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Reifenberger GC, Thomas BA, Rhodes DVL. Comparison of DNA Extraction and Amplification Techniques for Use with Engorged Hard-Bodied Ticks. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10061254. [PMID: 35744772 PMCID: PMC9228219 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10061254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne infections are a serious threat to humans, livestock, and companion animals in many parts of the world, often leading to high morbidity and mortality rates, along with decreased production values and/or costly treatments. The prevalence of the microbes responsible for these infections is typically assessed by the molecular identification of pathogens within the tick vectors. Ticks sampled from animals are often engorged with animal blood, presenting difficulties in the amplification of nucleic acids due to the inhibitory effects of mammalian blood on the enzymes used in polymerase chain reactions (PCRs). This study tested two tick preparation methods, three methods of DNA extraction, and four commercially available DNA polymerases to determine the most reliable method of extracting and amplifying DNA from engorged ticks. Our study found that the phenol–chloroform extraction method yielded the highest concentration of DNA, yet DNA extracted by this method was amplified the least successfully. Thermo Scientific’s Phusion Plus PCR Master Mix was the best at amplifying the tick 16s rRNA gene, regardless of extraction method. Finally, our study identified that using the Qiagen DNeasy Blood & Tissues kit for DNA extraction coupled with either Phusion Plus PCR Master Mix or GoTaq DNA polymerase Master Mix is the best combination for the optimized amplification of DNA extracted from engorged ticks.
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2
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Test comparison for the detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum antibodies in goats, and prevalence of granulocytic anaplasmosis in goats from Northern California and Southern Oregon. Small Rumin Res 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2021.106608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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3
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Ecology of Ixodes pacificus Ticks and Associated Pathogens in the Western United States. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11010089. [PMID: 35056037 PMCID: PMC8780575 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11010089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Lyme disease is the most important vector-borne disease in the United States and is increasing in incidence and geographic range. In the Pacific west, the western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus Cooley and Kohls, 1943 is an important vector of the causative agent of Lyme disease, the spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi. Ixodes pacificus life cycle is expected to be more than a year long, and all three stages (larva, nymph, and adult) overlap in spring. The optimal habitat consists of forest cover, cooler temperatures, and annual precipitation in the range of 200–500 mm. Therefore, the coastal areas of California, Oregon, and Washington are well suited for these ticks. Immature stages commonly parasitize Western fence lizards (Sceloporus occidentalis) and gray squirrels (Sciurus griseus), while adults often feed on deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and black-tailed deer (Odocoileus h. columbianus). Ixodes pacificus carry several pathogens of human significance, such as Borrelia burgdorferi, Bartonella, and Rickettsiales. These pathogens are maintained in the environment by many hosts, including small mammals, birds, livestock, and domestic animals. Although a great deal of work has been carried out on Ixodes ticks and the pathogens they transmit, understanding I. pacificus ecology outside California still lags. Additionally, the dynamic vector–host–pathogen system means that new factors will continue to arise and shift the epidemiological patterns within specific areas. Here, we review the ecology of I. pacificus and the pathogens this tick is known to carry to identify gaps in our knowledge.
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Dykstra EA, Oltean HN, Kangiser D, Marsden-Haug N, Rich SM, Xu G, Lee MK, Morshed MG, Graham CB, Eisen RJ. Ecology and Epidemiology of Tickborne Pathogens, Washington, USA, 2011-2016. Emerg Infect Dis 2021; 26:648-657. [PMID: 32187009 PMCID: PMC7101130 DOI: 10.3201/eid2604.191382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tickborne diseases are rare in Washington, USA, and the ecology of these pathogens is poorly understood. We integrated surveillance data from humans and ticks to better describe their epidemiology and ecology. During 2011-2016, a total of 202 tickborne disease cases were reported in Washington residents. Of these, 68 (34%) were autochthonous, including cases of Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, tickborne relapsing fever, and tularemia. During May 2011-December 2016, we collected 977 host-seeking ticks, including Ixodes pacificus, I. angustus, I. spinipalpis, I. auritulus, Dermacentor andersoni, and D. variabilis ticks. The prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto in I. pacificus ticks was 4.0%; of B. burgdorferi sensu lato, 3.8%; of B. miyamotoi, 4.4%; and of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, 1.9%. We did not detect Rickettsia rickettsii in either Dermacentor species. Case-patient histories and detection of pathogens in field-collected ticks indicate that several tickborne pathogens are endemic to Washington.
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López-Pérez AM, Plourde B, Smith K, Rubino F, Pascoe E, Smith O, Foley J. Impacts of Timber Harvest on Communities of Small Mammals, Ticks, and Tick-Borne Pathogens in a High-Risk Landscape in Northern California. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2021; 58:1171-1187. [PMID: 33459790 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjaa297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Timber harvest may impact tick-borne disease by affecting small mammal and tick community structures. We assessed tick and small mammal populations in older second-growth redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl) habitat at two harvested sites in Santa Cruz County, California, where local risk of tick-borne disease is high and determined the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in ticks. After single-tree removal harvest in 2014, there was a modest reduction in canopy, primarily toward the end of the study. Harvested sites showed strong reductions in California mouse (Peromyscus californicus, (Gambel)) captures 2-yr after harvest, resolving such that treatments and controls were comparable by the end of the study. Following harvest, treated sites experienced a transient decreased tick infestation while control plots experienced an increase. Ixodes angustus (Neumann) infestation probability on harvested plots decreased immediately after harvest, increasing with time but remaining lower than control plots, whereas I. pacificus (Cooley and Kohls) prevalence was higher shortly after the harvest on harvested plots, and continued to increase. Mean abundance of ticks on vegetation increased on control plots. We detected Borrelia burgdorferi ((Johnson et al.) Baranton) and Anaplasma phagocytophilum ((Foggie 1949) Dumler) in 3.8 and 3.1% of ticks on rodents, but no differences were associated with harvest. Impacts of forest harvest on tick-borne disease depend on removal practice and intensity, whether or not hosts are habitat specialists, and whether or not ticks are host specialists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andres M López-Pérez
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA
| | - Benjamin Plourde
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA
| | | | - Francesca Rubino
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA
| | - Emily Pascoe
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA
| | - Olivia Smith
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA
| | - Janet Foley
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA
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6
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Abstract
Abstract
Anaplasmosis is a vector-borne, infectious and non-contagious disease. The disease is caused by various pathogens of the genus Anaplasma. The different species cause different types of anaplasmosis depending on which cells that are infected in the mammalian host. Anaplasmosis has a wide host range, including humans, and it is distributed worldwide. The zoonotic potential of some species is of great importance in regards to public health concerns. This review presents information about anaplasmosis in animals and its prevalence in Europe, and other countries in the world.
