landscape factors underlie the dynamics of rabies invasions. Our framework provides a straightforward method for estimating rates of spatial spread of wildlife diseases. Rabies is a deadly zoonotic infection with a global distribution. In 2012, an epizootic of skunk rabies established in northern Colorado, USA and spread rapidly through three counties. The epizootic was documented through reports of dead skunks by the public. We examined the reports to determine how rapidly rabies was moving and which factors could explain the patterns of spread. We compared these estimates of spatial movement of rabies to those obtained from analyzing rabies genetic sequences that we obtained from some of the dead skunks reported by the public. By both methods, we found the virus was moving south at a little over 20 km/year and that most transmission between skunks occurred at short distances (< 4 km). Rabies was most likely to spread to new areas during the first half of the year, when skunk populations were producing new offspring. Our genetic model suggested that roads and rivers in the study landscape did not affect movement speed of rabies. We developed a framework that used the spatial data in the public reports to predict where and when skunk rabies would occur next. This framework could be used on public health surveillance data for other diseases or countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim M. Pepin
- National Wildlife Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Amy J. Davis
- National Wildlife Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Daniel G. Streicker
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland
- Medical Research Council-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland
| | - Justin W. Fischer
- National Wildlife Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Kurt C. VerCauteren
- National Wildlife Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Amy T. Gilbert
- National Wildlife Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
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Elmore SA, Chipman RB, Slate D, Huyvaert KP, VerCauteren KC, Gilbert AT. Management and modeling approaches for controlling raccoon rabies: The road to elimination. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005249. [PMID: 28301480 PMCID: PMC5354248 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is an ancient viral disease that significantly impacts human and animal health throughout the world. In the developing parts of the world, dog bites represent the highest risk of rabies infection to people, livestock, and other animals. However, in North America, where several rabies virus variants currently circulate in wildlife, human contact with the raccoon rabies variant leads to the highest per capita population administration of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) annually. Previous rabies variant elimination in raccoons (Canada), foxes (Europe), and dogs and coyotes (United States) demonstrates that elimination of the raccoon variant from the eastern US is feasible, given an understanding of rabies control costs and benefits and the availability of proper tools. Also critical is a cooperatively produced strategic plan that emphasizes collaborative rabies management among agencies and organizations at the landscape scale. Common management strategies, alone or as part of an integrated approach, include the following: oral rabies vaccination (ORV), trap-vaccinate-release (TVR), and local population reduction. As a complement, mathematical and statistical modeling approaches can guide intervention planning, such as through contact networks, circuit theory, individual-based modeling, and others, which can be used to better understand and predict rabies dynamics through simulated interactions among the host, virus, environment, and control strategy. Strategies derived from this ecological lens can then be optimized to produce a management plan that balances the ecological needs and program financial resources. This paper discusses the management and modeling strategies that are currently used, or have been used in the past, and provides a platform of options for consideration while developing raccoon rabies virus elimination strategies in the US.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey A. Elmore
- United States Department of Agriculture, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Richard B. Chipman
- United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Rabies Management Program, Concord, New Hampshire, United States of America
| | - Dennis Slate
- United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Rabies Management Program, Concord, New Hampshire, United States of America
| | - Kathryn P. Huyvaert
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Kurt C. VerCauteren
- United States Department of Agriculture, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Amy T. Gilbert
- United States Department of Agriculture, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
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Scott TP, Nel LH. Subversion of the Immune Response by Rabies Virus. Viruses 2016; 8:v8080231. [PMID: 27548204 PMCID: PMC4997593 DOI: 10.3390/v8080231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Revised: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies has affected mankind for several centuries and is one of the oldest known zoonoses. It is peculiar how little is known regarding the means by which rabies virus (RABV) evades the immune response and kills its host. This review investigates the complex interplay between RABV and the immune system, including the various means by which RABV evades, or advantageously utilizes, the host immune response in order to ensure successful replication and spread to another host. Different factors that influence immune responses—including age, sex, cerebral lateralization and temperature—are discussed, with specific reference to RABV and the effects on host morbidity and mortality. We also investigate the role of apoptosis and discuss whether it is a detrimental or beneficial mechanism of the host’s response to infection. The various RABV proteins and their roles in immune evasion are examined in depth with reference to important domains and the downstream effects of these interactions. Lastly, an overview of the means by which RABV evades important immune responses is provided. The research discussed in this review will be important in determining the roles of the immune response during RABV infections as well as to highlight important therapeutic target regions and potential strategies for rabies treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terence P Scott
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa.
| | - Louis H Nel
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa.