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7
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Bacterial communities in the natural and supplemental nests of an endangered ecosystem engineer. Ecosphere 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
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8
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Sholty K, Pascoe EL, Foley J, Stephenson N, Hacker G, Straub M, Roy A, Brown R. Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum Genospecies in Northern California. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2020; 20:325-333. [PMID: 32155394 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2019.2483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The sensu lato (s.l.) complexes of Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum include pathogenic genospecies each with distinct ecologies in northern California, yet, most work conflates the genospecies of each pathogen into one sensu lato species. Detailed understanding of the differences in geographic distributions and ecology among genospecies is lacking. We aimed to evaluate whether two B. burgdorferi and two A. phagocytophilum genospecies in high-risk locations in coastal northern California were spatially clustered and if presence of a particular genospecies was associated with geographical site, host species, or other demographic or ecological variables. DNA sequencing was performed to differentiate genospecies of Borreliae and Anaplasma from PCR-positive dusky-footed woodrats (Neotoma fuscipes) and sciurids (chipmunks, Tamias spp., and Douglas squirrels, Tamiasciurus douglasii) at four sites in northwestern California. Logistic regression was performed to assess associations of genospecies with the predictor variables host species, host sex, site, season, and year. Spatial clustering was assessed using a Poisson spatial scan statistic in SaTScan. Host species was a significant predictor for Borrelia bissettiae, B. burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.), A. phagocytophilum s.s., and the DU1 Anaplasma genospecies. Woodrats were significantly more likely to be PCR-positive for B. bissettiae and A. phagocytophilum DU1 genospecies, while A. phagocytophilum s.s. and B. burgdorferi s.s. were significantly associated with sciurids. We report a single Borrelia lanei in an Allen's chipmunk (Tamias senex) from the Hoopa Valley Tribal Reservation. A significant spatial cluster of A. phagocytophilum s.s. was detected at Hendy Woods State Park in Mendocino County. These results highlight the need to better understand genospecies partitioning according to host species to further assess human risks, aid in future surveillance, and inform targeted research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Sholty
- Department of Wildlife, Humboldt State University, Arcata, California, USA
| | - Emily L Pascoe
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Janet Foley
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Nicole Stephenson
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Greg Hacker
- Department of Wildlife, Humboldt State University, Arcata, California, USA
| | - Mary Straub
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Austin Roy
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Richard Brown
- Department of Wildlife, Humboldt State University, Arcata, California, USA
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Alowaysi M, Chen J, Stark S, Teague K, LaCourse M, Proctor J, Vigil K, Corrigan J, Harding A, Li J, Kurtti T, Zhong J. Isolation and characterization of a Rickettsia from the ovary of a Western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2019; 10:918-923. [PMID: 31056486 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 04/06/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
A rickettsial isolate was obtained from a partially engorged Ixodes pacificus female, which was collected from Humboldt County, California. The isolate was provisionally named Rickettsia endosymbiont Ixodes pacificus (REIP). The REIP isolate displayed the highest nucleotide sequence identity to Rickettsia species phylotype G021 in I. pacificus (99%, 99%, and 100% for ompA, 16S rRNA, and gltA, respectively), a bacterium that was previously identified in I. pacifiucs by PCR. Analysis of sequences from complete opening frames of five genes, 16S rRNA, gltA, ompA, ompB, and sca4, provided inference to the bacteria's classification among other Rickettsia species. The REIP isolate displayed 99.8%, 99.4%, 99.2%, 99.5%, and 99.6% nucleotide sequence identity for 16S rRNA, gltA, ompA, ompB, and sca4 gene, respectively, with genes of 'R. monacensis' str. IrR/Munich, indicating the REIP isolate is closely related to 'R. monacensis'. Our suggestion was further supported by phylogenetic analysis using concatenated sequences of 16S rRNA, gltA, ompA, ompB, and sca4 genes, concatenated sequences of dksA-xerC, mppA-purC, and rpmE-tRNAfMet intergenic spacer regions. Both phylogenetic trees implied that the REIP isolate is most closely related to 'R. monacensis' str. IrR/Munich. We propose the bacterium be considered as 'Rickettsia monacensis' str. Humboldt for its closest phylogenetic relative (=DSM 103975 T = ATCC TSD-94 T).
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Alowaysi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA
| | - Junyan Chen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA
| | - Sierra Stark
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA
| | - Kristine Teague
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA
| | - Monique LaCourse
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA
| | - Joanna Proctor
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA
| | - Katie Vigil
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA
| | - Jeremy Corrigan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA
| | - Aja Harding
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA
| | - Jinze Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA
| | - Timothy Kurtti
- Department of Entomology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Jianmin Zhong
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA.
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MacDonald AJ, Hyon DW, McDaniels A, O'Connor KE, Swei A, Briggs CJ. Risk of vector tick exposure initially increases, then declines through time in response to wildfire in California. Ecosphere 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. MacDonald
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology University of California Santa Barbara California 93106 USA
- Department of Biology Stanford University Stanford California 94305 USA
- Earth Research Institute University of California Santa Barbara California 93106 USA
| | - David W. Hyon
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology University of California Santa Barbara California 93106 USA
| | - Akira McDaniels
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology University of California Santa Barbara California 93106 USA
| | - Kerry E. O'Connor
- Department of Biology San Francisco State University San Francisco California 94132 USA
| | - Andrea Swei
- Department of Biology San Francisco State University San Francisco California 94132 USA
| | - Cheryl J. Briggs
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology University of California Santa Barbara California 93106 USA
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11
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Eisen RJ, Kugeler KJ, Eisen L, Beard CB, Paddock CD. Tick-Borne Zoonoses in the United States: Persistent and Emerging Threats to Human Health. ILAR J 2017; 58:319-335. [PMID: 28369515 PMCID: PMC5610605 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilx005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
In the United States, ticks transmit the greatest diversity of arthropod-borne pathogens and are responsible for the most cases of all vector-borne diseases. In recent decades, the number of reported cases of notifiable tick-borne diseases has steadily increased, geographic distributions of many ticks and tick-borne diseases have expanded, and new tick-borne disease agents have been recognized. In this review, we (1) describe the known disease agents associated with the most commonly human-biting ixodid ticks, (2) review the natural histories of these ticks and their associated pathogens, (3) highlight spatial and temporal changes in vector tick distributions and tick-borne disease occurrence in recent decades, and (4) identify knowledge gaps and barriers to more effective prevention of tick-borne diseases. We describe 12 major tick-borne diseases caused by 15 distinct disease agents that are transmitted by the 8 most commonly human-biting ixodid ticks in the United States. Notably, 40% of these pathogens were described within the last two decades. Our assessment highlights the importance of animal studies to elucidate how tick-borne pathogens are maintained in nature, as well as advances in molecular detection of pathogens which has led to the discovery of several new tick-borne disease agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca J Eisen
- Rebecca J. Eisen, PhD, is a Research Biologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Kiersten J. Kugeler, PhD, is an Epidemiologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Lars Eisen, PhD, is a Research Entomologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Charles B. Beard, PhD, is a Branch Chief in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Christopher D. Paddock, MD, is a Medical Officer/Pathologist in the Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Kiersten J Kugeler
- Rebecca J. Eisen, PhD, is a Research Biologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Kiersten J. Kugeler, PhD, is an Epidemiologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Lars Eisen, PhD, is a Research Entomologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Charles B. Beard, PhD, is a Branch Chief in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Christopher D. Paddock, MD, is a Medical Officer/Pathologist in the Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Lars Eisen
- Rebecca J. Eisen, PhD, is a Research Biologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Kiersten J. Kugeler, PhD, is an Epidemiologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Lars Eisen, PhD, is a Research Entomologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Charles B. Beard, PhD, is a Branch Chief in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Christopher D. Paddock, MD, is a Medical Officer/Pathologist in the Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Charles B Beard
- Rebecca J. Eisen, PhD, is a Research Biologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Kiersten J. Kugeler, PhD, is an Epidemiologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Lars Eisen, PhD, is a Research Entomologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Charles B. Beard, PhD, is a Branch Chief in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Christopher D. Paddock, MD, is a Medical Officer/Pathologist in the Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Christopher D Paddock
- Rebecca J. Eisen, PhD, is a Research Biologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Kiersten J. Kugeler, PhD, is an Epidemiologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Lars Eisen, PhD, is a Research Entomologist in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Charles B. Beard, PhD, is a Branch Chief in the Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Fort Collins, Colorado. Christopher D. Paddock, MD, is a Medical Officer/Pathologist in the Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia
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12
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Straub MH, Roy AN, Martin A, Sholty KE, Stephenson N, Foley JE. Distribution and prevalence of vector-borne diseases in California chipmunks (Tamias spp.). PLoS One 2017; 12:e0189352. [PMID: 29232397 PMCID: PMC5726628 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0189352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
California, with 13 chipmunk (Tamias) species, has more than any other state or country, occupying habitats ranging from chaparral to the high peaks of the Sierra Nevada. Chipmunks host zoonotic pathogens including Yersinia pestis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, relapsing fever (RF) Borrelia spp., Borrelia burgdorferi, and spotted fever group (SFG) Rickettsia species. Chipmunk species are often not differentiated by public health workers, yet different species utilize different ecological niches and may have intrinsically different capacities for maintaining vector-borne pathogens and infecting vectors. We surveyed over 700 individuals from nine species of chipmunks throughout California for exposure to and infection by Y. pestis, A. phagocytophilum, RF Borrelia spp., Borrelia burgdorferi, and SFG Rickettsia species. DNA of all five pathogens was found and all chipmunks except Merriam's chipmunk (T. merriami) were PCR-positive for at least one of the pathogens. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was most common (40.0%, 2/5) in Sonoma chipmunks (T. sonomae) from Marin county and B. burgdorferi most common (37.5%, 27/72) in redwood chipmunks (T. ochrogenys) from Mendocino county. RF Borrelia spp. was detected in 2% (6/297) of redwood chipmunks in Mendocino county and 10% (1/10) of both least (T. minimus) and lodgepole (T. speciosus) chipmunks in the western Sierra. Exposure to SFG Rickettsia spp. was found in the Northern Coastal region (Del Norte, Humboldt and Mendocino counties) and in the northern and western Sierra in several species of chipmunks. Y. pestis infection was found only in the western Sierra-in a yellow-pine (T. amoenus) and a long-eared (T. quadrimaculatus) chipmunk. Though more data are needed to thoroughly understand the roles that different chipmunk species play in disease transmission, our findings suggest that some chipmunk species may be more important to the maintenance of vector-borne diseases than others within each geographic area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary H. Straub
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Austin N. Roy
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Amanda Martin
- Museum of Wildlife and Fish Biology, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Kathleen E. Sholty
- Wildlife Investigations Laboratory, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Rancho Cordova, California, United States of America
| | - Nicole Stephenson
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Janet E. Foley
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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13
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Benevenute JL, Dumler JS, Ogrzewalska M, Roque ALR, Mello VVC, de Sousa KCM, Gonçalves LR, D'Andrea PS, de Sampaio Lemos ER, Machado RZ, André MR. Assessment of a quantitative 5' nuclease real-time polymerase chain reaction using groEL gene for Ehrlichia and Anaplasma species in rodents in Brazil. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2017; 8:646-656. [PMID: 28457822 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2017.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
New genotypes of Anaplasmataceae agents have been detected in wild carnivores, birds and deer in Brazil. The present work aimed to investigate the presence of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma species in rodents sampled in Brazil. Additionally, a newly designed quantitative 5' nuclease real-time multiplex PCR for Ehrlichia and Anaplasma spp. detection based on groEL gene amplification was designed, showing high specificity and sensitivity (10 groEL fragment copy/μL). Between 2000 and 2011, different rodent species [n=60] were trapped in 5 Brazilian biomes. Among 458 rodent spleen samples, 0.4% (2/458) and 2.4% (11/458) were positive for Ehrlichia and Anaplasma spp., respectively. Of 458 samples, 2.0% (9/458) and 1.1% (5/458) were positive for Anaplasma sp. and Ehrlichia sp., respectively, using conventional 16S rRNA PCR assays. Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic analyse based on a small region of 16S rRNA genes positioned the Anaplasma genotypes in rodents near Anaplasma phagocytophilum or Anaplasma marginale and Anaplasma odocoilei isolates. Ehrlichia genotypes were closely related to E. canis. There was a low occurrence of Anaplasma and Ehrlichia in wild and synanthropic rodents in Brazil, suggesting the circulation of new genotypes of these agents in rodents in the studied areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyan Lucas Benevenute
- Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - John Stephen Dumler
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Maria Ogrzewalska
- Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz/Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Luiz Ricardo Gonçalves
- Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Paulo Sérgio D'Andrea
- Laboratório de Biologia e Parasitologia de Mamíferos Silvestres Reservatórios, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz/Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Rosangela Zacarias Machado
- Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil
| | - Marcos Rogério André
- Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil.