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de Andrade FAG, Gomes MN, Uieda W, Begot AL, Ramos ODS, Fernandes MEB. Geographical Analysis for Detecting High-Risk Areas for Bovine/Human Rabies Transmitted by the Common Hematophagous Bat in the Amazon Region, Brazil. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0157332. [PMID: 27388498 PMCID: PMC4936729 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0157332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The common hematophagous bat, Desmodus rotundus, is one of the main wild reservoirs of rabies virus in several regions in Latin America. New production practices and changed land use have provided environmental features that have been very favorable for D. rotundus bat populations, making this species the main transmitter of rabies in the cycle that involves humans and herbivores. In the Amazon region, these features include a mosaic of environmental, social, and economic components, which together creates areas with different levels of risk for human and bovine infections, as presented in this work in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. Methodology We geo-referenced a total of 175 cases of rabies, of which 88% occurred in bovines and 12% in humans, respectively, and related these cases to a number of different geographical and biological variables. The spatial distribution was analyzed using the Kernel function, while the association with independent variables was assessed using a multi-criterion Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) technique. Findings The spatiotemporal analysis of the occurrence of rabies in bovines and humans found reduction in the number of cases in the eastern state of Pará, where no more cases were recorded in humans, whereas high infection rates were recorded in bovines in the northeastern part of the state, and low rates in the southeast. The areas of highest risk for bovine rabies are found in the proximity of rivers and highways. In the case of human rabies, the highest concentration of high-risk areas was found where the highway network coincides with high densities of rural and indigenous populations. Conclusion The high-risk areas for human and bovine rabies are patchily distributed, and related to extensive deforested areas, large herds of cattle, and the presence of highways. These findings provide an important database for the generation of epidemiological models that could support the development of effective prevention measures and controls.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Murilo N. Gomes
- Escritório de Defesa Agropecuária de São Paulo, Coordenadoria de Defesa Agropecuária, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Wilson Uieda
- Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alberto L. Begot
- Departamento de Endemias, Secretaria Executiva de Saúde Pública do Estado do Pará, Pará, Brazil
| | - Ofir de S. Ramos
- Laboratório de Virologia, Laboratório Nacional Agropecuário do Pará, Pará, Brazil
| | - Marcus E. B. Fernandes
- Laboratório de Ecologia de Manguezal, Universidade Federal do Pará, Campus de Bragança, Pará, Brazil
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Hirsch BT, Reynolds JJ, Gehrt SD, Craft ME. Which mechanisms drive seasonal rabies outbreaks in raccoons? A test using dynamic social network models. J Appl Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ben T. Hirsch
- College of Marine and Environmental Sciences James Cook University Townsville QLD 4810 Australia
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) Balboa Panama
| | - Jennifer J.H. Reynolds
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine University of Minnesota St Paul MN 55018 USA
| | - Stanley D. Gehrt
- School of Environment and Natural Resources The Ohio State University Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Meggan E. Craft
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine University of Minnesota St Paul MN 55018 USA
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Prevalence and spatio-temporal variation of an alopecia syndrome in polar bears (Ursus maritimus) of the southern Beaufort Sea. J Wildl Dis 2015; 51:48-59. [PMID: 25375943 DOI: 10.7589/2013-11-301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Alopecia (hair loss) has been observed in several marine mammal species and has potential energetic consequences for sustaining a normal core body temperature, especially for Arctic marine mammals routinely exposed to harsh environmental conditions. Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) rely on a thick layer of adipose tissue and a dense pelage to ameliorate convective heat loss while moving between sea ice and open water. From 1998 to 2012, we observed an alopecia syndrome in polar bears from the southern Beaufort Sea of Alaska that presented as bilaterally asymmetrical loss of guard hairs and thinning of the undercoat around the head, neck, and shoulders, which, in severe cases, was accompanied by exudation and crusted skin lesions. Alopecia was observed in 49 (3.45%) of the bears sampled during 1,421 captures, and the apparent prevalence varied by years with peaks occurring in 1999 (16%) and 2012 (28%). The probability that a bear had alopecia was greatest for subadults and for bears captured in the Prudhoe Bay region, and alopecic individuals had a lower body condition score than unaffected individuals. The cause of the syndrome remains unknown and future work should focus on identifying the causative agent and potential effects on population vital rates.
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Right place, wrong species: a 20-year review of rabies virus cross species transmission among terrestrial mammals in the United States. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107539. [PMID: 25295750 PMCID: PMC4189788 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In the continental US, four terrestrial mammalian species are reservoirs for seven antigenic rabies virus variants. Cross species transmission (CST) occurs when a rabies virus variant causes disease in non-reservoir species. METHODS This study analyzed national surveillance data for rabies in terrestrial mammals. The CST rate was defined as: number of rabid non-reservoir animals/number of rabid reservoir animals. CST rates were analyzed for trend. Clusters of high CST rate counties were evaluated using space-time scanning statistics. RESULTS The number of counties reporting a raccoon variant CST rate >1.0 increased from 75 in 1992 to 187 in 2011; counties with skunk variant CST rates >1.0 remained unchanged during the same period. As of 2011, for every rabid raccoon reported within the raccoon variant region, there were 0.73 cases of this variant reported in non-reservoir animals. Skunks were the most common non-reservoir animal reported with the raccoon rabies variant. Domestic animals were the most common non-reservoir animal diagnosed with a skunk rabies virus variant (n = 1,601). Cross species transmission rates increased fastest among domestic animals. CONCLUSIONS Cross species transmission of rabies virus variants into non-reservoir animals increases the risk of human exposures and threatens current advances toward rabies control. Cross species transmission in raccoon rabies enzootic regions increased dramatically during the study period. Pet owners should vaccinate their dogs and cats to ensure against CST, particularly in regions with active foci of rabies circulation. Clusters of high CST activity represent areas for further study to better understand interspecies disease transmission dynamics. Each CST event has the potential to result in a rabies virus adapted for sustained transmission in a new species; therefore further understanding of the dynamics of CST may help in early detection or prevention of the emergence of new terrestrial rabies virus variants.