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14
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Yang J, Liu Z, Niu Q, Liu J, Xie J, Chen Q, Chen Z, Guan G, Liu G, Luo J, Yin H. Evaluation of different nested PCRs for detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in ruminants and ticks. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:35. [PMID: 26911835 PMCID: PMC4765105 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0663-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Accepted: 02/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a causative agent of granulocytic anaplasmosis in mammals, which has a broad geographical distribution and a high degree of clinical diversity. Currently, numerous PCR assays have been developed and used for the detection of A. phagocytophilum in various specimens. However, their performance varies. The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of five nested PCR assays by detection of 363 ruminant and tick samples, and to select the most appropriate methods for the sensitive detection of A. phagocytophilum in environmental or clinical samples. RESULTS Positive PCR results for A. phagocytophilum were obtained in 75 (20.7%), 42 (11.6%) and 19 (5.2%) specimens with primer sets EC (EC9/EC12a and SSAP2f/SSAP2r), EE (EE1/EE2 and EE3/EE4) and ge (ge3a/ge10r, ge9f/ge2), respectively. The amplification of template DNA with the primer set MSP (MAP4AP5/MSP4AP3, msp4f/msp4r) could not be obtained in both ruminants and ticks, and a low specificity of the EL primers [EL(569)F/EL(1193)R, EL(569)F/EL(1142)R] in tick samples was observed. Our results revealed that the nested PCR with primer set EC complementary to the 16S rRNA gene was the most sensitive assay for detection of A. phagocytophilum in ruminant and tick specimens. A. phagocytophilum was detected in 47 (35.1%) sheep, 12 (10.4%) cattle, and 17 (14.9%) ticks. Two A. phagocytophilum genotypes were identified, that varied between sheep and cattle in sample collection sites. CONCLUSIONS This report provides more valuable information for the diagnosis and management of granulocytic anaplasmosis in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jifei Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, P. R. China.
| | - Zhijie Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, P. R. China.
| | - Qingli Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, P. R. China.
| | - Junlong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, P. R. China.
| | - Jingying Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, P. R. China.
| | - Qiuyu Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, P. R. China.
| | - Ze Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, P. R. China.
| | - Guiquan Guan
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, P. R. China.
| | - Guangyuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, P. R. China.
| | - Jianxun Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, P. R. China.
| | - Hong Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, P. R. China. .,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225009, P. R. China.
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15
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Foley J, Rejmanek D, Foley C, Matocq M. Fine-scale genetic structure of woodrat populations (Genus: Neotoma) and the spatial distribution of their tick-borne pathogens. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2015; 7:243-253. [PMID: 26530982 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2015.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2014] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Dusky-footed woodrats are territorial cricetid rodents that individually occupy large stick houses from which they foray to gather food, find mates, and engage in other activities. These rodents are often bitten by Ixodes spp. ticks and are reservoirs of some strains of tick-borne bacterial pathogens such as Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Borrelia burgdorferi. Limited dispersal by hosts and vectors could create fine-scale population structure where related hosts and pathogen exposure are co-distributed in space. To quantify population genetic structure and infection status, we genotyped 167 woodrats using a panel of 15 microsatellite loci from three northern California study sites: Soquel (SD), Cold Canyon (CC), and Quail Ridge (QR). We used quantitative PCR and serology to test for infection with A. phagocytophilum and B. burgdorferi. All three populations maintained similar, moderately high levels of genetic variation. For A. phagocytophilum, the PCR-prevalence was higher at SD (30.0%) than CC (13%) and QR (7%) whereas the seroprevalence was similar at all three sites (13-18%). The B. burgdorferi PCR-prevalence at CC was 11%, no woodrats were PCR-positive at QR, and none were tested at SD. We found a negative correlation between pairwise genetic relatedness and spatial distance with the majority of highest order relatives occurring within 200m of one another. Related dyads were more likely to be adult females than males, suggesting that adult female residents are the primary source of spatially proximate, high-order relatives in woodrat populations. Despite spatial genetic clustering of hosts, our spatial window test found no significant clustering of pathogens. Woodrats that were seropositive for A. phagocytophilum had higher heterozygosity than seronegative woodrats, which could be consistent with genetically diverse individuals having greater capacity to mount an immune response. Overall, our analyses show that limited dispersal of individual woodrats leads to fine-scale genetic structure within populations. Genetic structure, coupled with the limited dispersal of I. pacificus ticks could result in disease dynamics that are uniquely restricted to small spatial scales. By combining host genetic and disease studies we are able to infer limited dispersal and structured populations among hosts which affect infectious disease clustering and dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet Foley
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Daniel Rejmanek
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Colin Foley
- Department of English, Chico State University, Chico, CA 95929, USA.
| | - Marjorie Matocq
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA.
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16
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Poulsen A, Conroy C, Foley P, Ott-Conn C, Roy A, Brown R, Foley J. Ectoparasites of Microtus californicus and Possible Emergence of an Exotic Ixodes Species Tick in California. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2015; 52:1060-1066. [PMID: 26336217 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjv077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
California voles (Microtus californicus Peale) harbor fleas and ticks, may be infected with vector-borne pathogens, and could themselves suffer from disease and serve as a source of infection for people and other animals. Here we summarize publications, museum archives, and recent records of ticks and fleas from California voles. There have been 18 flea species reported on California voles with geographic locations reported for 13. During recent statewide surveys, we found six flea species, with the highest species richness in Humboldt County. We found three of five previously reported tick species as well as a tick resembling the eastern North American tick Ixodes minor Neumann (which we here designate Ixodes "Mojave morphotype") on isolated Amargosa voles and Owens Valley voles (Microtus californicus vallicola Bailey) in Inyo County in 2012 and 2014. Additional incidental observations of this Mojave morphotype tick were on a western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis Baird) at the Mojave site and a montane vole (Microtus montanus Peale) in the Owens Valley, both in March, 2014. We cannot rule out that this tick species has been present in remote areas of California but gone unrecognized, but these data are consistent with recent introduction of this tick, possibly from migrating birds. Changes in the ectoparasite fauna suggest changing ecologies of vectors and vector-borne pathogens that could influence animals and people as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Poulsen
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Chris Conroy
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Patrick Foley
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Sacramento, CA 95819
| | - Caitlin Ott-Conn
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Austin Roy
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Richard Brown
- Department of Wildlife, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA 95521
| | - Janet Foley
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616.
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17
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Dugat T, Lagrée AC, Maillard R, Boulouis HJ, Haddad N. Opening the black box of Anaplasma phagocytophilum diversity: current situation and future perspectives. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2015; 5:61. [PMID: 26322277 PMCID: PMC4536383 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2015.00061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a zoonotic obligate intracellular bacterium known to be transmitted by ticks belonging to the Ixodes persulcatus complex. This bacterium can infect several mammalian species, and is known to cause diseases with variable symptoms in many domestic animals. Specifically, it is the causative agent of tick-borne fever (TBF), a disease of important economic impact in European domestic ruminants, and human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA), an emerging zoonotic disease in Asia, USA and Europe. A. phagocytophilum epidemiological cycles are complex and involve different ecotypes, vectors, and mammalian host species. Moreover, the epidemiology of A. phagocytophilum infection differs greatly between Europe and the USA. These different epidemiological contexts are associated with considerable variations in bacterial strains. Until recently, few A. phagocytophilum molecular typing tools were available, generating difficulties in completely elucidating the epidemiological cycles of this bacterium. Over the last few years, many A. phagocytophilum typing techniques have been developed, permitting in-depth epidemiological exploration. Here, we review the current knowledge and future perspectives regarding A. phagocytophilum epidemiology and phylogeny, and then focus on the molecular typing tools available for studying A. phagocytophilum genetic diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibaud Dugat
- Laboratoire de Santé Animale, UMR Biologie Moléculaire et Immunologie Parasitaires, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire de L'alimentation, de L'environnement et du Travail, Université Paris-Est Paris, France
| | - Anne-Claire Lagrée
- UMR Biologie Moléculaire et Immunologie Parasitaires, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est Paris, France
| | - Renaud Maillard
- UMR Biologie Moléculaire et Immunologie Parasitaires, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est Paris, France ; Unité Pathologie des Ruminants, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse Toulouse, France
| | - Henri-Jean Boulouis
- UMR Biologie Moléculaire et Immunologie Parasitaires, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est Paris, France
| | - Nadia Haddad
- UMR Biologie Moléculaire et Immunologie Parasitaires, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est Paris, France
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18
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Sosa-Gutiérrez CG, Vargas M, Torres J, Gordillo-Pérez G. Tick-Borne Rickettsial Pathogens in Rodents from Mexico. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.4236/jbise.2014.711087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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19
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Rejmanek D, Freycon P, Bradburd G, Dinstell J, Foley J. Unique strains of Anaplasma phagocytophilum segregate among diverse questing and non-questing Ixodes tick species in the western United States. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2013; 4:482-7. [PMID: 23994335 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2013.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2013] [Revised: 06/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The emerging tick-borne pathogen Anaplasma phagocytophilum infects humans, domestic animals, and wildlife throughout the Holarctic. In the western US, the ecology of A. phagocytophilum is particularly complex, with multiple pathogen strains, tick vectors, and reservoir hosts. A recent phylogenetic analysis of A. phagocytophilum strains isolated from various small mammal hosts in California documented distinct clustering of woodrat strains separate from sciurid (chipmunk and squirrel) strains. Here, we identified strains of A. phagocytophilum in various Ixodes tick species in California and related these genotypes to those found among reservoir and clinical hosts from the same areas. The sequences from all of the nidicolous (nest-dwelling) Ixodes ticks grouped within a clade that also contained all of the woodrat-origin A. phagocytophilum strains. Two of the I. pacificus sequences were also grouped within this woodrat clade, while the remaining five belonged to a less genetically diverse clade that included several sciurid-origin strains as well as a dog, a horse, and a human strain. By comparing A. phagocytophilum strains from multiple sources concurrently, we were able to gain a clearer picture of how A. phagocytophilum strains in the western US are partitioned, which hosts and vectors are most likely to be infected with a particular strain, and which tick species and reservoir hosts pose the greatest health risk to humans and domestic animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Rejmanek
- Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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20
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Stuen S, Granquist EG, Silaghi C. Anaplasma phagocytophilum--a widespread multi-host pathogen with highly adaptive strategies. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:31. [PMID: 23885337 PMCID: PMC3717505 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 378] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2013] [Accepted: 06/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterium Anaplasma phagocytophilum has for decades been known to cause the disease tick-borne fever (TBF) in domestic ruminants in Ixodes ricinus-infested areas in northern Europe. In recent years, the bacterium has been found associated with Ixodes-tick species more or less worldwide on the northern hemisphere. A. phagocytophilum has a broad host range and may cause severe disease in several mammalian species, including humans. However, the clinical symptoms vary from subclinical to fatal conditions, and considerable underreporting of clinical incidents is suspected in both human and veterinary medicine. Several variants of A. phagocytophilum have been genetically characterized. Identification and stratification into phylogenetic subfamilies has been based on cell culturing, experimental infections, PCR, and sequencing techniques. However, few genome sequences have been completed so far, thus observations on biological, ecological, and pathological differences between genotypes of the bacterium, have yet to be elucidated by molecular and experimental infection studies. The natural transmission cycles of various A. phagocytophilum variants, the involvement of their respective hosts and vectors involved, in particular the zoonotic potential, have to be unraveled. A. phagocytophilum is able to persist between seasons of tick activity in several mammalian species and movement of hosts and infected ticks on migrating animals or birds may spread the bacterium. In the present review, we focus on the ecology and epidemiology of A. phagocytophilum, especially the role of wildlife in contribution to the spread and sustainability of the infection in domestic livestock and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Snorre Stuen
- Department of Production Animal Clinical Sciences, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science Sandnes, Norway.