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Tardy O, Massé A, Pelletier F, Mainguy J, Fortin D. Density-dependent functional responses in habitat selection by two hosts of the raccoon rabies virus variant. Ecosphere 2014. [DOI: 10.1890/es14-00197.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Kyle CJ, Rico Y, Castillo S, Srithayakumar V, Cullingham CI, White BN, Pond BA. Spatial patterns of neutral and functional genetic variations reveal patterns of local adaptation in raccoon (Procyon lotor) populations exposed to raccoon rabies. Mol Ecol 2014; 23:2287-98. [PMID: 24655158 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Revised: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Local adaptation is necessary for population survival and depends on the interplay between responses to selective forces and demographic processes that introduce or retain adaptive and maladaptive attributes. Host-parasite systems are dynamic, varying in space and time, where both host and parasites must adapt to their ever-changing environment in order to survive. We investigated patterns of local adaptation in raccoon populations with varying temporal exposure to the raccoon rabies virus (RRV). RRV infects approximately 85% of the population when epizootic and has been presumed to be completely lethal once contracted; however, disease challenge experiments and varying spatial patterns of RRV spread suggest some level of immunity may exist. We first assessed patterns of local adaptation in raccoon populations along the eastern seaboard of North America by contrasting spatial patterns of neutral (microsatellite loci) and functional, major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genetic diversity and structure. We explored variation of MHC allele frequencies in the light of temporal population exposure to RRV (0-60 years) and specific RRV strains in infected raccoons. Our results revealed high levels of MHC variation (66 DRB exon 2 alleles) and pronounced genetic structure relative to neutral microsatellite loci, indicative of local adaptation. We found a positive association linking MHC genetic diversity and temporal RRV exposure, but no association with susceptibility and resistance to RRV strains. These results have implications for landscape epidemiology studies seeking to predict the spread of RRV and present an example of how population demographics influence the degree to which populations adapt to local selective pressures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Kyle
- Forensic Science Department, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada, K9J 7B8; Natural Resources DNA Profiling and Forensics Centre, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada, K9J 7B8
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Rioux Paquette S, Talbot B, Garant D, Mainguy J, Pelletier F. Modelling the dispersal of the two main hosts of the raccoon rabies variant in heterogeneous environments with landscape genetics. Evol Appl 2014; 7:734-49. [PMID: 25469156 PMCID: PMC4227855 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Accepted: 03/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Predicting the geographic spread of wildlife epidemics requires knowledge about the movement patterns of disease hosts or vectors. The field of landscape genetics provides valuable approaches to study dispersal indirectly, which in turn may be used to understand patterns of disease spread. Here, we applied landscape genetic analyses and spatially explicit models to identify the potential path of raccoon rabies spread in a mesocarnivore community. We used relatedness estimates derived from microsatellite genotypes of raccoons and striped skunks to investigate their dispersal patterns in a heterogeneous landscape composed predominantly of agricultural, forested and residential areas. Samples were collected in an area covering 22 000 km2 in southern Québec, where the raccoon rabies variant (RRV) was first detected in 2006. Multiple regressions on distance matrices revealed that genetic distance among male raccoons was strictly a function of geographic distance, while dispersal in female raccoons was significantly reduced by the presence of agricultural fields. In skunks, our results suggested that dispersal is increased in edge habitats between fields and forest fragments in both males and females. Resistance modelling allowed us to identify likely dispersal corridors used by these two rabies hosts, which may prove especially helpful for surveillance and control (e.g. oral vaccination) activities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Benoit Talbot
- Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, QC, Canada ; Canada Research Chair in Evolutionary Demography and Conservation, Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Dany Garant
- Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Julien Mainguy
- Direction générale de l'expertise sur la faune et ses habitats, Direction de la biodiversité et des maladies de la faune, Ministère du Développement durable, de l'Environnement, de la Faune et des Parcs Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Fanie Pelletier
- Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, QC, Canada ; Canada Research Chair in Evolutionary Demography and Conservation, Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