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21
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Cheng D, Lane RS, Moore BD, Zhong J. Host blood meal-dependent growth ensures transovarial transmission and transstadial passage of Rickettsia sp. phylotype G021 in the western black-legged tick (Ixodes pacificus). Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2013; 4:421-6. [PMID: 23876278 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2013.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2012] [Revised: 04/19/2013] [Accepted: 04/19/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we explored the growth dynamics of Rickettsia sp. phylotype G021 during transovarial transmission and transstadial passage by Ixodes pacificus using real-time quantitative PCR. Four parental engorged I. pacificus females were allowed to complete their developmental stages until the F2-generation eggs yielded unfed larvae. All eggs, larvae, nymphs, and adults tested through 2 generations were found to be infected with phylotype G021. Hence, we conclude that the efficiency of transovarial transmission and transstadial passage of this phylotype in I. pacificus was 100%. Acquisition of a blood meal by all 3 parasitic stages (larva, nymph, adult) significantly increased the rickettsial burden as fed larvae, nymphs, and adults had respective 19-, 12-, and 313-fold increases of rickettsiae compared with unfed ticks representing each developmental stage. I. pacificus eggs contained high rickettsial burdens at the time of oviposition. While I. pacificus egg cells underwent rapid proliferation during early embryonic development, the rickettsiae remained relatively quiescent, which resulted in depressed numbers of phylotype G021 per tick cell. However, the rickettsial burden remained constant over a period of 56 days, as the rate of I. pacificus cell division slowed during later embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Du Cheng
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA 95521, USA
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22
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Nieto NC, Khan K, Uhllah G, Teglas MB. The emergence and maintenance of vector-borne diseases in the khyber pakhtunkhwa province, and the federally administered tribal areas of pakistan. Front Physiol 2012; 3:250. [PMID: 22934007 PMCID: PMC3429027 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2012.00250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Human populations throughout much of the world are experiencing unprecedented changes in their relationship to the environment and their interactions with the animals with which so many humans are intimately dependent upon. These changes result not only from human induced changes in the climate, but also from population demographic changes due to wars, social unrest, behavioral changes resulting from cultural mixing, and large changes in land-use practices. Each of these social shifts can affect the maintenance and emergence of arthropod vectors disease or the pathogenic organisms themselves. A good example is the country of Pakistan, with a large rural population and developing urban economy, it also maintains a wide diversity of entomological disease vectors, including biting flies, mosquitoes, and ticks. Pathogens endemic to the region include the agents of piroplasmosis, rickettsiosis, spirochetosis, and viral hemorrhagic fevers and encephalitis. The northwestern region of the country, including the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province (KPK), formerly the North-West Frontier Provence (NWFP), and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) are mountainous regions with a high degree of habitat diversity that has recently undergone a massive increase in human population density due to an immigrating refugee population from neighboring war-torn Afghanistan. Vector-borne diseases in people and livestock are common in KPK and FATA regions due to the limited use of vector control measures and access to livestock vaccines. The vast majority of people in this region live in abject poverty with >70% of the population living directly from production gained in animal husbandry. In many instances whole families live directly alongside their animal counterparts. In addition, there is little to no awareness of the threat posed by ticks and transmission of either zoonotic or veterinary pathogens. Recent emergence of Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus in rural populations, outbreaks of Dengue hemorrhagic fever have been reported in the region, and high prevalence of cattle infected and co-infected with multiple species of hemoparasites (Theileria, Babesia, Anaplasma). The emergence of which has followed the increased density of the rural population due to an influx of refugees from violent conflicts in Afghanistan and is exacerbated by an already impoverished society and wide diversity of potential arthropod vectors. These human outbreaks may be exacerbated by episodes of social upheaval but are also tied to the historically close association of people in the region with their livestock and subsequent zoonosis that result from spillover from co-habitation with infected domestic animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan C Nieto
- Department of Agriculture, Nutrition, and Veterinary Science, University of Nevada Reno, NV, USA
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23
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Lane RS, Mun J, Peribáñez MA, Fedorova N. Differences in prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma spp. infection among host-seeking Dermacentor occidentalis, Ixodes pacificus, and Ornithodoros coriaceus ticks in northwestern California. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2011; 1:159-67. [PMID: 21359090 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2010.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies revealed that the Pacific Coast tick (Dermacentor occidentalis) is infected occasionally with the agents of Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) or human granulocytic anaplasmosis (Anaplasma phagocytophilum) and that it is an inefficient experimental vector of B. burgdorferi. The relationship of the pajahuello tick (Ornithodoros coriaceus) to each of these bacterial zoonotic agents has not been reported. The primary bridging vector of both bacterial zoonotic agents to humans is the western black-legged tick (Ixodes pacificus). Because of the spatial and temporal overlap of D. occidentalis and O. coriaceus populations with those of I. pacificus in natural foci of B. burgdorferi and A. phagocytophilum in northwestern California, we conducted field and laboratory studies to determine if the Pacific Coast tick or the pajahuello tick potentially may serve as secondary vectors of either bacterium. Our findings reconfirmed that wild-caught D. occidentalis ticks are infected infrequently with B. burgdorferi or A. phagocytophilum, but some adult ticks from dense woodlands or chaparral were found to contain 2 important veterinary pathogens for the first time (Anaplasma bovis, A. ovis). The high prevalence of A. bovis infection (4.3%, n=185 ticks) within chaparral-derived ticks suggests that D. occidentalis could be an efficient vector of this rickettsia. Experimental attempts to transmit borreliae or Anaplasma spp. that may have been present in >100 wild-caught D. occidentalis adults to naïve rabbits were unsuccessful. Anaplasma spp. were not detected in O. coriaceus, but one (4.3%) of 23 nymphs was infected with B. bissettii. This finding and an antecedent report of a B. burgdorferi-like spirochete from the same tick species demonstrate that O. coriaceus sometimes acquires and transstadially passes Lyme disease group spirochetes. I. pacificus nymphs inhabiting a woodland nidus of B. burgdorferi and A. phagocytophilum had a 5-fold higher prevalence of borreliae than adult ticks from the same generational cohort. In contrast to the results of preceding studies carried out at the same site, none of the nymphal or adult ticks was PCR-positive for A. phagocytophilum. This suggests that the distribution of this rickettsia is highly focal or variable from year-to-year within this particular woodland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert S Lane
- Dept. of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA.