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Rupprecht CE, Willoughby R, Slate D. Current and future trends in the prevention, treatment and control of rabies. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 4:1021-38. [PMID: 17181418 DOI: 10.1586/14787210.4.6.1021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Rabies remains a global zoonosis of major public health, agricultural and economic significance. Dogs are the major animal reservoirs in developing regions, wildlife maintain cycles of infection even in developed countries and new viral etiological agents continue to emerge. Nearly all human rabies cases are related directly to animal bite and thus, primary disease prevention requires minimization of suspected exposures. Once exposure occurs, modern prophylaxis entails immediate wound care, local infiltration of rabies immune globulin and parenteral administration of modern cell culture vaccines in multiple doses. Pre-exposure vaccination should occur in selected population groups at risk of occupational exposure. Historically, survival from fatal rabies by at least five human patients, vaccinated prior to the onset of clinical signs, signaled initial optimism as to the theoretical utility of medical intervention. Recently, the heroic recovery of an unvaccinated teenager from clinical rabies offers hope of future specific therapy. Canine rabies elimination is the key towards ultimate reduction of the disease burden, as first illustrated in developed countries. Implementation of oral vaccination in free-ranging carnivore hosts demonstrates the feasibility of disease abatement in particular wildlife populations, such as demonstrated in Europe and North America, with an enhanced need for application to developing countries in the Americas, Africa and Eurasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E Rupprecht
- Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, MS G33, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Chipman RB, Cozzens TW, Shwiff SA, Biswas R, Plumley J, O'Quin J, Algeo TP, Rupprecht CE, Slate D. Costs of raccoon rabies incidents in cattle herds in Hampshire County, West Virginia, and Guernsey County, Ohio. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2013; 243:1561-7. [PMID: 24261805 DOI: 10.2460/javma.243.11.1561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine direct and indirect costs associated with raccoon rabies incidents involving cattle herds in Hampshire County, WV, in 2008 and Guernsey County, Ohio, in 2010. DESIGN Ex post cost analysis. ANIMALS 1 cattle herd in Hampshire County, WV, in 2008 and 1 cattle herd in Guernsey County, Ohio, in 2010. PROCEDURES Data were collected for each incident through telephone and email interviews with 16 federal, state, and county agency personnel involved in the case investigations and coordinated responses for rabies in the cattle herds. To characterize the economic impact associated with rabies in the 2 cattle herds, cost analysis was conducted with 7 cost variables (salary and benefits for personnel involved in the response, human postexposure prophylaxis, indirect patient costs, rabies diagnostic testing, cattle carcass disposal, market value of euthanized cattle, and enhanced rabies surveillance). Estimates of direct costs were determined on the basis of agency records and other relevant data obtained from notes and reports made by agency staff at the time of the incident and from a review of the literature. RESULTS Primary costs included the market value of euthanized cattle ($51,461 in West Virginia; $12,561 in Ohio), human postexposure prophylaxis ($17,959 in West Virginia; $11,297 in Ohio), and salary and benefits for personnel involved in the response ($19,792 in West Virginia; $14,496 in Ohio). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE These results should provide a basis for better characterization of the economic impact of wildlife rabies in cattle in the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard B Chipman
- USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, National Rabies Management Program, 59 Chenell Dr, Ste 2, Concord, NH 03301
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Tack DM, Blanton JD, Holman RC, Longenberger AH, Petersen BW, Rupprecht CE. Evaluation of knowledge, attitudes, and practices of deer owners following identification of a cluster of captive deer with rabies in Pennsylvania in July 2010. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2013; 242:1279-85. [PMID: 23600787 DOI: 10.2460/javma.242.9.1279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate knowledge, attitudes, and practices of deer owners following identification of a cluster of captive deer with rabies as an aid for the development of rabies prevention educational materials. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. POPULATION Captive-deer owners who were members of the pennsylvania deer farmers association. PROCEDURES Information was obtained via a mailed, self-administered questionnaire. RESULTS The questionnaire response rate was 59% (249/425). One hundred three of 206 (50%) respondents had incomplete knowledge of rabies virus vectors, transmission, severity, and prevention measures. Birds or snakes were incorrectly identified as rabies vectors by 96 of 213 (45%) respondents, and most (≥ 94%) respondents identified rabies virus reservoirs as vectors. Ninety of 231 (39%) respondents identified death as an outcome of rabies, and 184 of 235 (78%) respondents would seek emergency treatment if they suspected exposure. Only 62 of 235 (26%) respondents would wash a wound immediately. The majority of respondents (173/239 [72%]) did not know the clinical signs of rabies in deer. Nine respondents indicated that they vaccinated their deer against rabies, and the majority of respondents (158/214 [74%]) would be willing to vaccinate. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Findings suggested that deer owners in Pennsylvania have a basic knowledge of rabies; however, knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding prevention of rabies transmission could be improved considerably. Rabies educational materials for deer owners should focus on postexposure procedures, disease severity, recognition of rabies in deer, and changes in management practices such as vaccination to prevent rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle M Tack