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24
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Foley J, Rejmanek D, Fleer K, Nieto N. Nidicolous ticks of small mammals in Anaplasma phagocytophilum-enzootic sites in northern California. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2011; 2:75-80. [PMID: 21686062 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2011.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Ixodes spp. tick-borne zoonotic diseases are present across the Holarctic in humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. Small mammals are reservoirs for the rickettsial pathogen Anaplasma phagocytophilum and tick vectors may include catholic-feeding bridge vectors as well as host-specialist or nidicolous ticks. Far western North American communities in which A. phagocytophilum is maintained are complex ecologically, with multiple reservoir host and tick species, multiple strains of the bacterial pathogen A. phagocytophilum and differences in dynamics of hosts and vectors across heterogeneous landscapes. We evaluated sites in northern California in order to identify primarily nidicolous ticks and the hosts they infest. A total of 667 ticks was found in 11 study sites, including 288 on flags and 379 attached to small mammals. Larvae were over-represented among attached ticks and adults on flags. The most abundant species was I. pacificus. Two-hundred fourteen nidicolous ticks were found, most abundantly I. angustus and I. spinipalpis. All adult I. ochotonae, I. auritulus, I. angustus, I. jellisoni, and I. woodi were female, while the male:female ratio of I. spinipalpis was 1.2:1 and 1:1 for I. pacificus. The greatest number of ticks was obtained from Tamias ochrogenys, Peromyscus spp., and Neotoma fuscipes. Of 234 small mammal individuals that were infested with Ixodes spp., only 81 (34.6%) were infested with I. pacificus. The remaining infested small mammals hosted nidicolous tick species. Eight ticks were PCR-positive, including 6 I. pacificus (one adult, one larva, and 6 nymphs), and 2 adult I. ochotonae and high PCR prevalences of 18% and 9% were detected in woodrats and chipmunks, respectively. Nymphal I. angustus ticks were active year-long with a possible increase in August while larval activity was only observed in December and spring months and adults only during spring and fall. Overall, we show high tick species richness and year-round high levels of infestation on rodents by several different nidicolous ticks in areas where A. phagocytophilum is enzootic, including on reported reservoir species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet Foley
- University of California, Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, Dept. of Medicine and Epidemiology, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Foley JE, Nieto NC. The ecology of tick-transmitted infections in the redwood chipmunk (Tamias ochrogenys). Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2011; 2:88-93. [PMID: 21643481 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2010.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The redwood chipmunk contributes to the maintenance of tick-borne diseases in northern California. The range of redwood chipmunks overlaps that of western black-legged ticks and tick-borne disease, including granulocytic anaplasmosis and Lyme borreliosis. Chipmunks have high Anaplasma phagocytophilum PCR- and seroprevalence, are infested with a diversity of Ixodes spp. ticks, and are reservoir competent for Borrelia burgdorferi. We hypothesized that chipmunks could maintain tick-borne disease on the forest floor while also potentially bridging infection to arboreal sciurids as well. We used radio-telemetry to evaluate chipmunk movement and use of trees, characterized burrows, described prevalence of tick-borne disease, and identified ticks on these chipmunks. A total of 192 chipmunks from Hendy Woods, Mendocino County, California, USA, was evaluated between November 2005 and April 2009. The mean density was 2.26-5.8 chipmunks/ha. The longest detected life span was 3 years. Female weights ranged from 80-120 g and males from 80-180 g. The A. phagocytophilum and Borrelia spp. seroprevalence was 21.4% and 24.7%, respectively, and PCR prevalence for these pathogens was 10.6% and 0%, respectively. Ixodes spp. ticks included I. angustus, I. ochotonae, I. pacificus, and I. spinipalpis. The mean infestation level was 0.92 ticks/chipmunk. Based on telemetry of 11 chipmunks, the greatest distance traveled ranged from 0.14-0.63 km for females and 0.1-1.26 km for males. Areas occupied by chipmunks ranged from 0.005-0.24 km(2) for females and 0.006-0.73 km(2) for males. On 3 occasions, chipmunks were found in trees. Burrows were identified under a moss-covered redwood log, deep under a live redwood tree, under a Douglas fir log, in a clump of huckleberry, in a root collection from an overturned Douglas fir tree, and in a cluster of exposed huckleberry roots. The biology of the redwood chipmunk has multiple features that allow it to be an important reservoir host for tick-borne disease in northwestern California.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet E Foley
- University of California, Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Temporal patterns of tick-borne granulocytic anaplasmosis in California. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2011; 2:81-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2010.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2010] [Revised: 12/29/2010] [Accepted: 12/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Bown KJ, Lambin X, Telford G, Heyder-Bruckner D, Ogden NH, Birtles RJ. The common shrew (Sorex araneus): a neglected host of tick-borne infections? Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011; 11:947-53. [PMID: 21453011 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the importance of rodents as reservoirs for a number of tick-borne infections is well established, comparatively little is known about the potential role of shrews, despite them occupying similar habitats. To address this, blood and tick samples were collected from common shrews (Sorex araneus) and field voles (Microtus agrestis), a known reservoir of various tick-borne infections, from sites located within a plantation forest in northern England over a 2-year period. Of 647 blood samples collected from shrews, 121 (18.7%) showed evidence of infection with Anaplasma phagocytophilum and 196 (30.3%) with Babesia microti. By comparison, of 1505 blood samples from field voles, 96 (6.4%) were positive for A. phagocytophilum and 458 (30.4%) for Ba. microti. Both species were infested with the ticks Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes trianguliceps, although they had different burdens: on average, shrews carried almost six times as many I. trianguliceps larvae, more than twice as many I. ricinus larvae, and over twice as many nymphs (both tick species combined). The finding that the nymphs collected from shrews were almost exclusively I. trianguliceps highlights that this species is the key vector of these infections in this small mammal community. These findings suggest that common shrews are a reservoir of tick-borne infections and that the role of shrews in the ecology and epidemiology of tick-borne infections elsewhere needs to be comprehensively investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J Bown
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, University of Liverpool, Neston, Cheshire, United Kingdom.
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Fleer KA, Foley P, Calder L, Foley JE. Arthropod vectors and vector-borne bacterial pathogens in Yosemite National Park. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2011; 48:101-110. [PMID: 21337955 DOI: 10.1603/me10040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Ticks, fleas, and vector-borne pathogens were surveyed in diverse small mammals in Yosemite National Park, California, from 2005 to 2007. A total of 450 unique captures of small mammals was collected during a 3-yr period and yielded 16 species of fleas and 10 species of ticks, including known vectors of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Borrelia burgdorferi and plague. Serology was performed for A. phagocytophilum, spotted fever group Rickettsia spp., B. burgdorferi, and Yersinia pestis. A. phagocytophilum exposure was identified in 12.1% of all wild small mammals tested, with seropositive animals in 10 species, notably Belding's ground squirrels (Spermophilus beldingi), jumping mice (Zapus princeps), and voles (Microtus sp.). Spotted fever group Rickettsia spp. exposure was detected in 13.9% of all small mammals tested, with seropositive animals in eight species. Additionally, 37.0% of rodents in five species tested were seropositive for B. burgdorferi. No individuals were seropositive for Y. pestis. No animals were polymerase chain reaction positive for any pathogen tested. These results provide baseline data for future research and prediction of emerging vector-borne disease in Yosemite National Park, as well as adding to the known ranges and host species for tick and fleas in California.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katryna A Fleer
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Satta G, Chisu V, Cabras P, Fois F, Masala G. Pathogens and symbionts in ticks: a survey on tick species distribution and presence of tick-transmitted micro-organisms in Sardinia, Italy. J Med Microbiol 2011; 60:63-68. [DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.021543-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A total of 1485 adult ticks were collected from mammalian hosts in south-eastern Sardinia, Italy, during the years 2007–2008. Ticks were identified and tested by PCR analysis for presence of Rickettsia species of the spotted fever group, Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Coxiella burnetii, Bartonella species and Leishmania species. Among all tick species examined (Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Rhipicephalus turanicus, Rhipicephalus bursa, Rhipicephalus pusillus, Hyalomma marginatum marginatum, Haemaphysalis sulcata and Dermacentor marginatus), only Hyalomma marginatum marginatum produced negative results. A total of 22 pools belonging to the three tick species Rhipicephalus sanguineus (0.9 %), Rhipicephalus turanicus (4.5 %) and Rhipicephalus pusillus (100 %) were positive for Rickettsia species, while a total of five pools belonging to Rhipicephalus sanguineus (0.09 %), Haemaphysalis sulcata (16.7 %) and D. marginatus (7.8 %) were positive for E. canis. Five pools of Rhipicephalus turanicus (1.8 %) were positive for A. phagocytophilum. Positivity for C. burnetii was found in seven pools belonging to three tick species: Rhipicephalus sanguineus (0.5 %), Rhipicephalus turanicus (0.3 %) and Haemaphysalis sulcata (4.4 %). Finally, four pools belonging to Rhipicephalus sanguineus (0.09 %), Rhipicephalus turanicus (0.7 %) and Rhipicephalus bursa (1.1 %) were positive for Bartonella species. Leishmania species DNA was not detected in any of the tick pools examined. Data presented here increase our knowledge on tick-borne diseases in Sardinia, and provide a useful contribution to understanding their epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Satta
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, Sassari, Italy
| | - Valentina Chisu
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, Sassari, Italy
| | - Pierangela Cabras
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, Sassari, Italy
| | - Francesco Fois
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, Sassari, Italy
| | - Giovanna Masala
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, Sassari, Italy
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Nieto NC, Foley JE. Reservoir competence of the redwood chipmunk (Tamias ochrogenys) for Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2010; 9:573-7. [PMID: 19327022 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2008.0142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Granulocytic anaplasmosis (GA) is an emerging tick-transmitted disease that persists in rodent- Ixodes ricinus-complex tick cycles across the Holarctic. Although the putative reservoir for anaplasmosis in the western United States is the dusky-footed woodrat (Neotoma fuscipes), this rodent was not shown reservoir-competent because of failure of infection from woodrats to other animals via ticks. Redwood chipmunks are common in habitats where Anaplasma phagocytophilum is common, have high PCR- and seroprevalence, and are infested with a diversity of Ixodes spp. ticks. Experimental infection of seven wild-caught A. phagocytophilum-negative redwood chipmunks induced persistent periods of recurrent rickettsemia during the persistent phase of infection. Of three animals for which xenodiagnosis was attempted, all successfully infected pools of I. pacificus larvae during the primary rickettsemia. We show that chipmunks are reservoir-competent for GA and may be important for maintaining infection in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan C Nieto
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California, Davis, California 95616-8737, USA.
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Zhan L, Cao WC, Jiang JF, Zhang XA, Wu XM, Zhang WY, Liu W, Zuo SQ, Cao ZW, Yang H, Richardus JH, Habbema JD. Anaplasma phagocytophilum in livestock and small rodents. Vet Microbiol 2010; 144:405-8. [PMID: 20558015 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2009] [Revised: 02/03/2010] [Accepted: 02/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
To identify the prevalence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in both wild rodents and domestic animals and to make clear the genetic characteristics of the agents from different animals in China, a total of 105 livestock and 159 small rodents were analyzed by real-time-PCR and sequence analysis. The prevalence rate was 6.7% (7/105) and 14.5% (23/159), respectively. The nucleotide sequences of 16S rRNA (rrs) from the positive livestock and rodents were identical to each other. The phylogenetic analysis based on partial A. phagocytophilum p44ESup1 gene revealed that A. phagocytophilum identified in this study was placed on a separate clade distinct from those in other continents. These findings indicated A. phagocytophilum in rodents might be able to infect livestock and intensified the threats of anaplasmosis to livestock in the area. Further studies on public health significance of the agent are worth investigation in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhan
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, 20 Dong-Da Street, Fengtai District, Beijing 100071, People's Republic of China
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Carrade D, Foley J, Borjesson D, Sykes J. Canine Granulocytic Anaplasmosis: A Review. J Vet Intern Med 2009; 23:1129-41. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2009.0384.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
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Foley JE, Nieto NC, Massung R, Barbet A, Madigan J, Brown RN. Distinct ecologically relevant strains of Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15:842-3. [PMID: 19402993 PMCID: PMC2687023 DOI: 10.3201/eid1505.081502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection in a multi-species deer community in the New Forest, England. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-009-0261-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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