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, CDC, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Guo D, Zhou H, Zou Y, Yin W, Yu H, Si Y, Li J, Zhou Y, Zhou X, Magalhães RJS. Geographical analysis of the distribution and spread of human rabies in china from 2005 to 2011. PLoS One 2013; 8:e72352. [PMID: 23991098 PMCID: PMC3753237 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0072352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Rabies is a significant public health problem in China in that it records the second highest case incidence globally. Surveillance data on canine rabies in China is lacking and human rabies notifications can be a useful indicator of areas where animal and human rabies control could be integrated. Previous spatial epidemiological studies lacked adequate spatial resolution to inform targeted rabies control decisions. We aimed to describe the spatiotemporal distribution of human rabies and model its geographical spread to provide an evidence base to inform future integrated rabies control strategies in China. Methods We geo-referenced a total of 17,760 human rabies cases of China from 2005 to 2011. In our spatial analyses we used Gaussian kernel density analysis, average nearest neighbor distance, Spatial Temporal Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise and developed a model of rabies spatiotemporal spread. Findings Human rabies cases increased from 2005 to 2007 and decreased during 2008 to 2011 companying change of the spatial distribution. The ANN distance among human rabies cases increased between 2005 and 2011, and the degree of clustering of human rabies cases decreased during that period. A total 480 clusters were detected by ST-DBSCAN, 89.4% clusters initiated before 2007. Most of clusters were mainly found in South of China. The number and duration of cluster decreased significantly after 2008. Areas with the highest density of human rabies cases varied spatially each year and in some areas remained with high outbreak density for several years. Though few places have recovered from human rabies, most of affected places are still suffering from the disease. Conclusion Human rabies in mainland China is geographically clustered and its spatial extent changed during 2005 to 2011. The results provide a scientific basis for public health authorities in China to improve human rabies control and prevention program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danhuai Guo
- Scientific Data Center, Computer Network Information Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hang Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Surveillance and Early-warning on Infectious Disease, Division of Infectious Disease, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Zou
- Department of Female Clinical Research, National Research Institute for Family Planning, Beijing, China
| | - Wenwu Yin
- Key Laboratory of Surveillance and Early-warning on Infectious Disease, Division of Infectious Disease, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
- * E-mail:
| | - Hongjie Yu
- Key Laboratory of Surveillance and Early-warning on Infectious Disease, Division of Infectious Disease, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Yali Si
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Earth System Modeling, Center for Earth System Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Jianhui Li
- Scientific Data Center, Computer Network Information Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yuanchun Zhou
- Scientific Data Center, Computer Network Information Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhou
- Emergency Centre for the Control of Transboundary Animal Diseases, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Beijing, China
| | - Ricardo J. Soares. Magalhães
- University of Queensland, Infectious Disease Epidemiology Unit, School of Population Health, Herston, Queensland, Australia
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Rees EE, Pond BA, Tinline RR, Bélanger D. Modelling the effect of landscape heterogeneity on the efficacy of vaccination for wildlife infectious disease control. J Appl Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Erin E. Rees
- Département de Pathologie et Microbiologie; Le Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique; Université de Montréal; 3200 Sicotte; C.P. 5000; Saint-Hyacinthe; QC; J2S 7C6; Canada
| | - Bruce A. Pond
- Wildlife Research and Development Section; Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources; Trent University; 2140 East Bank Drive; Peterborough; ON; K9J 7B8; Canada
| | - Rowland R. Tinline
- Department of Geography; Queen's University; Kingston; ON; K7L 3N6; Canada
| | - Denise Bélanger
- Département de Pathologie et Microbiologie; Le Groupe de Recherche en Épidémiologie des Zoonoses et Santé Publique; Université de Montréal; 3200 Sicotte; C.P. 5000; Saint-Hyacinthe; QC; J2S 7C6; Canada
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Fry TL, Vandalen KK, Shriner SA, Moore SM, Hanlon CA, Vercauteren KC. Humoral immune response to oral rabies vaccination in raccoon kits: problems and implications. Vaccine 2013; 31:2811-5. [PMID: 23602534 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2013] [Revised: 04/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the immunogenicity of RABORAL V-RG(®) (V-RG), an oral rabies vaccine, in raccoon kits (Procyon lotor). The objectives of this study were to characterize the immunogenicity of V-RG in young kits and investigate the potential impact of maternal antibodies on response to vaccination of nursing raccoon kits. Raccoon kits (n=30) were vaccinated at either 3 weeks of age, 7 weeks of age, or assigned as contact controls. Nineteen kits (73%) that were whelped by unvaccinated mothers responded to V-RG exposure (orally or indirect contact) by production of detectable rabies virus neutralizing antibodies (RVNA) while 7 (27%) kits did not respond to V-RG exposure. Four kits were whelped by a mother with high levels of RVNA and all four kits acquired maternal rabies antibodies. At approximately 9 months of age, all kits were inoculated with a killed rabies vaccine, IMRAB3(®). The kits which initially responded to V-RG oral vaccination or contact with vaccinated littermates demonstrated a rapid anamnestic response. In contrast, the V-RG non-responders and those with acquired maternal antibodies exhibited a primary immune response to IMRAB3(®), where RVNA levels were substantially lower on days 5 and 7 than the levels in the animals with an anamnestic response. These findings suggest that the naïve contact kits and the nonresponsive kits most likely remained susceptible to rabies virus infection whereas the ones demonstrating response to V-RG would not have been susceptible to a rabies virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tricia L Fry
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 Laporte Ave, Fort Collins, Colorado 80521, USA.
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Blanton JD, Dyer J, McBrayer J, Rupprecht CE. Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2011. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2013; 241:712-22. [PMID: 22947154 DOI: 10.2460/javma.241.6.712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
During 2011, 49 states and Puerto Rico reported 6,031 rabid animals and 6 human rabies cases to the CDC, representing a 1.9% decrease from the 6,153 rabid animals and 2 human cases reported in 2010. Approximately 92% of reported rabid animals were wildlife. Relative contributions by the major animal groups were as follows: 1,981 raccoons (32.8%), 1,627 skunks (27.0%), 1,380 bats (22.9%), 427 foxes (7.1%), 303 cats (5.0%), 65 cattle (1.1%), and 70 dogs (1.2%). Compared with 2010, there was a substantial increase in the number of rabid skunks reported. Six cases of rabies involving humans were reported from California, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and South Carolina. Three cases reported from Massachusetts, New Jersey, and New York were determined to be a result of canine rabies virus variants acquired outside the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse D Blanton
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Disease, CDC, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the global epidemiology of rabies, focusing on major changes over the past half-century and highlighting recent discoveries. This chapter also describes the natural and iatrogenic routes of transmission, as well as the risk and necessary actions for the prevention of rabies following an exposure. It reviews the methods for rabies diagnosis and the biologics for prevention, in addition to differences in rabies prophylaxis recommendations among advisory committees. The chapter also considers epidemiology and trends in global human rabies and the dynamics of the corresponding mammalian reservoir hosts for each area. Furthermore, it considers the phylogenetics of rabies virus, other lyssaviruses, and specific rabies virus variants in the context of regional rabies and the potential for novel emergences. Special attention is paid to developed countries, where existing surveillance and diagnostic infrastructure have provided detailed insights into the nature changing patterns in rabies epidemiology-patterns expected to be increasingly relevant to other less-developed nations based on current trends. Special attention is afforded to canine rabies, as dogs remain responsible for over 99% of all human exposures to the virus, including the methods and problems associated with intentional and unintentional movement of dogs at national and international levels. Finally, the chapter discusses the economic burden of rabies in terms of human and infrastructure support.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathleen A. Hanlon
- Kansas State University Rabies Laboratory, 2005 Research Park Circle, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - James E. Childs
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health Yale University School of Medicine, 60 College Street, P.O. Box 208034, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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A simple spatiotemporal rabies model for skunk and bat interaction in northeast Texas. J Theor Biol 2012; 314:16-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2012.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Revised: 08/26/2012] [Accepted: 08/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Talbot B, Garant D, Rioux Paquette S, Mainguy J, Pelletier F. Lack of genetic structure and female-specific effect of dispersal barriers in a rabies vector, the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis). PLoS One 2012; 7:e49736. [PMID: 23166760 PMCID: PMC3498222 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 10/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Evaluating the permeability of potential barriers to movement, dispersal and gene exchanges can help describe spreading patterns of wildlife diseases. Here, we used landscape genetics methods to assess the genetic structure of the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), which is a frequent vector of rabies, a lethal zoonosis of great concern for public health. Our main objective was to identify landscape elements shaping the genetic structure of this species in Southern Québec, Canada, in an area where the raccoon rabies variant has been detected. We hypothesised that geographic distance and landscape barriers, such as highways and major rivers, would modulate genetic structure. We genotyped a total of 289 individuals sampled across a large area (22,000 km2) at nice microsatellite loci. Genetic structure analyses identified a single genetic cluster in the study area. Major rivers and highways, however, influenced the genetic relatedness among sampled individuals. Sex-specific analyses revealed that rivers significantly limited dispersal only for females while highways only had marginal effects. Rivers and highways did not significantly affect male dispersal. These results support the contention that female skunks are more philopatric than males. Overall, our results suggest that the effects of major rivers and highways on dispersal are sex-specific and rather weak and are thus unlikely to prevent the spread of rabies within and among striped skunk populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Talbot
- Département de Biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada.
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Singer A, Smith GC. Emergency rabies control in a community of two high-density hosts. BMC Vet Res 2012; 8:79. [PMID: 22709848 PMCID: PMC3492034 DOI: 10.1186/1746-6148-8-79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2011] [Accepted: 05/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Rabies is a fatal viral disease that potentially can affect all mammals. Terrestrial rabies is not present in the United Kingdom and has been eliminated from Western Europe. Nevertheless the possibility remains that rabies could be introduced to England, where it would find two potentially suitable hosts, red foxes and badgers. With the aim to analyse the spread and emergency control of rabies in this two species host community, a simulation model was constructed. Different control strategies involving anti-rabies vaccination and population culling were developed, considering control application rates, spatial extent and timing. These strategies were evaluated for efficacy and feasibility to control rabies in hypothetical rural areas in the South of England immediately after a disease outbreak. Results The model confirmed that both fox and badger populations, separately, were competent hosts for the spread of rabies. Realistic vaccination levels were not sufficient to control rabies in high-density badger populations. The combined species community was a very strong rabies host. However, disease spread within species appeared to be more important than cross-species infection. Thus, the drivers of epidemiology depend on the potential of separate host species to sustain the disease. To control a rabies outbreak in the two species, both species had to be targeted. Realistic and robust control strategies involved vaccination of foxes and badgers, but also required badger culling. Although fox and badger populations in the UK are exceptionally dense, an outbreak of rabies can be controlled with a higher than 90% chance, if control response is quick and follows a strict regime. This requires surveillance and forceful and repeated control campaigns. In contrast, an uncontrolled rabies outbreak in the South of England would quickly develop into a strong epizootic involving tens of thousands of rabid foxes and badgers. Conclusions If populations of both host species are sufficiently large, epizootics are driven by within-species transmission, while cross-species-infection appears to be of minor importance. Thus, the disease control strategy has to target both host populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Singer
- Food and Environment Research Agency, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, UK.
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Santonastaso TT, Dubach J, Hauver SA, Graser WH, Gehrt SD. Microsatellite analysis of raccoon (Procyon lotor) population structure across an extensive metropolitan landscape. J Mammal 2012. [DOI: 10.1644/10-mamm-a-410.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Affiliation(s)
| | - P. A. Fleming
- School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences; Murdoch University; Murdoch; WA; Australia
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Núñez C, Páez A, Hernández C, Escobar H, Bonelo A. Transmisión del virus de la rabia entre murciélagos urbanos del departamento del Valle del Cauca, Colombia, 1999-2008. INFECTIO 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/s0123-9392(12)70054-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
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Blanton JD, Palmer D, Dyer J, Rupprecht CE. Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2010. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2012; 239:773-83. [PMID: 21916759 DOI: 10.2460/javma.239.6.773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
During 2010, 48 states and Puerto Rico reported 6,154 rabid animals and 2 human rabies cases to the CDC, representing an 8% decrease from the 6,690 rabid animals and 4 human cases reported in 2009. Hawaii and Mississippi did not report any laboratory-confirmed rabid animals during 2010. Approximately 92% of reported rabid animals were wildlife. Relative contributions by the major animal groups were as follows: 2,246 raccoons (36.5%), 1,448 skunks (23.5%), 1,430 bats (23.2%), 429 foxes (6.9%), 303 cats (4.9%), 71 cattle (1.1 %), and 69 dogs (1.1 %). Compared with 2009, number of reported rabid animals decreased across all animal types with the exception of a 1 % increase in the number of reported rabid cats. Two cases of rabies involving humans were reported from Louisiana and Wisconsin in 2010. Louisiana reported an imported human rabies case involving a 19-year-old male migrant farm worker who had a history of a vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) bite received while in Mexico. This represents the first human rabies case reported in the United States confirmed to have been caused by a vampire bat rabies virus variant. Wisconsin reported a human rabies case involving a 70-year-old male that was confirmed to have been caused by a rabies virus variant associated with tri-colored bats (Perimyotis subflavus).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse D Blanton
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Recuenco S, Blanton JD, Rupprecht CE. A Spatial Model to Forecast Raccoon Rabies Emergence. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012; 12:126-37. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Recuenco
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jesse D. Blanton
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Charles E. Rupprecht
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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Côté H, Garant D, Robert K, Mainguy J, Pelletier F. Genetic structure and rabies spread potential in raccoons: the role of landscape barriers and sex-biased dispersal. Evol Appl 2012; 5:393-404. [PMID: 25568059 DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-4571.2012.00238.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2011] [Accepted: 12/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Identifying natural barriers to movements of hosts associated with infectious diseases is essential for developing effective control strategies. Raccoon rabies variant (RRV) is a zoonosis of concern for humans because its main vector, the raccoon (Procyon lotor), is found near residential areas. In Québec, Canada, all cases of RRV found in raccoons since 2006 were detected on the eastern side of the Richelieu River, suggesting that this river acts as a barrier to gene flow and thus the potential for RRV to spread. The objectives of this study were to characterize the genetic structure of raccoon populations and assess the effect of the Richelieu River on the population structure in southern Québec, Canada. We also evaluated whether RRV spread potential differed between sex and at a larger spatial scale. Our analyses revealed a weak signal of genetic differentiation among individuals located on each side of the Richelieu River. At a larger spatial scale, genetic structuring was weak. Our results suggest that rivers might not always efficiently restrain raccoon movements and spread of RRV. We suggest that the difference in genetic structure found between sexes can be partly explained by male movements during the breeding season in winter, when ice bridges allow passage over most rivers in Québec.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héloïse Côté
- Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, QC, Canada ; Canada Research Chair in Evolutionary Demography and Conservation, Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Dany Garant
- Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Karine Robert
- Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, QC, Canada ; Canada Research Chair in Evolutionary Demography and Conservation, Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Julien Mainguy
- Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune, Direction de l'expertise sur la faune et ses habitats, Service de la biodiversité et des maladies de la faune Québec city, QC, Canada
| | - Fanie Pelletier
- Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, QC, Canada ; Canada Research Chair in Evolutionary Demography and Conservation, Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
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Houle M, Fortin D, Mainguy J, Canac-Marquis P. Landscape composition and structure influence the abundance of mesopredators: implications for the control of the raccoon (Procyon lotor) variant of rabies. CAN J ZOOL 2011. [DOI: 10.1139/z11-085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Rabies propagation in Canada has forced wildlife managers to develop intervention strategies to reduce the risk of rabies epizootics. We assessed whether some landscape characteristics of a corn-dominated region of Quebec in which the raccoon variant of rabies (RVR) has spread were associated with the abundances of raccoons ( Procyon lotor (L., 1758)) and striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis (Schreber, 1776)). We then examined whether landscape variables that best explained spatial variation in raccoon abundance were also good predictors in the detection of rabid raccoons. Between June and September 2007, 9600 raccoons and 1612 skunks were captured from 111 trapping cells. The abundance of captured raccoons, especially that of adult males and juveniles, increased over the summer in trapping cells characterized by a high density of forest edges bordering corn fields. The probability of detecting rabid raccoons also increased with this landscape characteristic, as well as with adult raccoon abundance. No landscape characteristic, however, explained spatial variation in skunk abundance. Efficient RVR control operations in similar landscapes should ideally include widespread distribution of vaccine baits because of the general distribution of skunks, while also focusing on areas where forest patches intersperse with corn fields to target high concentrations of raccoons, particularly in late summer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélina Houle
- Centre d’étude de la forêt, Département des Sciences du bois et de la forêt, Université Laval, 2405, rue de la Terrasse, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Daniel Fortin
- Centre d’étude de la forêt, Département de biologie, 1045, avenue de la Médecine, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Julien Mainguy
- Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune, Service de la biodiversité et des maladies de la faune, 880, chemin Sainte-Foy, 2e étage, Québec, QC G1S 4X4, Canada
| | - Pierre Canac-Marquis
- Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune, Service de la biodiversité et des maladies de la faune, 880, chemin Sainte-Foy, 2e étage, Québec, QC G1S 4X4, Canada
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Rees EE, Bélanger D, Lelièvre F, Coté N, Lambert L. Targeted surveillance of raccoon rabies in Québec, Canada. J Wildl Manage 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Tenzin, Sharma B, Dhand NK, Timsina N, Ward MP. Reemergence of rabies in Chhukha district, Bhutan, 2008. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 16:1925-30. [PMID: 21122223 PMCID: PMC3294548 DOI: 10.3201/eid1612.100958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
TOC summary: A major outbreak affected dogs, domestic livestock, and humans. From January through July 2008, rabies reemerged in the Chhukha district of southwestern Bhutan. To clarify the distribution and direction of spread of this outbreak, we mapped reported cases and conducted directional tests (mean center and standard deviational ellipse). The outbreak resulted in the death of 97 animals (42 cattle, 52 dogs, and 3 horses). Antirabies vaccine was given free of charge to ≈674 persons suspected to have been exposed. The outbreak spread south to north and appeared to follow road networks, towns, and areas of high human density associated with a large, free-roaming, dog population. The outbreak was controlled by culling free-roaming dogs. To prevent spread into the interior of Bhutan, a well-coordinated national rabies control program should be implemented in disease-endemic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tenzin
- The University of Sydney, Camden, New South Wales, Australia
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Larkin JL, Wester JC, Cottrell WO, DeVivo MT. Documentation of the Rabies Virus in Free-Ranging Fisher (Martes pennanti) in Pennsylvania. Northeast Nat (Steuben) 2010. [DOI: 10.1656/045.017.0401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Blanton JD, Palmer D, Rupprecht CE. Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2009. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2010; 237:646-57. [DOI: 10.2460/javma.237.6.646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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